N Unit 2: Branch Circuit components and Overcurrent protective Devices

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Name, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuits and compute
circuit loads. Identify, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuit
components. Compute the minimum required size of branch circuit components.

References:

Admin. (2019, November 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retrieved August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

>
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE
The Branch Circuit

A branch circuit is typically a loop of wire that runs from the service panelboard, out to
receptacles. Generally, a dwelling has no feeder conductor. Branch circuits are classified
as either general purpose, appliance, or individual circuits depending on their function

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Unit 2: Branch Circuit components and Overcurrent protective Devices

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES

Name, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuits and compute
circuit loads. Identify, describe and distinguish between types of branch circuit
components. Compute the minimum required size of branch circuit components.

References:

Admin. (2019, November 07). Electromotive Force - Definition, Formula, Unit, Difference. Retrieved August 01,
2020, from https://byjus.com/physics/electromotive-force/

DOE FUNDAMENTALS HANDBOOK ELECTRICAL SCIENCE Volume 1 of 4. (n.d.). Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
https://docplayer.net/13054405-Doe-fundamentals-handbook-electrical-science-volume-1-of-4.html

Siskind, C.S. (1965). Electrical Circuits: Direct and Alternating Current (2nd Edition).Prentice-Hall, Inc.

s
Theraja, A.K. and Theraja, B.L. (2005). A Textbook of Electrical Technology, Vol.1.S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Unknown. (1970, January 01). ELECTRICITY: CONDUCTORS & CONDUCTIVITY #3. Retrieved July 31, 2020, from
http://catholicscienceteacher7.blogspot.com/2014/02/electricity-conductors-conductivity-3_6.html

ENGAGE
The Branch Circuit

A branch circuit is typically a loop of wire that runs from the service panelboard, out to
receptacles. Generally, a dwelling has no feeder conductor. Branch circuits are classified
as either general purpose, appliance, or individual circuits depending on their function

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prohibited.

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The size of the circuit breaker installed on a branch circuit, not the conductor size,
determines the rating of the circuit.
Types of Branch Circuits
1. Individual branch circuit: A branch circuit that supplies a single load. If this load is
an appliance, it will be called Appliance branch circuit.
Note:
An individual branch circuit installed in permanent locations such as an
electric range, a clothes dryer, or an air conditioner. These circuits usually lead
directly from the distribution panel to the appliance and do not serve any other
electrical devices.

:
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2. The small-appliance branch circuits, laundry branch circuits, and bathroom
branch circuits: required in a dwelling unit and shall supply only the receptacle
outlets specified. Also called as convenience outlet branch circuit.

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3. General Lighting Branch Circuits: A branch circuit that supplies two or more
receptacles or outlets for lighting and appliances.

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4. Multiwire branch circuits: A multiwire branch circuit basically consists of two

or more ungrounded conductors that share a neutral. All conductors of a
multiwire branch circuit must originate from the same panelboard.

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Branch Circuit Rating and Load Calculation
Overcurrent Protection. Branch-circuit conductors and equipment shall be protected by
overcurrent protective device that have a rating or setting not greater than the ampacity
of the branch circuit conductors.
Continuous and Noncontinuous Loads. Where a branch circuit supplies continuous load or
any combination of continuous and non continuous loads. The rating of the overcurrent
device shall not be less than the non continuous load plus 125 percent of the non

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continuous load.

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The rating of any branch circuit will be the maximum permitted ampere rating or setting of
the overcurrent device protecting this branch circuit. Branch circuits serving only one
device can have any rating. The rating for other than individual branch circuits shall be 15,
20, 30, 40 and 50 amperes.

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1. Individual Branch circuit:
An individual branch circuit shall have an ampere rating of not less than that
of the branch circuit. An individual branch circuit supplies only one utilization
equipment.
Example:
Most Common Rating
Range: 8000 W
Water Heater: 5000 W
For Motors
1 Hp at 230 V = 8 A
1 ½ Hp at 230 V = 10 A
2 Hp at 230 V = 12 A
Range @ 8000 W computed @ 80% DF
ACU or motor load computed @ 100% DF

 Motor Circuit Conductors

Conductors that supply a single motor load in a continuous duty
application shall have an ampacity of not less than 125 p ercen t o f th e m o to rs fu ll
lo ad cu rren t ratin g .

Example: Air conditioning unit, water pumps, Etc.

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2. The small-appliance branch circuits, laundry branch circuits, and bathroom

branch circuits:
 Small- appliance branch circuit:
Also known as Convenience Outlet Branch Circuit. In addition to the
number of branch circuits required, two or more additional 20 -ampere
small appliance branch circuits shall be provided for all receptacle outlets.
Receptacle outlets shall be calculated at not less than 180 volt-
amperes for each single or for each multiple receptacle. For four or more
receptacle shall be calculated not less than 90 volt-ampere per
receptacle.

Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

 Laundry Branch Circuits:

In addition to the number of branch circuits required by other parts of
this section, at least one or 20-ampere branch circuit shall be provided to
supply the laundry receptacle outlet(s). This circuit shall have no other
outlets.

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Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

 Bathroom Branch Circuit

In addition to the number of branch circuits required by other parts of
this section, at least one or 20-ampere branch circuit shall be provided to
supply the Bathroom receptacle outlet(s). This circuit shall have no other
outlets.

Note: Branch Circuit Rating: 1500 VA

3. General Lighting Branch Circuits

A 15 or 20 –ampere branch circuits shall be permitted to supply lighting units
or other utilization equipment, or a combination of both.

For dwelling units:

Total Lighting Load = Floor area (in sq.m) x 24 VA/sq.m

The floor area for each floor shall be calculated from the outside dimensions
of the building dwelling unit, or other area involved. For dwelling units, the
calculated floor area shall not include open porches, garages or unused or
unfinished spaces not adaptable for future use

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Feeder and Service Load Calculations

The calculated load of a feeder or service shall not be less than that the sum of the
loads on the branch circuit supplied, after any applicable demand factors (80%) have
been applied

Example

A Single Family Dwelling Unit The dwelling has a floor area of 145 m2. It has the typical
household appliances including one 8-kW electric range, two 1-Hp room air-conditioning
unit, 1.5-Hp room air conditioning unit, and one 1-Hp water pump.
Total Load

a) General Lighting 145 m2x 24 VA/ m2= 3480 VA

The computed load is 3480 VA/230 V =15 A
 One branch circuit of 20-ampere would be theoretically adequate, however for the
flexibility and to allow future needs provide two 20 ampere branch circuits for
lighting and convenience outlet.

b) Small Appliance Load

One 20-ampere @ 1500 VA = 1500 VA

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 Provide one 20-ampere small appliance circuit

c) Laundry Circuit
One 20-ampere @ 1500 VA = 1500 VA
 Provide one 20-ampere laundry circuit
Sub-Total= 6480 VA

Other Loads:

One 8-kW electric range @ 80% = 6400 VA

 Provide one 40-ampere electric range circuit
Two 1-Hp room acu, 8A x 230V x 2 @ 100% DF= 3680 VA
 Provide two 30-ampere room acu circuits
One 1.5-Hp room acu, 10A x 230V @ 100% DF= 2300 VA
 Provide one 30-ampere room acu circuit
One 1-Hp water pump, 8A x 230V@ 100% DF= 1840 VA
 Provide one 30-ampere water pump circuit
Total Net Computed Load = 18438 VA

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MODULE 2
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND BRANCH CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS
Distribution systems comprise interconnections linking the main electrical network to the
utility end services that require voltage less than transmission and sub-transmission levels.
The generated power, after being boosted by a transformer, is transmitted to substations
before being stepped down to low-voltage levels for distribution at utility level.

Electrical distribution systems further facilitate the economic and safe delivery of
adequate electrical power to all the electrical equipment used in a home, commercial
building, or industrial facility. The transmitted power arrives first at an electric distribution
substation, where it is passed through a series of step-down transformers that again lower
the voltage to more usable levels.

Elements of a Distribution System

1. Distribution substation- located near or inside city/town/village/industrial area. It

receives power from a transmission network. The high voltage from the transmission
line is then stepped down by a step-down transformer to the primary distribution
level voltage. Primary distribution voltage is usually 11 kV, but can range between
2.4 kV to 33 kV depending upon region or consumer.

2. Distribution feeders: The stepped-down voltage from the substation is carried to

distribution transformers via feeder conductors.
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3. Distribution transformer- also called as service transformer, provides final

transformation in the electric power distribution system. It is basically a step-
down down transformer to lower the voltage to a more suitable voltage system.

o Ideal Transformer Characteristics

The basic transformer consists of two coils electrically insulated from each
other and wound upon a common core. Magnetic coupling is used to
transfer electric energy from one coil to another.

Voltage Ratio

The voltage on the coils of a transformer is directly proportional to the

number of turns on the coils. This relationship is expressed by the formula:

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The ration Vp/Vs is called the voltage ratio (VR). The ration Np/Ns is called the turns
ratio (TR). By substituting these terms in the above equation, we obtain an equivalent
formula

VR=TR

A voltage ratio of 1:4 (read as 1 to 4) means that for each volt on the transformer
primary, there is 4V on the secondary. When the secondary voltage is greater than the
primary voltage, the transformer is called a step-up transformer. A voltage ratio of 4:1
means that for each 4V on the primary, there is only 1 Von the secondary. When the
secondary voltage is less than the primary voltage, the transformer is called a step down
transformer.

Example

An iron core transformer operating from a 120 V line has 500 turns in the primary and
100 turns in the secondary. Find the secondary voltage.

