Reproduction in flowering plants-
IEB Grade 12
Content
You will study this module through the following units:
UNIT 1: Sexual and Asexual reproduction in plants
UNIT 2: Flowers, pollination and fertilisation
UNIT 3: Improvement in crop production through
evolution, artificial selection and genetic engineering
UNIT 4: The use of seed banks to maintain biodiversity.
UNIT 5: The use of growth regulators in modern agricultural
practices
Terminology
Asexual reproduction – Production of a new generation of the same species from one parent.
Sexual reproduction- Production of a new generation of the same species by combining gametes of two
paprents.
Stamen- Male part of flower
Made of anthers and filaments
Pollen grains (containing sperm) produced in anthers
Pistil – AKA carpel, is the female part of a flower
Comprises of stigma, style and ovaries
Ovules (egg cells) produced in ovaries
Perianth – Callyx and corolla of the flower
Pollination – Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma
Fertilisation- Fusion of the male and female gamete(Sperm and Egg) of a flower.
Polyploidy- Presence of more that two homologous sets of chromosomes in a cell
Mutagenesis- a plant's DNA changes, resulting in a heritable gene mutation, which can result in altered
protein function and phenotypic changes.
Asexual reproduction
Benefits of asexual reproduction
Mates are not required.
The process of reproduction is rapid- An
enormous number of organisms can be
produced in very less time.
Positive genetic influences, eg beneficial
mutations, pass on to successive
generations.
It occurs in various environments
What are the possible disadvantages of
asexual reproduction???
Asexual reproduction & Crop
Improvement
Do some internet
research about
Grafting of some
common crops. One
common example is
orange on lemon
Sexual reproduction
Flower structure
Asexual vs Sexual reproduction
Pollination
Transfer of pollen
grains from the
anther to the
stigma of a flower.
Different pollinators
can be involved:
Birds, insects, wind
etc
Self Pollination and Cross Pollination
Fertilisation
The fusion of
the male and
female
gamete
Occurs in the
ovary of the
flower
Benefits of sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction creates diversity in
genetic makeup. We may see this in the
phenotype
Organisms produced by sexual
reproduction have a greater survival
rate as compared to asexual
reproduction as organisms have
variation which is adapted to various
environments.
They are less likely to be affected by
various diseases.
Sexual reproduction & Crop
Improvement
Hybrid crops – Crops produced by
cross pollinating two inbred parents
of dissimilar genotypes
Improvements from hybridisation:
(Mind action page 67)
Improved pest and disease
resistance
Early crop maturity
Increased yield
Quality improvement
Seed banks
Facility where various wild plant and
crop seeds are stored to maintain
biodiversity
Read about the Millennium seed
bank, Kew on the following link:
https://www.sanbi.org/biodiversity/fou
ndations/biosystematics-
collections/millennium-seed-bank/
Why do you think seed banks are
important?
Animal Reproductive Strategies -
(Mechanism for ensuring
reproductive success)
IEB Grade 12
Content
You will study this module through the following units:
UNIT 1: COURTSHIP BEHAVIOUR
UNIT 2: EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
UNIT 3: OVIPARY, OVOVIVIPARY AND VIVIPARY
UNIT 4: AMNIOTIC EGG
UNIT 5: PRECOCIAL AND ALTRICIAL DEVELOPMENT
UNIT 6: PARENTAL CARE
Terminology
Vertebrates - animals with a spinal cord and a spine/vertebral column (incl. humans)
Fertilisation - when the nucleus of the egg fuses with the nucleus of a sperm
External fertilisation takes place outside the female’s body
Internal fertilisation takes place inside the female’s body
Ovipary – eggs are released and develop outside body of female, fertilisation internal
or external, egg yolk only nutrition, young hatches from the egg when developed.
Vivipary – fertilisation internal, no eggshell, nutrition via placenta, develops inside
mother, born alive
Ovovivipary – Internal fertilisation, eggshell soft, eggs hatch inside body, appears to be
born alive, egg yolk for nutrition, mother for protection.
Precocial and altricial development of young after birth/hatching. See slide 11
Parental care - Any pattern of behaviour in which parent spends time or energy to
improve the survival, condition and future reproductive success of offspring.
Reproductive goals
To produce the
maximum number of
surviving offspring
while using the least
amount of energy.
