C# Complete Fundamentals & Advanced Concepts
- Interview Preparation Guide
This guide is designed to provide an exhaustive explanation of C# concepts ranging from beginner
to advanced level, targeting interview preparation. It covers fundamental programming constructs,
object-oriented programming (OOP), collections, delegates, events, LINQ, async/await, file
handling, directives, memory management, and more. Each section contains examples, edge
cases, and common interview pitfalls.
1. History & Evolution of C#
C# was introduced in 2000 by Microsoft as part of the .NET Framework. It has evolved significantly
through versions (1.0 to the current C# 12), adding features like generics, LINQ, async/await,
pattern matching, record types, and top-level statements. Understanding version history is
important for interviews involving legacy code migration. C# was introduced in 2000 by Microsoft as
part of the .NET Framework. It has evolved significantly through versions (1.0 to the current C# 12),
adding features like generics, LINQ, async/await, pattern matching, record types, and top-level
statements. Understanding version history is important for interviews involving legacy code
migration. C# was introduced in 2000 by Microsoft as part of the .NET Framework. It has evolved
significantly through versions (1.0 to the current C# 12), adding features like generics, LINQ,
async/await, pattern matching, record types, and top-level statements. Understanding version
history is important for interviews involving legacy code migration. C# was introduced in 2000 by
Microsoft as part of the .NET Framework. It has evolved significantly through versions (1.0 to the
current C# 12), adding features like generics, LINQ, async/await, pattern matching, record types,
and top-level statements. Understanding version history is important for interviews involving legacy
code migration. C# was introduced in 2000 by Microsoft as part of the .NET Framework. It has
evolved significantly through versions (1.0 to the current C# 12), adding features like generics,
LINQ, async/await, pattern matching, record types, and top-level statements. Understanding
version history is important for interviews involving legacy code migration.
2. Compilation Process & CLR
C# code is compiled into Intermediate Language (IL) by the C# compiler (csc). The CLR (Common
Language Runtime) executes IL using Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation. Garbage collection, security,
and exception handling are managed by the CLR. C# code is compiled into Intermediate Language
(IL) by the C# compiler (csc). The CLR (Common Language Runtime) executes IL using
Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation. Garbage collection, security, and exception handling are managed
by the CLR. C# code is compiled into Intermediate Language (IL) by the C# compiler (csc). The
CLR (Common Language Runtime) executes IL using Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation. Garbage
collection, security, and exception handling are managed by the CLR. C# code is compiled into
Intermediate Language (IL) by the C# compiler (csc). The CLR (Common Language Runtime)
executes IL using Just-In-Time (JIT) compilation. Garbage collection, security, and exception
handling are managed by the CLR. C# code is compiled into Intermediate Language (IL) by the C#
compiler (csc). The CLR (Common Language Runtime) executes IL using Just-In-Time (JIT)
compilation. Garbage collection, security, and exception handling are managed by the CLR.
3. Data Types & Memory Allocation
Value types (stack-allocated) include int, float, bool, struct, enums. Reference types
(heap-allocated) include class, array, delegate, interface. Interview Tip: Strings are reference types
but immutable. Value types (stack-allocated) include int, float, bool, struct, enums. Reference types
(heap-allocated) include class, array, delegate, interface. Interview Tip: Strings are reference types
but immutable. Value types (stack-allocated) include int, float, bool, struct, enums. Reference types
(heap-allocated) include class, array, delegate, interface. Interview Tip: Strings are reference types
but immutable. Value types (stack-allocated) include int, float, bool, struct, enums. Reference types
(heap-allocated) include class, array, delegate, interface. Interview Tip: Strings are reference types
but immutable. Value types (stack-allocated) include int, float, bool, struct, enums. Reference types
(heap-allocated) include class, array, delegate, interface. Interview Tip: Strings are reference types
but immutable.
4. Namespaces & Using Directive
Namespaces organize classes logically. The `using` directive imports namespaces. `using static`
can import static members. `global using` is available in C# 10+ for project-wide imports.
Namespaces organize classes logically. The `using` directive imports namespaces. `using static`
can import static members. `global using` is available in C# 10+ for project-wide imports.
Namespaces organize classes logically. The `using` directive imports namespaces. `using static`
can import static members. `global using` is available in C# 10+ for project-wide imports.
Namespaces organize classes logically. The `using` directive imports namespaces. `using static`
can import static members. `global using` is available in C# 10+ for project-wide imports.
Namespaces organize classes logically. The `using` directive imports namespaces. `using static`
can import static members. `global using` is available in C# 10+ for project-wide imports.
5. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)
OOP principles in C#: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, Polymorphism. Encapsulation hides
data using access modifiers (private, protected, internal, public). Inheritance allows creating new
classes from existing ones. Polymorphism can be achieved through method overloading,
overriding, and interfaces. Abstraction hides implementation details and exposes only functionality.