Ans: 24 V

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Current Ratio

The current ratio of a transformer is inversely proportional to the voltage in the

coils. This relationship is expressed by the equation:

Example

When a primary winding of an iron core transformer is operated at 120V, the current
in the winding is 2 A. Find the current in the secondary winding load id the voltage is
stepped up to 600V.

Ans: 0.4 A

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Power enters through a main device (circuit breaker or fusible switch) located within
an electrical assembly referred to as the service entrance electrical distribution equipment.

Panelboards, switchboards and switchgear can all be used as service entrance

electrical distribution equipment or at a point downstream, in which case it is known simply
as power distribution equipment. Each option offers unique uses and benefits to the multi-
tenant home, commercial facility or industrial site, so it is helpful to consider each in greater
detail.

Types of Building Distribution equipment

1. Panelboards

Panelboards A panelboard is a component of an electrical distribution system that

divides an electrical power feed into branch circuits while providing a protective fuse or
circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure. In essence, panelboards are used

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to protect against electrical overloads and short circuits while distributing electricity
throughout a building or facility. The main components of a panelboard typically include
the enclosure, interior, circuit protection devices, labels, dead front and trim, and filler
plates.

Circuit Breakers

Panelboards are often categorized by their general application, whether they are
used for lighting and appliances or used for power. Lighting and appliance panelboards
contain overcurrent protection and a means to disconnect lighting, appliances,
receptacles and other small load circuits. All other panelboards are used for power and
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may also feed other panels, motors and transformers in the building’s or site’s overall power
distribution systems.
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 Circuit Breakers
Inside the enclosure (panel boards),
overcurrent protection devices,
busbars and other components are
mounted on support rails.
Circuit breakers are commonly used
as circuit protection devices.

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2. Switchboards

For larger scale buildings or sites, a large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels can
be used for mounting the overcurrent switches and protective devices, buses and other
equipment. These floor-mounted, freestanding solutions are known as switchboards.
Switchboards are most often accessible from the front, mounted on the floor and close to
the wall.

Switchboards function the same as panelboards (and often simply feed other
panelboards), but on a larger scale and at the low voltage of 600 Vac or less. They are
used to divide large blocks of electrical current into smaller blocks used by electrical
devices. This division is helpful for distributing power to loads; disconnecting loads for safer
maintenance; and protecting conductors and equipment against excess current due to
overloads, short circuits and ground faults.

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The primary components of a switchboard include the frame, bus, overcurrent
protective devices, instrumentation, enclosures and exterior covers. The switchboard frame
is a metal skeleton that houses all the other components. Within this frame, the bus is
mounted. It distributes power from the incoming cables to the branch circuit devices.

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TLO 5: Name, describe and distinguish between types of artificial and natural lighting sources.
Identify the influence of color rendition. Identify appropriate lighting levels for a specific
occupancy. Perform basic lighting analysis (single point, zonal cavity, and natural lighting
methods). Interpret design and detailing information on artificial and natural lighting.

TLO 7Identify, describe and distinguish between types of renewable power systems (e.g., PV,
wind, hydropower, etc.). Interpret design and detailing information for renewable power
systems

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strictly prohibited.

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# MODULE 3
Lighting Design and Principles

ILLUMINATION DEFFINITION OF TERMS:

 Brightness- the effect of sensation by means of which an observer is able to distinguish

differences in luminance.
 Candle or Candela- unit of candle power
 Candlepower- the light radiating capability of a light source. This also refers to the luminous
intensity exposed in candela
 Color- that aspect of things that is caused by differing qualities of the light reflected or
emitted by them, definable in terms of the observer or of the light, as the appearance of
objects or light sources described in terms of the individual’s perception of them, involving
hue, lightness, and saturation for objects and brightness, and saturation for light sources
defined as the quality of visual sensation which is associated with the spectral distribution of
light.
 Glare- to shine intensely and blindingly

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 Lamp- device that generates light
 Light- the energy radiated in the form of luminous flux that produces a sensation to the eyes.
Visible light refers to the electromagnetic radiation that has a wavelength in range from
about 4000 (violet) to 7,700 (red) angstroms and may be perceived by the normal unaided
human eye.
 Illumination- the density of the light flux that falls on a given point or area of interest.
 Luminaire- a housing for one or more lamps, composing of a body and any refractor,
reflector, diffuser, or enclosure associated with lamps.

LIGHT- is the smallest quantity of energy that can be transported. Visible light is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum and can be seen by the human eye.

