BharatiyaVidyaBhavan’s

SARDAR PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Government Aided Autonomous Institute)
Munshi Nagar, Andheri (W) Mumbai – 400058

Introduction to Embedded SYSTEM

Mr. Rahul Chavhan

Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Sardar Patel College of Engineering, Mumbai
E-mail: [Link]@[Link]
What is an Embedded
System?
Definition:
An embedded system is a computing system
designed to perform dedicated functions within
larger electronic devices.
A device that includes a computer but is not a
general-purpose computer
Embedded refers to software integrated into
hardware
It is a dedicated system, built for specific
applications

• Billions are produced yearly (far more than PCs).

• Found in everyday devices (phones, cars,
appliances).
Where are Embedded Systems Found?

Consumer Home Automotive: Industrial:

Electronics: Appliances: ABS, cruise ATMs,
Phones, Microwaves, control, fuel scanners,
cameras, gaming thermostats, injection.
security
consoles. washing
machines. systems.
Key Characteristics of Embedded
Systems

1. Single- • Executes one program repeatedly (e.g., a pager only pagers).

Functioned: • Exception: Updatable firmware (e.g., cell phones).

2. Tightly • Strict limits on cost, size, power, and performance.

Constrained: • Example: Digital cameras must be small, fast, and energy-efficient.

3. Reactive & Real- • Must respond instantly to environmental changes (e.g., anti-lock brakes).
Time: • Delayed computation = system failure (unlike PCs).
Embedded
System
 Embedded vs. General-Purpose
Systems

General-Purpose
Feature Embedded System Computer
Function Single dedicated task Multiple applications

Constraints Strict (cost, size, power) Flexible

Real-Time Critical (e.g., car ECU) Non-critical (delays OK)

Case Study – Digital Camera Fig. Block diagram of a digital
camera as an embedded system
Case Study – Digital
Camera

Components:
• Microcontroller: Coordinates all tasks.
• CCD Preprocessor & A/D
Converter: Captures images.
• JPEG Codec: Compresses images for
storage.
• DMA Controller: Speeds up data transfer.
• LCD Controller: Displays images.

Why It’s Embedded:

Single-functioned (only a camera).
Tightly constrained (low cost, small, power-
efficient).
Characteristics of the
Digital Camera System

• Single-Functioned: Always works as a

camera
• Tightly Constrained:
• Low cost
• Small size
• High-speed image processing
• Low power for long battery life
• Less Real-Time:
• Responds mainly to user button
presses (not highly reactive)
 At the architectural level, an embedded system is viewed
as a composition of interacting elements, which can
represent both hardware and software components.

Embedded These elements are abstract representations, focusing on

behavior and interactions rather than low-level

Systems implementation details.

Key characteristics include:
Architecture • Elements may be internal (within the embedded
system) or external (interacting with it).
Overview • The architecture describes:
• Internal and external elements of the system.
• Properties of each element.
• Relationships and interactions between elements.
This abstract view aids in understanding system behavior,
integration, and design, supporting both analysis and
development of embedded applications.
Architecture
of
Embedded
system
Hardware &
Software
Architecture
Classification of Embedded System
Design challenge –
optimizing design metrics

• Embedded system designers must build

implementations that:
• Fulfill required functionality
• Optimize multiple design metrics
• Implementations may include:
• Software running on a processor
• A digital hardware circuit
• A combination of both
 A design metric is a
measurable characteristic of a
system's implementation.
What is a Facilitates the comparison of
Design various system designs.
Metric?
Trade-offs between metrics
often needed to achieve optimal
design.
Common Design Metrics (1/3)

1. Unit Cost
• The monetary cost (relating to money) of manufacturing each copy of the system,
excluding NRE cost.
2. NRE Cost (Non-Recurring Engineering)
• The monetary cost of designing the system. Once the system is designed, any number
of units can be manufactured without incurring any additional design cost (hence the
term “non-recurring”).
3. Size
• The physical space required by the system, often measured in bytes for software, and
gates or transistors for hardware.
Common Design Metrics (2/3)

