Cambridge (CIE) IGCSE Your notes

Physics
Thermal Properties & Temperature
Contents
Thermal Expansion
Specific Heat Capacity
Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Melting & Boiling
Evaporation

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 Thermal Expansion
Your notes
Thermal expansion
When a material is heated at constant pressure:
Its temperature increases
Its overall volume increases (it expands)
Its density decreases
This expansion happens because:
The molecules start to move around (or vibrate) faster as they gain kinetic energy
This causes them to collide with each other more often and push each other apart

Thermal expansion diagram

When a solid is heated, the molecules vibrate more, pushing each other apart

Thermal expansion in terms of particles

Extended tier only
Thermal expansion occurs in solids, liquids and gases
When temperature is increased (at constant pressure):
Solids will tend to expand the least
Gases expand the most
Liquids fall in between the two

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 This behaviour is influenced by the distances and strength of the forces between
particles in each state
Table comparing thermal expansion of solids, liquids and Your notes
gases
State Magnitude of Explanation
Expansion

Solid Expands slightly The low energy molecules cannot overcome the
intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together

Liquid Expands more The molecules have enough energy to partially overcome the
than solids intermolecular forces of attraction holding them together

Gas Expand The high energy molecules have enough energy to

significantly completely overcome the intermolecular forces of attraction
holding them together

Uses & consequences of thermal expansion

The thermal expansion of materials can have some useful applications as well as some
undesirable consequences

Applications of thermal expansion

Useful applications of thermal expansion include:
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Temperature-activated switches

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
A liquid-in-glass thermometer relies on the expansion of liquids to measure temperature
It consists of a thin glass capillary tube containing a liquid that expands with temperature
At one end of the tube is a glass bulb, containing a large volume of the liquid which
expands into the narrow tube when heated
A scale along the side of the tube allows the temperature to be measured based on
the length of liquid within the tube

Liquid-in-glass thermometer

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 Your notes

As the bulb is heated, the liquid expands and moves along the capillary tube
Temperature-activated switches
Temperature-activated switches utilise a bimetallic (made from two types of metal)
strip
It consists of two metals that expand at different rates and bends by a predictable
amount at a given temperature

The bimetallic strip will bend upwards when heated, closing the circuit

Consequences of thermal expansion

The expansion of solid materials can cause them to buckle if they get too hot

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This could include:
Metal railway tracks Your notes
Road surfaces
Bridges
Objects that are prone to buckling in this way have gaps built in to creates space for the
expansion to happen without causing damage

Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that it is the material that expands, not the molecules. This trips up many
students, losing marks.
As heat is added;
1. The increase in temperature...
2. Leads to an increase in kinetic energy, so that...
3. Molecules and atoms move more quickly...
4. And move apart
This separation of the the molecules makes the substance bigger!

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 Specific Heat Capacity
Your notes
Internal energy
A rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy
This can be thought of as due to an increase in the average speed of the particles
Increasing speed increases kinetic energy

Internal energy is defined as:

The total energy stored inside a system by the particles that make up the system due to
their motion and positions
Motion of the particles affects their kinetic energy
Positions of the particles relative to each other affects their potential energy
Together, these two make up the internal energy of the system

Substances have internal energy due to the motion of the particles and their
positions relative to each other

Average kinetic energy

Extended tier only
Heating a system changes a substance's internal energy by increasing the kinetic energy
of its particles
The temperature of the material, therefore, is related to the average kinetic energy
of the molecules

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 An increase in temperature leads to an increase of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in the substance
Your notes
This also means that internal energy increases, as internal energy is the sum of all
kinetic and potential energies

As the container heats up, the gas molecules move faster. Faster motion causes higher
kinetic energy and therefore higher internal energy

Worked Example
What property of an object is a measure of the energy in the kinetic stores of its
particles?
Answer:
As temperature increases, so does the average kinetic energy of the particles
This means temperature is a measure of the energy in the kinetic stores of the
particles

Specific heat capacity

Extended tier only

What is specific heat capacity?

When heated, a substance's temperature can increase

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 The amount by which the temperature increases depends on:
The mass of the substance heated Your notes
The type of material
The amount of thermal energy transferred in to the system
The specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as:
The energy required per unit mass per unit temperature increase
In other words, this is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 °C
Different substances have different specific heat capacities
If a substance has a low specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down quickly
(i.e. it takes less energy to change its temperature)
If a substance has a high specific heat capacity, it heats up and cools down slowly
(i.e. it takes more energy to change its temperature)

Low vs high specific heat capacity

Calculating specific heat capacity

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a given mass by a given
amount can be calculated using the equation:

ΔE
c = m Δθ

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Where:
ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J) Your notes
m = mass, in kilograms (kg)
c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

Worked Example
What unit is used to measure energy when calculating specific heat capacity?
A. kilograms
B. joules
C. joules per kilogram per degree Celsius
D. kelvin
Answer: B
The question asks what unit is used to measure energy when calculating specific
heat capacity
The units of energy are joules
A common mistake is for students to see 'specific heat capacity' and state
the units of that, not energy
Reading the question thoroughly and underlining key information avoids
these mistakes