SIGNIFICANCE OF LIGHTING IN BUILDING ARCHITECTURAL

Lighting is the foundation of architectural buildings. It can change the perception of space, the
shape, textures of materials and improve their aesthetic features. It also plays an important role in
ensuring the comfortability of occupants.

when it comes to artificial or man-made lighting in architectural design, they are commonly
planned at the later stages when the design is completed. These are the three aspects to look out
for when used in beginning stages of illumination design:

 Aesthetics aspect- it focuses on the emotional effect it has on occupants or they

want the occupants to feel when they stay in the buiding. It is also used in retail stores
in highlighting a product.
 Function aspect- for occupants needs such as being able to see clearly. Using
lighting in pathways to guide users in the dark.
 Efficiency aspect- ensuring the necessary lighting is sufficient so that it is energy
efficient. For example: installing more windows instead of light bulbs or installing LED
bulbs instead of fluorescent lights.

NATURAL LIGHTING- otherwise known as “daylighting” is a technique used to bring natural light or
Property of daylight
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Natural lightsystem, distributing,
is light generateduploading naturally,
or posting online,
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transmitting in any form or by
fireflies, any
the
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sun. this lighting can be done by incorporating external glazing such as windows and skylights.
Basically, replacing transparent materials on walls to allow natural light or daylight to pass through.
There are three types of approach to natural lighting:

 Direct Sunlight- this is incorporated through windows to skylines and is directly from
the sun.
 External Reflection- it means having a light reflecting off the floor or ground surfaces.
Various examples include wide window sills, light shelves, and adjacent buildings.
However, it should be noted that this method if excessive causes glare.
 Internal reflection- light reflecting off the internal walls, floor, ceiling of occupant’s
stay. This can be done by incorporating high reflective surfaces such as glossy or
smooth surfaces. An example included mirrors.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING-

Types of lamps:

1. Incandescent Lamps- produces light by the passage of an electric current through a

filament, which heats it to incandescence, -, which produces light by heat. When the

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electric current is passed through the thin metal filament, the filament is heated, glows, and
produces light.

2. Electric Discharge lamps- produce light by the passage of an electric current through a
vapor or gas, initiating the discharge to fluorescence.
- Low Intensity discharge lamp- Fluorescent (tubular, circular, and
compact)
 High Intensity discharge lamp
- Mercury Vapor -Mercury vapor lamps offer a number of benefits,
including a relatively long lamp life when compared to traditional
incandescent. They also have the capability of emitting very clear,
intense white light. This has made them valuable for a number of
applications throughout the years, including overhead lighting in big
areas like factories and sports arenas.

- Metal Halide- This type of lamp is also known as an 'MH' lamp. It is an HID lamp
(High Intensity Discharge), which means it provides most of its light from the
electric arc within a small discharge tube. It is becoming increasingly popular
due to its good quality white light and good efficiency. The most prominent use
of the MH lamp is in stadiums and sports fields. It is also used widely for parking
lots and street lighting in urban areas

- Low Pressure Sodium Lamps - It is among the most efficient lamps in the
world because it uses all the current it gets to create light at the most
sensitive color (frequency) to the human eye. It is a Powerful lamp for
use of large areas. Despite a warm up time of 5-10 minutes, it restarts
immediately if there is a brownout Lumen output does not drop with
age (such as in LEDs or incandescent). It has the worst color rendering
of any lamp. Sodium is a hazardous material which can combust when
exposed to air (such as if the bulb is broken in the trash)

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- High Pressure Sodium Lamps- High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are
- part of the family of high intensity light bulbs that put out large
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amounts of light generally needed for street lighting and security

lighting. The combination of metals and gasses within inside the glass
tube produces an orange-white light commonly found in street lights.
HPS bulbs actually produce a dark pink glow when first struck, and an
intense pinkish orange light when warmed. HPS Lamps are favored by
indoor gardeners for general growing because of the wide color-
temperature spectrum produced and the relatively efficient cost of
running the lights. High pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient—
about 100 lumens per watt when measured for photopic lighting
conditions

3. Light Emitting Diode- LED light bulbs or lamps utilize light-emitting diodes in order to produce light.
LED is a “solid-state” technology, which means that the materials used to generate the light are enc
ased within a solid material. Practically, this translates into a lamp with a rated life much longer than
those using non-solid-state technology (such as incandescent, halogen, and fluorescent). Solid-state
lighting is also much less susceptible to failure due to shock or vibration.

How do LEDs Emit Light?

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LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semiconductor light sources that combine a P-type
semiconductor (larger hole concentration) with an N-type semiconductor (larger electron
concentration). Applying a sufficient forward voltage will cause the electrons and holes to
recombine at the P-N junction, releasing energy in the form of light. Compared with conventional
light sources that first convert electrical energy into heat, and then into light, LEDs (Light Emitting
Diodes) convert electrical energy directly into light, delivering efficient light generation with little-
wasted electricity.

COLOR CHARACTERISTICS

Whie light is luminous energy containing a mixture of wavelengths that are perceived as
color when the eye transforms that energy into a signal for the brain. This mixture determines

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whether an environment will appear warm or cool and how well people and furnishing looks.