4. Performance
• Execution time or throughput of the system.
5. Power
• The amount of power consumed by the system, which determines the lifetime of a
battery, or the cooling requirements of the IC, since more power means more heat.
6. Flexibility
• The ability to change the functionality of the system without incurring heavy NRE cost.
Software is typically considered very flexible.
Common Design Metrics (3/3)

7. Time-to-Market
• The amount of time required to design and manufacture the system
to the point the system can be sold to customers.
8. Time-to-Prototype
• The amount of time to build a working version of the system, which
may be bigger or more expensive than the final system
implementation but can be used to verify the system’s usefulness
and correctness and to refine the system's functionality.
Additional Design Metrics

9. Correctness
• Confidence in functional accuracy.
• Achieved through testing, simulation, and validation.
10. Safety
• Ensures system does not cause harm.
• Critical in applications like automotive, medical, and aerospace.
Design Trade-Offs

Designers often balance trade-offs:

• High performance vs. low power
• Low unit cost vs. short time-to-market
• Flexibility vs. safety and correctness
Embedded Processor
Technology
• Processor technology refers to the architecture
of the computational engine that implements a
system’s desired functionality.
• Processors are not limited to programmable
units; even non-programmable digital systems
can act as processors.
• Traditional View: Programmable software
processors (e.g., microcontrollers,
microprocessors).
• Expanded View: Includes specialized digital
systems tailored to specific applications.
Example: A processor in a digital camera optimized
for image compression.
 General Categories:

• 1. General-purpose processors (e.g., CPU)

Types of • 2. Single-purpose processors (e.g., dedicated hardware for

image compression)

Processors in
• 3. Application-specific processors

Embedded Design Metric Variation:

• Each processor type balances trade-offs differently (speed,

Systems cost, power, etc.)

Optimization Through Processor Combination:

• Often, a combination of multiple processor types is used to

optimize performance and other design metrics.
• Example: A digital camera might use a general-purpose
processor for control logic and a dedicated image processor
for compression.
General- • Embedded system: Designed for specific
purpose functionality.
Processors • General-purpose processor: Designed for
(1/5) multiple applications.
• Includes program memory: Program not
hardwired; added later.
• Uses a general datapath:
• Large register file
• One or more ALUs (Arithmetic Logic Units)
• Support wide variety of computations.
General- Embedded System Designer's Perspective
purpose • Uses existing general-purpose processor.
Processors • Focuses on software development:
(2/5) • Writes the program.
• Loads it into processor memory.
• No need to redesign hardware.
General- Design Metric Benefit
purpose • Low design time & NRE cost: Only software
Processors programming needed.
(3/5) • High flexibility: Changing functionality =
changing code.
• Low unit cost (for small-scale production):
Due to high-volume manufacturing.
• High performance (for compute-intensive
tasks): Uses fast processors with advanced
architecture.
General- Design-Metric Drawbacks
purpose • High unit cost (for large-scale production).
Processors • Performance limitations: Not optimized for
(4/5) specific tasks.
• Large size and power consumption: Due to
unused hardware features.
General- General-Purpose Processor Architecture
purpose • Program Memory: Stores instructions.
Processors • Instruction Register (IR): Holds current
(5/5) instruction.
• Program Counter (PC): Points to next
instruction.
• Controller: Manages control signals.
• Datapath: Executes operations (ALU,
registers).
Single- • A digital circuit designed to execute only one
Purpose specific program.
Processor • Also known as:
• Hardware logic
(1/6) • Coprocessor
• Accelerator
• Example: JPEG codec in a digital camera –
compresses and decompresses video frames
only.
Single- Key Features
Purpose • Executes a fixed functionality.
Processor • Designed using custom digital circuits.
(2/6) • Program is hardwired into the control logic.
• No program memory needed.
Single- Hardware Implementation
Purpose • This is often called the “hardware” portion of
Processor the system.
(3/6) • Compared to general-purpose processors
(software-based):
• No instruction fetch or decode.
• No general datapath or control unit
flexibility.
• Direct connection between control logic and
datapath.
Single- Design-Metric Benefits
Purpose • High performance: Optimized for a specific
Processor task.
(4/6) • Low power consumption.
• Compact size: Minimal components.
• Low unit cost: For high-volume production.
Single- Design-Metric Drawbacks
Purpose • Long design time
Processor • High NRE (Non-Recurring Engineering) cost
(5/6) • Low flexibility: Cannot change functionality.
• High unit cost: In low-volume production.
• Limited performance in complex/general
computations.
Single- Architecture of a Single-Purpose Processor
Purpose • Registers:
Processor • Index: Decrementing counter.
(6/6) • Total: Holds the sum.
• Adder: Only arithmetic unit, performs
addition.
• Controller: Hardwired sequence logic.
• Status Line: Signals when index reaches
zero.
Application- • A hybrid between general-purpose and
Specific single-purpose processors.
Processors • Designed for a specific class of applications:
(ASIPs) • Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
(1/3) • Telecommunications
• Embedded Control, etc.
Application- Design Intent of ASIPs
Specific • Optimized for common operations within a
Processors specific application domain.
(ASIPs) • May include:
(2/3) • Special functional units (e.g., multiply-
accumulate).
• Simplified control logic.
• Elimination of unnecessary hardware.
• Efficient performance while retaining some
flexibility.
Application- Design-Metric Analysis of ASIPs
Specific • Benefits:
Processors • Balanced flexibility and performance.
(ASIPs) • Optimized power, area, and speed for the
(3/3) target application.
• Reusable architecture across similar
applications.
• Drawbacks:
• High NRE cost if processor and compiler
must be built.
• Limited existing compilers → Assembly coding
often required.
• Still less flexible than general-purpose
processors.
Implementing desired functionality on
different processor