So that the species
survives ie does not
become extinct
Courtship behaviour
Images > nautre > Animals > courtship display waved albatross galapagos pictures
Definition :
Rituals and actions
performed to attract a
mate.
Courtship rituals include the
following actions;
Displaying beauty e.g. Male
peacock feathers
Fighting skills, e.g. Lions, elephants
Performing intricate dances,
touching or vocalisation e.g. Fiddler
crab
Bringing food e.g. Pel’s fishing owl
External fertilisation
Water is needed for fertilisation (eg frogs and salmon)
Advantages
1. It results in increased genetic variations.
2. It produces a larger number of offsprings.
3. The gametes released can drift and therefore it is easy to
find mates.
Disadvantages of external fertilisation (outside the body):
1. Wasteful; huge loss of energy – many eggs produced, few
survive.
2. Low success rate (fertilisation is not guaranteed).
3. Environmental conditions important for hatching of eggs
Internal fertilisation
Water is NOT needed for fertilisation (eg lions, crocodiles)
Advantages
1. The probability of successful fertilization is increased.
2. The mates are selective.
3. The chances of dehydration of gametes decreases.
4. The young one is protected against predators and the
outside environment and hence chances of survival are
increased.
Disadvantages of internal fertilisation (inside the body):
1. It becomes quite difficult to bring both the male and the
female into intimate contact.
2. At any given point of time, there’s only a limited amount of
offspring that is produced.
3. There is a relatively higher chance of sexually transmitted
diseases getting passed on.
Three Ways by Which Internal Fertilization
Produces Offspring
There are three ways in which internal fertilization produces
offsprings
Oviparity - The fertilized eggs are laid outside the body of the
mother.
• The egg receives nourishment from the yolk.
• eg fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds etc.
Ovoviviparity - The fertilized eggs are retained in the female, and
the embryo receives nourishment from the yolk.
• When they hatch, the young ones are fully developed.
• eg some bony fish, sharks, lizards, snakes, etc.
Viviparity - In this, the young one develops inside the mother and
receives nourishment through the placenta.
• Most of the mammals, a few reptiles, and some cartilaginous fish.
Amniotic egg
Precocial vs. Altricial development
PRECOCIAL (Gallus gallus domesticus)
1. Young hatch or born when almost fully developed
2. Open eyes, hair or down
3. Active or mobile
4. Not confined to nests
5. Energy goes into prenatal development
6. Offspring have a good chance of survival as they can defend and feed
themselves and stay warm
ALTRICIAL (eg Homo sapien)
1. Born or hatched when not well-developed
2. Often naked, lacking hair or down
3. Cannot walk or fly
4. Confined to nest or burrow
5. Energy goes into parental care after birth. Parents need to feed and defend
their offspring and keep them warm.
Parental care
Care can be given at any stage:
1. Prenatal – guarding eggs, building nests, carrying broods, incubating eggs &
placental nourishing.
2. Post-natal – providing food, protecting offspring, teaching offspring.
Little or no parental care:
Reproductive energy put into producing masses of eggs.
High mortality rate amongst eggs as well as young.
Few individuals survive to reproductive age.
E.g. Most fish, amphibians, insects, most reptiles
A lot of parental care:
Few eggs or young produced.
Low mortality rate amongst eggs or young.
Reproductive energy goes into parental care after birth (post-natal).
Most offspring survive to reproductive age.
E.g. Mammals, birds, some reptiles, exceptions amongst fish and Arthropods.
Reproductive Strategies
K - strategists R - strategists
Typically occupy more stable typically live in unstable,
and predictable environments. unpredictable environments.
Low fecundity high fecundity
fewer progeny, but place a relatively little investment in any
greater investment in each one progeny individual
grow and mature slowly Generally small and quick to
longer life expectancies mature
Eg, humans and elephants short life spans
Eg, salmon, insects
Survivorship curves
Type I – population whose individuals usually
survive beyond their young and middle-ages
and die when they become elderly (small
litter sizes and parental care).
Type II – populations with a constant
proportion of individuals dying at each age
interval (small litter sizes and parental care).
Type III – populations that have a high death
rate among the young, but a relatively low
death rate for those who survive into middle
and old age (large litter size, but little to no
parental care.
Type I and Type II curves represent typical
survivorship patterns for K-selected species.
Type III curves represent typical survivorship
patterns for r-selected species.
Practice Questions
Practice Questions
Practice Questions
Practice Questions