Color and Efficiency- some lamps are more efficient in converting energy into visible light than
others. The efficacy of lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving the lamp compared to the
number of watts required.

Color Rendering- the general expression for the effect of the light source on the color appearance
of objects in conscious or subconscious comparison with their color appearance under a reference
light source.

Color Rendering Index (CRI)- the measure of the degree of color shift, which objects undergo when
illuminated by the light source, as compared with the color of those same objects when illuminated
by a reference source of comparable color temperature. The CRI uses filament light as a base for
100and the warm white fluorescent for 50. Values for common light sources vary from 20 to 99. The
higher the number, the better the color rendering or color appearance (less color shift or distortion
occurs).

Color Changes- during lamp dimming there can be a small shift in lamp color with fluorescent lamps.
This color shift is not usually considered significant, but is noticeable, especially with warm lamps.
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Other light sources including incandescent lamps exhibit a more significant color shift. Care must be
exercised when using such lamps. They should not be dimmed to such levels that alter the aesthetic
of the space, cause discomfort to the occupants, or affect tasks in which color is rendition is
essential.

LIGHTING ANALYSIS

Laws of Illumination

 The illumination is directly proportional to the luminous intensity of the light source.
 The illumination varies inversely as the square of the distance from the source of light.
 The illumination varies directly as the cosine of the angle between the normal to the surface
and the direction of the incident light.

SINGLE POINT METHOD (Point-by-Point Method in Two-Dimensional Plane)

Φ I
�= �� = cos (�)
4� �2

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ILLUMINATION (E) CANDLE POWER (I) DISTANCE (d)
Foot-candle Candela Foot
Lux Candela Meter
Phot Candela Centimeter

Where:
Ep= intensity of illumination
d- distance of the lamp from the point of interest (point P)
I- candle power of the lamp (candela or candles)
�- angle between the incident ray and the normal line also called angle
of incidence.
Φ- total lumen output of the lamp.

Example 1: A piece of paper lies on a table 2m away from a point directly below a bulb of 100cd
and is 4m above the table. Calculate the illumination on the center of the paper in lux.

SOLUTION:

Determining the Average Illuminance- the average illuminance level can be determined given the
number of luminaires that are used in a space is known. Alternatively, the number of luminaires can
be determined given the average illuminance level, this is called the Lumen or Zonal Cavity Method.

T
b Fee
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Φ � � � �� Φ � � � �� � ��
� ������� = � ���������� =
� �

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=
������ ��������
�� =
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�� =
-
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������������ ����� ������ ���������

ILLUMINATION (E)
Foot- candle
AREA (A)
ft 2
Lux m2
Phot cm2

Where:
E initial – illumination when the installation is new
E maintained- average or maintained illumination
N – number of lamps
Cu – coefficient of utilization
Df- depreciation of maintenance factor
Φ- lumen output per lamp
A- surface area luminated

Example 1: The illumination of a room 40ft x 60ft is being designed. The desired light intensity of 80ft-
candle. The maintenance factor and the coefficient of utilization are 60% and 70% respectively.
Each fluorescent lamp to be installed produces 3300 lumens. If there are four (4) rows of luminaires,
how many luminaires are there per row?

Solution:
From formula:
Φ � � � �� � ��
� ���������� =
�
Substituting values:
� � � ���� �. � �. �
�� =
�� � ��

(��)(��)(��)
�=
� � ���� (�. �)(�. �)

� = �� ����������

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MODULE 5
RENEWABLE POWER SYSTEMS

Renewable energy, often referred to as clean energy, comes from natural sources or processes
that are constantly replenished. It is energy derived from natural sources that are replaced at a higher
rate than they are consumed, renewable energy source means energy that is sustainable -
something that can't run out, or is endless.

Non-Renewable Energy

The contrary of renewable energy is Non-Renewable energy or “dirty energy”, it includes fossil fuels
such as oil, gas, and coal. Nonrenewable sources of energy are only available in limited amounts
and have a reputation of leaving an alarming amount of carbon footprint. Many nonrenewable
energy sources can endanger the environment or human health.

Fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas - on the other hand, are non-renewable resources that take hundreds of
millions of years to form. Fossil fuels, when burned to produce energy, cause harmful greenhouse gas
emissions, such as carbon dioxide.

Over the course of time, non-renewable sources have been proven to be the reason for alarming

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climate change rates. With this, researchers have found that a beneficial switch to renewable
sources would be the best solution. Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than
burning fossil fuels. Transitioning from fossil fuels, which currently account for the lion’s share of emissions, to
renewable energy is key to addressing the climate crisis.

