MODULE-3 LASERS
MODULE-3
LASERS
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser is
a highly “monochromatic coherent beam of light of very high intensity”. In 1960 Theodore
Mainmann built the first “LASER” using Ruby as active medium.
Interaction of Radiation with matter:
1. Stimulated Absorption: -
E2
Photon When an atom in the ground state say E1 absorbs a photon
of energy (E2 - E1) it makes transition into exited state E2. This
h E1
is called Stimulated or Induced absorption. It is represented as
follows,
Atom + Photon = Atom*.
2. Spontaneous Emission: -Spontaneous emission is one in which atom in the excited
state emits a photon when it returns to its lower energy state without the influence of any
external energy.
E2 Consider an atom in the excited state E2. Excited state of an
h atom is highly unstable. Within a short interval time, of the
E1 order of 10-8 s atom returns to one of its lower energy state say
E1 and emits difference in energy in the form of photon of
energy hv = E2 - E1 spontaneously.
If the two atoms are in the same excited state and returns to some lower energy states two
photons of having same energy are emitted. These Two photons may not travel in the same
direction. They produce in-coherent beam of light. Spontaneous emission is represented as
follows,
Atom* = Atom + Photon.
3. Stimulated Emission: -Consider an atom in the excited state E2. If a photon of energy E2
- E1 is made to incident on the atom in the excited state E2. The incident photon forces
(stimulates) the atom in the excited state to make transition in to ground state E1 by
emitting difference in energy in the form of a photon.
1
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
This type of emission in which atom in the excited state is
E2 forced to emit a photon by the influence of another photon of
Photon h
right energy is called stimulated emission. Stimulated emission
h h can be represented as follows.
E1 Atom* + Photon = Atom + (photon + photon).
When stimulated emission takes place, incident photon and the emitted photon are in phase
with each other and travel along the same direction. Therefore they are coherent.
Einstein’s A & B coefficients
The theory behind lasers was established by Albert Einstein. He explored the basic
mechanism involved in the interaction between radiation and matter. He assumed that matter
is in thermodynamically equilibrium with a black body radiation field. His theory involved
important parameters known by his name Einstein’s coefficients. These coefficients give the
probability associated with the absorption and emission processes.
Expression for Energy density in terms of Einstein’s coefficients
Consider a system under thermal equilibrium. Let E1 and E2 be the ground energy state and
excited energy state. Let N1 and N2 be the number density of atoms in E1 and E2
respectively. Let U be the energy density per unit volume of the system of frequency .
a) Induced absorption: In this process, when photon of suitable frequency is
incident, the atom in E1 absorbs the photon and gets excited to energy state E2. Such
absorptions per unit time, per unit volume are called Rate of Induced Absorption
(shown in figure).
Therefore, rate of induced absorption {number of atoms in E1 and the energy density
U}.
Therefore, Rate of induced absorption = B12. N1. U, (1)
Where, B12 is a constant characteristics of atom and called as Einstein’s coefficient of
induced absorption.
b) Spontaneous emission: In this process, the atom in excited energy state E2
voluntarily emits photon and transits to lower energy state E1. Such emissions per
2
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
unit time, per unit volume are called Rate of spontaneous emission. As shown in
figure
Therefore, Rate of spontaneous emission number of atoms in E2.
Therefore, Rate of spontaneous emission = A21. N2, (2)
Where, A21 is a constant characteristic of atom and is known as Einstein’s coefficient of
spontaneous emission.
c) Stimulated emission: In this process, an incident external photon of suitable energy
stimulates the excited atom, to make a downward transition (from E2 to E1) by
emitting a photon. Such emission per unit time per unit volume is called Rate of
stimulated emission (shown in figure).
Therefore, Rate of stimulated emission {number of atoms in E2 and the energy
density U }.
Therefore, Rate of stimulated emission = B21. N2. U, (3)
Where, B21 is a constant characteristics of atom and represents the properties of
energy states E1 and E2 and is known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.