Single-purpose Processor

Application Specific Processor

General-purpose Processor
Processor Design Trade-Offs

Feature General-Purpose ASIP Single-Purpose

Flexibility High Medium Very Low
Performance Medium High (for domain) Very High
Power Efficiency Low High Very High
High (if custom
NRE Cost Low Very High
built)
Design Time Short Medium Long
 • Integrated Circuit (IC): A chip containing
transistors and circuits.
• Used to implement all types of processors.
IC Technology • Popular fabrication process: CMOS.
• Independent of processor type (general-
purpose, ASIP, or single-purpose).
IC • ICs are built using multiple layers:
Fabrication • Bottom layers: Transistors
Layers • Middle layers: Logic gates
• Top layers: Metal interconnects
• Created using photo-lithography and masking
techniques.
• Feature size: Defines smallest geometry (e.g.,
0.08 µm).
Types of IC Technologies

Time to Volume
IC Type Customization NRE Cost Performance
Market Suitability
Full-Custom
Fully customized Very High Long Excellent High-volume
(VLSI)
Semi-Custom Partially Medium-High
Moderate Medium Good
(ASIC) customized volume
PLD (e.g., Low-volume,
Programmable Low Instant Moderate
FPGA) proto.
Full- • Custom-designed transistors and
Custom IC interconnects.
/ VLSI • Optimizes for:
• Size
• Power
• Performance
• Very High NRE cost and long turnaround time
(months).
• Best for high-volume or critical-performance
systems.
Semi- • Lower layers are pre-designed; designer
Custom IC completes upper layers.
/ ASIC • Two main types:
• Gate Array: Pre-built gates, only routing
customized.
• Standard Cell: Pre-designed functional
cells arranged for design.
• Moderate NRE cost, good performance, and
faster than full-custom.
Programmable
Logic Devices • ICs that are purchased pre-fabricated and
then programmed.
(PLDs)
• Programming = Making/breaking internal
connections (e.g., fuses, switches).
• Two types:
• Simple PLDs: PLA (Programmable Logic
Array), PAL (Programmable Array Logic)
• Complex PLDs: FPGA
FPGA – Field
Programmable • Most popular PLD for complex embedded
designs.
Gate Array
• Offers:
• Flexible logic blocks
• Custom routing
• Benefits:
• Instant availability
• Low NRE cost
• Ideal for prototyping
• Drawbacks:
• Larger, slower, higher unit cost & power
consumption compared to ASICs.
Mapping Processors The independence of processor and IC technologies:
any processor technology can be mapped to any IC
to IC Technologies technology.
 Embedded System
Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software
Approach
Reference – Chapter 1

by Frank Vahid and

Tony Givargis