Benefits of Renewable energy

 Renewable energy isn't going anywhere – unlike fossil fuels, wind, solar, hydro, and
geothermal energy will always exist.
 Minimize greenhouse gases – though manufacturing of a wind turbine has an environmental
impact, it is able to cancel out its own carbon footprint after just 6 months of use. Then it’s
pure, clean energy forever.
 Minimize pollutants – renewable energy sources don’t produce smog, acid rain, or other
byproducts that can become trapped in the atmosphere and cause respiratory disease.
 Low cost – once a renewable energy farm has been built, it requires almost no maintenance
for at least 20 years. That means costs stay low and this will in turn lower the cost of power
over the long term.
 Creates jobs – through renewable energy sources, more man power will be needed to build,
install, and maintain the power plants

Renewable energy is accessible to all- being accessible is good in terms of development. In many
parts of the world, renewables represent the lowest-cost source of new power generation
technology, and costs continue to decline. Especially for cities in middle- and low-income countries,
renewable energy is the only way to expand energy access to all inhabitants, particularly those
living in urban slums and informal settlements, in suburban and peri-urban areas and in remote areas.

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Where can renewable energy be used?

Renewable energy can be used in all energy sectors: from power production and thermal comfort
in buildings to industry and transport.

Thermal comfort in buildings (heating and cooling). Examples for the use of renewable energy in
buildings are solar thermal water heaters, biomass boilers, heat pumps, and natural cooling.
Reducing the energy demand of buildings and industry is key to transitioning to a renewables-based
energy system. Therefore, an integrated policy approach to renewable energy and energy
efficiency is fundamental.

Industrial and agricultural heating and cooling processes, such as food processing and pulp and
paper, can also be run on renewable energy. Hydrogen produced with renewables electricity can
meet the needs of high-heat intensive industrial processes in the iron and steel and chemical
industries.

In transport, renewable energy can be used in the form of sustainable biofuels, high-percentage
biofuel blends and drop-in biofuels. Renewable electricity can power the world’s growing fleet of
electric vehicles. Car batteries can be used as storage units so that the electricity can be used at a

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later time. Renewable electricity also can be used to produce electro-fuels, such as hydrogen to
fuel long-haul transport, aviation and shipping. A focus on reducing overall fuel demand in the
transport sector is critical and can be accomplished through policies that promote energy
efficiency and conservation.

TYPES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES

1. Solar energy- Solar energy from

the sun is typically captured
through the use of photovoltaics.
Photovoltaics is a solar energy
technology that uses the unique
properties of semiconductors to
convert solar radiation into
electricity. Photovoltaics are
environmentally friendly, or
“green,” technology that
produces energy without
pollution and conserves
nonrenewable energy sources.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems use
silicon wafers, called “cells,” that
are sensitive to light and produce
a small direct current when
exposed to light. When PV cells
are combined into large systems
(arrays), they produce a
significant amount of electricity.

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Electricity supplied by PV systems supplements electricity supplied from other technologies.
Concerns over the burning of fossil fuels and a demand for renewable, clean energy are making PV
systems an increasingly attractive source of energy.PV systems are flexible and can be adapted to
many different applications. The modular nature of PV system components makes them easy to
expand for increased capacity. PV systems can be used in almost any application where electricity
is needed, and the sun is readily available. Most PV systems also include a battery storage system.

Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources, and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather.
The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at
which humankind consumes energy. Solar technologies can deliver heat, cooling, natural lighting,
electricity, and fuels for a host of applications. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy
either through photovoltaic panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation.

The cost of manufacturing solar panels has plummeted dramatically in the last decade, making them not
only affordable but often the cheapest form of electricity. Solar panels have a lifespan of roughly 30 years,

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and come in variety of shades depending on the type of material used in manufacturing.

Benefit of solar energy

 Environmental impact- It does not produce greenhouse gases and does not pollute the
water. It also requires very little water for its maintenance, unlike nuclear power plants for
example, needing 20 times more water. Solar energy production does not create any noise,
which is major benefit, since a lot of solar installations are in urban areas, such as domestic
solar panels.
 Solar Energy Is Applicable Everywhere- As long as there is sunshine, solar energy can be
deployed anywhere. This is particularly useful for remote regions with no access to any other
source of electricity. Independent solar systems could be deployed in those regions and
improve the lives of millions of people. Moreover, solar energy is also used to power up
spacecrafts and boats.
 Less Electricity Lost During Long-Distance Transport- Some of the energy, around 3-5%, is lost
during transportation and distribution. The longer the distances between the production and
the supply points, the more energy is lost. Having solar panels on the roof or in the yard
significantly reduces this distance, therefore increasing the efficiency of the solar panels.
 Improves Grid Security- The grid is less vulnerable to blackouts if there are many power plants
which are spread out. A grid with high penetration of solar energy has thousands of energy
production centers which are widely spread out. This improves the security of the grid in case
of overload, natural or human-caused disasters.