OOP principles in C#: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, Polymorphism. Encapsulation hides
data using access modifiers (private, protected, internal, public). Inheritance allows creating new
classes from existing ones. Polymorphism can be achieved through method overloading,
overriding, and interfaces. Abstraction hides implementation details and exposes only functionality.
OOP principles in C#: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, Polymorphism. Encapsulation hides
data using access modifiers (private, protected, internal, public). Inheritance allows creating new
classes from existing ones. Polymorphism can be achieved through method overloading,
overriding, and interfaces. Abstraction hides implementation details and exposes only functionality.
OOP principles in C#: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, Polymorphism. Encapsulation hides
data using access modifiers (private, protected, internal, public). Inheritance allows creating new
classes from existing ones. Polymorphism can be achieved through method overloading,
overriding, and interfaces. Abstraction hides implementation details and exposes only functionality.
OOP principles in C#: Encapsulation, Abstraction, Inheritance, Polymorphism. Encapsulation hides
data using access modifiers (private, protected, internal, public). Inheritance allows creating new
classes from existing ones. Polymorphism can be achieved through method overloading,
overriding, and interfaces. Abstraction hides implementation details and exposes only functionality.
6. Interfaces & Abstract Classes
Interfaces define a contract; abstract classes provide partial implementation. Key differences:
Multiple interfaces can be implemented, but only single class inheritance. Interfaces define a
contract; abstract classes provide partial implementation. Key differences: Multiple interfaces can
be implemented, but only single class inheritance. Interfaces define a contract; abstract classes
provide partial implementation. Key differences: Multiple interfaces can be implemented, but only
single class inheritance. Interfaces define a contract; abstract classes provide partial
implementation. Key differences: Multiple interfaces can be implemented, but only single class
inheritance. Interfaces define a contract; abstract classes provide partial implementation. Key
differences: Multiple interfaces can be implemented, but only single class inheritance.
7. Generics
Generics allow type-safe data structures and methods without boxing/unboxing. Example: List,
Dictionary, generic methods. Generics allow type-safe data structures and methods without
boxing/unboxing. Example: List, Dictionary, generic methods. Generics allow type-safe data
structures and methods without boxing/unboxing. Example: List, Dictionary, generic methods.
Generics allow type-safe data structures and methods without boxing/unboxing. Example: List,
Dictionary, generic methods. Generics allow type-safe data structures and methods without
boxing/unboxing. Example: List, Dictionary, generic methods.
8. Delegates, Events & Lambda Expressions
Delegates are type-safe pointers to methods. Events wrap delegates for publish/subscribe models.
Lambdas provide concise syntax for inline functions: `(x, y) => x + y`. Delegates are type-safe
pointers to methods. Events wrap delegates for publish/subscribe models. Lambdas provide
concise syntax for inline functions: `(x, y) => x + y`. Delegates are type-safe pointers to methods.
Events wrap delegates for publish/subscribe models. Lambdas provide concise syntax for inline
functions: `(x, y) => x + y`. Delegates are type-safe pointers to methods. Events wrap delegates for
publish/subscribe models. Lambdas provide concise syntax for inline functions: `(x, y) => x + y`.
Delegates are type-safe pointers to methods. Events wrap delegates for publish/subscribe models.
Lambdas provide concise syntax for inline functions: `(x, y) => x + y`.
9. LINQ (Language Integrated Query)
LINQ integrates query capabilities into C#. Types include LINQ to Objects, LINQ to SQL, and LINQ
to XML. Example: var results = from n in numbers where n > 5 select n; LINQ integrates query
capabilities into C#. Types include LINQ to Objects, LINQ to SQL, and LINQ to XML. Example: var
results = from n in numbers where n > 5 select n; LINQ integrates query capabilities into C#. Types
include LINQ to Objects, LINQ to SQL, and LINQ to XML. Example: var results = from n in numbers
where n > 5 select n; LINQ integrates query capabilities into C#. Types include LINQ to Objects,
LINQ to SQL, and LINQ to XML. Example: var results = from n in numbers where n > 5 select n;
LINQ integrates query capabilities into C#. Types include LINQ to Objects, LINQ to SQL, and LINQ
to XML. Example: var results = from n in numbers where n > 5 select n;
10. Async/Await & Task Parallel Library
Asynchronous programming improves responsiveness. `async` methods return Task/Task. `await`
suspends execution until a task completes. Asynchronous programming improves responsiveness.
`async` methods return Task/Task. `await` suspends execution until a task completes.
Asynchronous programming improves responsiveness. `async` methods return Task/Task. `await`
suspends execution until a task completes. Asynchronous programming improves responsiveness.
`async` methods return Task/Task. `await` suspends execution until a task completes.
Asynchronous programming improves responsiveness. `async` methods return Task/Task. `await`
suspends execution until a task completes.