Worked Example
Water of mass 0.48 kg is increased in temperature by 0.7 °C. The specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 J / kg °C.
Calculate the amount of thermal energy transferred to the water.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Mass, m = 0.48 kg
Change in temperature, ΔT = 0.7 °C
Specific heat capacity, c = 4200 J/kg °C
Step 2: Write down the relevant equation

ΔE = mc Δθ

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Step 3: Calculate the thermal energy transferred by substituting in the values

ΔE = 0 . 48 ×
( ) ( 4200) × 0 . 7 = 1411. 2
( ) Your notes
Step 4: Round the answer to 2 significant figures and include the units
ΔE = 1400 J

Examiner Tips and Tricks

While you must remember the equation for specific heat capacity, you will always be
given the specific heat capacity of a substance so you do not need to memorise any
values.
However, it's useful to have the general idea that, the larger the number, the less the
substance will increase in temperature for a given amount of heat.
You can see this for yourself in your own kitchen at home. Metal pans, which have a
relatively low specific heat capacity get very hot, very quickly when put on the hob.
Add water to the pan, which has a relatively high specific heat capacity and the water
will take much longer to heat up.
Notice the units of specific heat capacity:
joules per kilogram per degree Celsius : J / kg °C
'per' means 'divided by'. We say 'per' in front of every value that is being divided by,
hence 'per kilogram per degree Celsius'

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 Investigating Specific Heat Capacity
Your notes
Investigating specific heat capacity
Extended tier only

Aim of the experiment

The aim of the experiment is to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance, by
linking the decrease of one energy store (or work done) to the increase in temperature
and subsequent increase in thermal energy stored

Variables
Independent variable = Time, t
Dependent variable = Temperature, θ
Control variables:
Material of the block
Current supplied, I
Potential difference supplied, V

Equipment
Equipment list
Equipment Purpose

Thermometer To measure the temperature change of the solid / the water

Solid block of aluminium To investigate temperature changes

Beaker of water (400 ml) To investigate temperature changes

Immersion heater To heat the solid / the water

Voltmeter To measure the voltage across the immersion heater

Ammeter To measure the current through the immersion heater

Power supply To supply power to the immersion heater

Digital balance To measure the mass of the solid / the water

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 Stopwatch To time the heating of the solid / the water
Your notes
Resolution of measuring equipment:
Thermometer = 0.1 °C
Voltmeter = 0.1 V
Ammeter = 0.1 A
Stopwatch = 0.01 s
Digital balance = 0.1 g

Method
The experiment set up for the specific heat capacity practical

Apparatus for heating water and measuring energy supplied

1. Place the beaker on the digital balance and press 'zero'
2. Add approximately 250 ml of water and record the mass of the water using the digital
balance
3. Place the immersion heater and thermometer in the water
4. Connect up the circuit as shown in the diagram, with the ammeter in series with the
power supply and immersion heater, and the voltmeter in parallel with the immersion
heater

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 5. Record the initial temperature of the water at time 0 s
6. Turn on the power supply, set it at approximately 10 V, and start the stopwatch Your notes
7. Record the voltage from the voltmeter and the current from the ammeter
8. Continue to record the temperature, voltage and current every 60 seconds for 10
minutes
9. Repeat steps 2-8, replacing the beaker of water for the solid block of aluminium and
starting with recording its mass using the digital balance
Results
An example of a results table for the specific heat capacity
practical

An example of a suitable results table for the specific heat capacity experiment looks like
this. Energy supplies = voltage x current x time.

Analysis of results
The thermal energy supplied to the block can be calculated using the equation:
E = IVt
Where:
E = thermal energy, in joules (J)
I = current, in amperes (A)
V = potential difference, in volts (V)
t = time, in seconds (s)
The change in thermal energy is defined by the equation:

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 ΔE = mcΔθ

Where: Your notes

ΔE = change in thermal energy, in joules (J)

m = mass, in kilograms (kg)

c = specific heat capacity, in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg °C)
Δθ = change in temperature, in degrees Celsius (°C)

Rearranging for the specific heat capacity, c:

ΔE
c = m Δθ
To calculate Δθ:
Δθ = final temperature – initial temperature

To calculate ΔE:
ΔE = IVΔt

Where:
I = average current, in amperes (A)
V = average potential difference (V)
Δt = time spent heating, in seconds (s)

These values are then substituted into the specific heat capacity equation to calculate
the specific heat capacity of the aluminium block

Evaluating the specific heat capacity practical

Systematic Errors:
Ensure the digital balance is set to zero before taking measurements of mass
Some water may be lost to the surroundings by evaporation. Calculate an average mass
of water (using the mass before the experiment and the mass after) to account for this
Remember to only take gradients on the straight-line region
Before this point the energy supplied is being used to heat the immersion heater
itself
Random Errors:
Stir the water constantly whilst heating it to ensure the temperature measured is the
temperature throughout the fluid
When the current or voltage values appear to be changing between two values next to
one another then be consistent in choosing the higher value