2. Wind energy- Wind is used to produce electricity by converting the kinetic energy of air in motion
into electricity. In modern wind turbines, wind rotates the rotor blades, which convert kinetic energy
into rotational energy. This rotational energy is transferred by a shaft which to the generator, thereby
producing electrical energy.

The amount of power that can be harvested from wind depends on the size of the turbine and the
length of its blades. The output is proportional to the dimensions of the rotor and to the cube of the
wind speed. Theoretically, when wind speed doubles, the wind power potential increases by a
factor of eight.

Wind turbines first emerged more than a century ago. Following the invention of the electric
Property of generator in the
and for the exclusive use 1830s, engineersstoring
of SLU. Reproduction, started attempting
in a retrieval to harness
system, distributing, wind
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or posting online,to producein electricity.
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Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30
meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind.
Turbines catch the wind's energy with their propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are
mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.

Land-Based Wind Energy

Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected to a utility power
grid or even combined with a photovoltaic (solar cell) system. For utility-scale (megawatt-sized)
sources of wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are usually built close together to form
a wind plant, also referred to as a wind farm. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to
supply power to their customers.

Stand-alone wind turbines are typically used for water pumping or communications. However,
homeowners, farmers, and ranchers in windy areas can also use wind turbines as a way to cut their
electric bills.

Benefits of wind power

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Using wind power can be beneficial to the environment as it doesn’t contaminate any water source,
emit toxic substances, and does not create noise.

3. Geothermal energy- Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth’s
core. It comes from heat generated during the original formation of the planet and the radioactive
decay of materials. This thermal energy is stored in rocks and fluids in the centre of the earth. The
difference between the temperature in the earth’s core and the surface drives a continuous
conduction of thermal energy from the centre to the exterior of the planet.

High temperatures of over 4000°C cause some of the rock in the centre of the Earth to melt and
form hot molten rocks called magma. These heats also cause the mantle to behave plastically and
portions of it to convect upwards, since it is lighter than the surrounding rock.

How is Geothermal Energy Produced?

Wells of up to a mile deep or more are drilled into underground reservoirs to tap into the geothermal
resources. These resources can be exploited from naturally occurring heat, rock and water
permeability or through enhanced geothermal systems, which enhance or create geothermal
resources through a process called hydraulic stimulation. These geothermal resources, whether
natural or enhanced, drive turbines linked to electricity generators.

Geothermal energy can be used in any location with a geothermal resource, such as areas with hot
springs, geysers, and volcanic activity. Some countries, such as Iceland and New Zealand, have a
higher concentration of geothermal resources and utilise this energy source for a significant portion
of their electricity needs.

How Does Geothermal Energy Work?

Geothermal power plants come in three different designs; dry steam, flash and binary: The oldest
type is dry steam, which takes steam directly from fractures in the ground to drive a turbine.

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= Flash plants pull high pressure hot water from underground and mix it with cooler low pressure water.
This, in turn, creates steam that is used to drive a turbine.

Binary plants use hot water passed through a secondary fluid that has a lower boiling point than
water. The secondary fluid is turned into vapour which drives a turbine. Most future geothermal
power plants are expected to be binary plants.

Benefits of geothermal energy

 Baseload—Geothermal power plants produce electricity consistently and can run essentially
24 hours per day/7 days per week, regardless of weather conditions.
 Domestic—Some geothermal plants are available to be made in the nearest source.
 Small footprint—Geothermal power plants are compact. They use less land per gigawatt-
hour (404 m2) than comparable-capacity coal (3,642 m2), wind (1,335 m2), and solar
photovoltaic (PV) power stations (3,237 m2)*.
 Clean—Modern closed-loop geothermal power plants emit no greenhouse gasses and have
life cycle emissions four times lower than solar PV, and six to 20 times lower than natural gas.
Geothermal power plants consume less water on average over the lifetime energy output
than most conventional electricity-generation technologies**.

How does geothermal energy compare to other forms of energy?

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that has a smaller carbon footprint than fossil fuels.
It is also more reliable than solar and wind energy as it is not dependent on weather conditions.
However, the initial costs of building a geothermal power plant can be higher than other forms of
renewable energy.

4. Hydro power

Hydropower harnesses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations. It can be generated
from reservoirs and rivers. Reservoir hydropower plants rely on stored water in a reservoir, while run-of-river
hydropower plants harness energy from the available flow of the river.

Hydropower reservoirs often have multiple uses - providing drinking water, water for irrigation, flood and
drought control, navigation services, as well as energy supply. Hydropower currently is the largest source
of renewable energy in the electricity sector. It relies on generally stable rainfall patterns, and can be
negatively impacted by climate-induced droughts or changes to ecosystems which impact rainfall
patterns.

The infrastructure needed to create hydropower can also impact on ecosystems in adverse ways. For this
reason, many consider small-scale hydro a more environmentally-friendly option, and especially suitable
for communities in remote locations.

How exactly is electricity generated at hydropower plants?