11. Exception Handling Best Practices
Catch specific exceptions, not just Exception. Use `finally` for cleanup. Avoid swallowing exceptions
without logging. Catch specific exceptions, not just Exception. Use `finally` for cleanup. Avoid
swallowing exceptions without logging. Catch specific exceptions, not just Exception. Use `finally`
for cleanup. Avoid swallowing exceptions without logging. Catch specific exceptions, not just
Exception. Use `finally` for cleanup. Avoid swallowing exceptions without logging. Catch specific
exceptions, not just Exception. Use `finally` for cleanup. Avoid swallowing exceptions without
logging.
12. Preprocessor Directives
Directives control compilation: #define, #if, #elif, #else, #endif, #region, #endregion, #pragma
warning. Directives control compilation: #define, #if, #elif, #else, #endif, #region, #endregion,
#pragma warning. Directives control compilation: #define, #if, #elif, #else, #endif, #region,
#endregion, #pragma warning. Directives control compilation: #define, #if, #elif, #else, #endif,
#region, #endregion, #pragma warning. Directives control compilation: #define, #if, #elif, #else,
#endif, #region, #endregion, #pragma warning.
13. Reflection
Reflection allows inspecting metadata at runtime. Namespace: System.Reflection. Commonly used
for plugin loading, serialization, and testing frameworks. Reflection allows inspecting metadata at
runtime. Namespace: System.Reflection. Commonly used for plugin loading, serialization, and
testing frameworks. Reflection allows inspecting metadata at runtime. Namespace:
System.Reflection. Commonly used for plugin loading, serialization, and testing frameworks.
Reflection allows inspecting metadata at runtime. Namespace: System.Reflection. Commonly used
for plugin loading, serialization, and testing frameworks. Reflection allows inspecting metadata at
runtime. Namespace: System.Reflection. Commonly used for plugin loading, serialization, and
testing frameworks.
14. Attributes
Attributes add metadata to code. Example: [Obsolete], [Serializable]. Custom attributes can be
created by inheriting from System.Attribute. Attributes add metadata to code. Example: [Obsolete],
[Serializable]. Custom attributes can be created by inheriting from System.Attribute. Attributes add
metadata to code. Example: [Obsolete], [Serializable]. Custom attributes can be created by
inheriting from System.Attribute. Attributes add metadata to code. Example: [Obsolete],
[Serializable]. Custom attributes can be created by inheriting from System.Attribute. Attributes add
metadata to code. Example: [Obsolete], [Serializable]. Custom attributes can be created by
inheriting from System.Attribute.
15. Memory Management & Garbage Collection
The CLR GC reclaims unused objects. Generations (0, 1, 2) optimize performance. `IDisposable`
and `using` statements are key for resource cleanup. The CLR GC reclaims unused objects.
Generations (0, 1, 2) optimize performance. `IDisposable` and `using` statements are key for
resource cleanup. The CLR GC reclaims unused objects. Generations (0, 1, 2) optimize
performance. `IDisposable` and `using` statements are key for resource cleanup. The CLR GC
reclaims unused objects. Generations (0, 1, 2) optimize performance. `IDisposable` and `using`
statements are key for resource cleanup. The CLR GC reclaims unused objects. Generations (0, 1,
2) optimize performance. `IDisposable` and `using` statements are key for resource cleanup.
16. File I/O in Depth
System.IO provides File, Directory, FileStream, StreamReader, StreamWriter.
BinaryReader/BinaryWriter handle binary data. System.IO provides File, Directory, FileStream,
StreamReader, StreamWriter. BinaryReader/BinaryWriter handle binary data. System.IO provides
File, Directory, FileStream, StreamReader, StreamWriter. BinaryReader/BinaryWriter handle binary
data. System.IO provides File, Directory, FileStream, StreamReader, StreamWriter.
BinaryReader/BinaryWriter handle binary data. System.IO provides File, Directory, FileStream,
StreamReader, StreamWriter. BinaryReader/BinaryWriter handle binary data.
17. Threading & Synchronization
System.Threading provides Thread, ThreadPool, and synchronization primitives (lock, Monitor,
Mutex). System.Threading provides Thread, ThreadPool, and synchronization primitives (lock,
Monitor, Mutex). System.Threading provides Thread, ThreadPool, and synchronization primitives
(lock, Monitor, Mutex). System.Threading provides Thread, ThreadPool, and synchronization
primitives (lock, Monitor, Mutex). System.Threading provides Thread, ThreadPool, and
synchronization primitives (lock, Monitor, Mutex).
18. Advanced Topics for Interviews
- Nullable Reference Types (C# 8+) - Records vs Classes - Pattern Matching Enhancements - Span
for high-performance memory access - Nullable Reference Types (C# 8+) - Records vs Classes -
Pattern Matching Enhancements - Span for high-performance memory access - Nullable Reference
Types (C# 8+) - Records vs Classes - Pattern Matching Enhancements - Span for
high-performance memory access - Nullable Reference Types (C# 8+) - Records vs Classes -
Pattern Matching Enhancements - Span for high-performance memory access - Nullable Reference
Types (C# 8+) - Records vs Classes - Pattern Matching Enhancements - Span for
high-performance memory access