Safety considerations for the specific heat capacity practical

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The immersion heater will get very hot
Make sure not to touch it, and have a heatproof mat ready to place it on Your notes
Make sure that the immersion heater is connected to a Direct Current supply
The beaker may become unstable with an immersion heater and thermometer resting in
it
If you feel this is the case then use a clamp stand to hold both
Wear goggles while heating water
Make sure to stand up during the whole experiment, to react quickly to any spills

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 Melting & Boiling
Your notes
Fixed points of water
The melting and boiling points of pure water are known as fixed points
Ice melts at 0 °C
Pure water boils at 100 °C
These are the accepted values for pure water at atmospheric pressure

Ice melts at 0 °C and water boils at 100 °C

Melting & boiling

While a substance is changing state (e.g. melting or boiling) the substance does not
change temperature, even though energy is being transferred to or away from the
thermal energy store of the substance
One major difference between melting and boiling is that boiling occurs at higher
energy
While melting results in particles being able to flow and move more freely, during
boiling enough energy is transferred such that the intermolecular forces can be
completely overcome

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 Your notes

When the substance is changing state, the temperature remains constant as shown by the
horizontal regions of this graph

Boiling
When liquid water is heated by adding thermal energy (say from a gas flame or kettle
element), the temperature of the water rises until the water boils
At the boiling point, even if more thermal energy is added, the temperature of the
liquid water does not increase
This means that the internal energy is not rising
The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of water
As the forces are overcome, the liquid water becomes water vapour (steam)
This is evaporation or vaporisation; the water is now a gas

Melting
When solid water (ice) is heated by adding thermal energy, the temperature of the ice
increases up until the melting point
At the melting point, even if more thermal energy is added, the ice does not get
warmer
This means that the internal energy is not rising

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 The additional thermal energy goes into overcoming the intermolecular forces between
the molecules of the ice
Your notes
As the forces are overcome, the solid water becomes liquid
This is melting; the ice is now a liquid

Condensation & solidification

Changes of state depend on whether energy is being transferred to or away from the
system
Heating is when energy is transferred to the system and the kinetic energy of the
molecules increases (red arrows to the right)
Cooling is when energy is transferred away from the system (or dissipated to the
surroundings) and the kinetic energy of the molecules decreases (blue arrows to the
left)

Condensation
When a gas cools, energy is transferred away from the system and kinetic energy
decreases until the temperature reaches boiling point
At boiling point, energy transferred away from the system reduces its potential
energy
The particles no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
of attraction
They only have enough energy to flow over one another
The gas has condensed; it is now a liquid
As the energy has been transferred away from the potential store of the particles,
the energy in the kinetic store is unchanged, so temperature remains constant
through this process

Solidification
When a liquid cools, energy is transferred away from the system and kinetic energy
decreases until the temperature reaches melting point
At melting point, energy transferred away from the system reduces its potential
energy
The particles no longer have enough energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
of attraction
They are now low enough in energy to be bound to each other and can only vibrate
around a fixed point
The liquid has solidified; it is now a solid
As the energy has been transferred away from the potential store of the particles,
the energy in the kinetic store is unchanged, so temperature remains constant
through this process

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 Evaporation
Your notes
Evaporation
Evaporation is a change in state of a liquid to a gas
It happens:
At any temperature
Only from the surface of a liquid
The molecules in a liquid have a range of energies
Some have lots of energy, others have very little
Their average energy relates to the temperature of the liquid
Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules moving near the surface of the
liquid have enough energy to escape
The average energy of the liquid is reduced when the particles with most energy
leave
Therefore liquids are cooled down by evaporation

Evaporation occurs when more energetic molecules near the surface of a liquid escape

Factors affecting evaporation & explaining

cooling
Extended tier only

Factors affecting evaporation

These factors all affect the rate of evaporation

Temperature of the liquid

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 Increased temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid
Molecules with more energy are more likely to overcome the intermolecular forces Your notes
holding them in the liquid state and escape the surface
Therefore higher temperature leads to a higher rate of evaporation

Surface area of the liquid

Molecules only escape the intermolecular forces of attraction at the surface of the liquid
Therefore a larger surface area leads to a higher rate of evaporation

Air movement
Air movement carries away the water vapour which has just evaporated
This replaces the air above the liquid with drier air, which accept water vapour more
easily
Therefore increasing air movement (e.g. wind or a fan) increases the rate of
evaporation

Evaporation & cooling

The process of evaporation can be used to cool things down
As evaporation occurs, the liquid cools
This is because the most energetic particles leave, reducing average kinetic energy
Placing an object next to this liquid cools the object
This is because the cooler liquid absorbs thermal energy from the object
This process is used in some refrigerators and air conditioning units

Boiling vs evaporation
Extended tier only

Difference between evaporation and boiling

Boiling is also a change in state from liquid to gas
Boiling happens only at the boiling point of the liquid
The change of state happens throughout the liquid (seen as bubbles at the bottom
of a pan of boiling water, for example)

Table showing the difference between evaporation and

boiling
Evaporation Boiling

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 Change of Liquid to gas Liquid to gas
state?
Your notes
Temperature? Any temperature between melting and Boiling point
boiling point

Location in From the surface Throughout the whole

liquid? liquid

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