Because hydropower uses water to generate electricity, plants are usually located on or near a
water source. The energy available from the moving water depends on both the volume of the
water flow and the change in elevation—also known as the head—from one point to another. The
greater the flow and the higher the head, the more the electricity that can be generated.

At the plant level, water flows through a pipe—also known as a penstock—and then spins the
blades in a turbine, which, in turn, spins a generator that ultimately produces electricity. Most

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= conventional hydroelectric facilities operate this way, including run-of-the-river systems
and pumped storage systems.

5. Tidal

Tidal energy is a form of power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by the
gravitational interaction between Earth, the sun, and the moon. Tidal currents with sufficient
energy for harvesting occur when water passes through a constriction, causing the water to
move faster. Using specially engineered generators in suitable locations, tidal energy can be
converted into useful forms of power, including electricity. Other forms of energy can also be
generated from the ocean, including waves, persistent ocean currents, and the differences in
temperature and salinity in seawater.

Suitable locations for capturing tidal energy include those with large differences in tidal range,
which is the difference between high tide and low tides, and where tidal channels and
waterways become smaller and tidal currents become stronger. Tidal turbines can be installed

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in places with strong tidal activity, either floating or on the sea floor, individually or in arrays.
They look and operate much like wind turbines, using blades to turn a rotor that powers a
generator, but must be significantly more robust given their operating environment and, as
tidal turbines are much smaller than large wind turbines, more turbines are required to
produce the same amount of energy.

Tidal barrages are like dams built across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries to form a tidal basin.
Turbines inside the barrage enable the basin to fill during incoming tides and release through
the system during outgoing tides, generating electricity in both directions. It operates much
like a river dam in capturing the power in surrounding water.

6. Biomas

Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass continues to be
an important fuel in many countries, especially for cooking and heating in developing countries. The
use of biomass fuels for transportation and for electricity generation is increasing in many developed
countries as a means of avoiding carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use.

Biomass contains stored chemical energy from the sun. Plants produce biomass
through photosynthesis. Biomass can be burned directly for heat or converted to renewable liquid
and gaseous fuels through various processes.

Biomass sources for energy include:

 Wood and wood processing wastes—firewood, wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber and
furniture mill sawdust and waste, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills
 Agricultural crops and waste materials—corn, soybeans, sugar cane, switchgrass, woody
plants, and algae, and crop and food processing residues, mostly to produce biofuels
 Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste—paper, cotton, and wool products, and food,
yard, and wood wastes
 Animal manure and human sewage for producing biogas/renewable natural gas

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A biomass power plant produces electricity from the steam that is released during the combustion
of plant or animal matter in a combustion chamber. This process is done in several steps:

1. Combustion: The biomass is burned in a combustion chamber. Direct combustion is the most
common method for converting biomass to useful energy. All biomass can be burned directly for
heating buildings and water, for industrial process heat, and for generating electricity in steam
turbines.

2. Steam production: The biomass releases heat that heats water in a boiler. The water is transformed
into steam, which is sent under pressure to turbines. The rest of the steam is again transformed into
water thanks to a condenser in which cold water from the sea or a river circulates. The water thus
obtained is recovered and recirculated in the boiler to start another cycle.

 Converting biomass to energy

 Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including:
 Direct combustion (burning) to produce heat
 Thermochemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels
 Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels
 Biological conversion to produce liquid and gaseous fuels

3. Electricity production: The steam turns a turbine which in turn drives an alternator. Thanks to the
energy supplied by the turbine, the alternator produces an alternating electric current. A
transformer raises the voltage of the electric current produced by the alternator so that it can be
more easily transported in medium and high voltage lines.

4. Recycling: At the exit of the turbine, part of the steam is recovered to be used for heating. This is
called cogeneration.

5. Thermochemical conversion - includes pyrolysis and gasification. Both are thermal decomposition
processes in which biomass feedstock materials are heated in closed, pressurized vessels
called gassifiers at high temperatures. They mainly differ in the process temperatures and amount of
oxygen present during the conversion process.

 Pyrolysis entails heating organic materials to 800–900oF (400–500 oC) in the near complete
absence of free oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal, bio-
oil, renewable diesel, methane, and hydrogen.
 Gasification entails heating organic materials to 1,400–1700oF (800–900oC) with injections of
controlled amounts of free oxygen and/or steam into the vessel to produce a carbon
monoxide and hydrogen rich gas called synthesis gas or syngas. Syngas can be used as a
fuel for diesel engines, for heating, and for generating electricity in gas turbines. It can also
be treated to separate the hydrogen from the gas, and the hydrogen can be burned
or used in fuel cells.

6. Hydrotreating- is used to process bio-oil (produced by fast pyrolysis) with hydrogen under
elevated temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst to produce renewable diesel,
renewable gasoline, and renewable jet fuel.

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