Since the system is under thermal equilibrium, Rate of Induced absorption = [Rate of
Spontaneous emission + Rate of Stimulated emission],
From equation 1, 2 and 3, we have,
B12.N1.U = A21.N2 + B21.N2 .U
or U (B12N1- B21N2) = A21N2
A 21 N 2
or Uγ =
B12 N1 - B 21 N 2
By rearranging the above equation, we get,
3
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
A 1
U = 21
B21 B12 N 1
B N − 1
21 2
(4)
But by Boltzmann’s law, we have
( E2 − E1 ) h h
N2 − − N
=e kT
=e kT
, 1 = e kT
N1 N2
Equation 5 becomes,
A 1
U = 21 (5)
B21 B12 kT h
e − 1
B21
According to Planck’s law, the equation for Uγ is,
8h 3 1
U = (6)
c 3 kTh
e − 1
Now, comparing equations 6 and 7, term by term on the basis of position identity, we have,
A21 8h 3
= 3 ,
B21 c
B12
and = 1 or B12 = B21.
B21
This implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the probability of
stimulated emission. Because of this, A21 and B21 can be simply represented as A and B and
equation 6 can be rewritten.
Therefore, at thermal equilibrium the equation for energy density is,
4
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
A
U =
h
B e kT − 1
Characteristics of laser
The significant feature of a laser is the enormous difference between the character of its light
and other sources such as the Sun, a flame or an incandescent lamp. The most striking
features are:-
a) Directionality The conventional light sources emit light in all directions for
example, bulb, tube light, sun, candle flame, etc.. But Lasers emit light only in one
direction. The beam divergence of laser is less than 0.01 milli radian. That is, the
beam spreads less than 0.01 mm for every meter. Hence light emitted by a laser is
directional.
b) Intensity The light from a lamp streams out more or less uniformly in all directions.
If we look at a 100 watt lamp filament at a distance of 30 cm, the power entering the
eye is less than a thousand of a watt. The laser gives out light in to a narrow beam
and its energy is concentrated in a small region. Thus even a 1 watt laser would
appear many thousand times more intense than 100 watt ordinary lamp. It is said that
a few milli watt laser is hundred times brighter than the sun at the earth’s surface.
c) Monochromatic Light having single color (single frequency or wavelength) is said
to be monochromatic. The light emitted by a laser is vastly more monochromatic
than that of any conventional monochromatic source.
d) Coherence Laser radiation is characterized by a high degree of the light field than
the other sources. The coherence length of light from a sodium lamp is of the order
of 0.3 mm, while that of laser is 100 m. Radiation of such intensity.
Lasing Action (Laser Action) : -
Let an atom in the excited state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so
that atom makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are obtained. These two
coherent photons if stimulate two atoms in the exited state to make emission then four
5
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
coherent photons are produced. These four coherent photons so that stimulates 4 atoms in
the excited state, 8 coherent photons are produced and so on. As the process continues
number of coherent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute an intense beam of
laser. This phenomenon of building up of number of coherent photons so as to get an intense
laser beam is called lasing action.
Conditions for lasing action:
Population inversion and pumping: - In an order to produce laser beam there should be
more number of stimulated emissions when compared to spontaneous emission. It is possible
only if number of atoms in the exited states is greater than that is the ground state. When
system is in thermal equilibrium, then number of atoms in the higher energy level is always
less than the number of atoms in the lower energy level. If by some means number of atoms
in the exited slate is made to exceed number of atoms in the ground state then population
inversion is said to have established between excited state and ground state. The method of
achieving the population inversion is called pumping. If light is used to pump electrons to
the higher level then, the method is called Optical Pumping. If the electric field is used to
pump electrons to the higher level then, the method is called Electrical Pumping.
Metastable State: -
Population inversion can be created with the help of three energy levels as follows.
Let E1 is the ground state of an atom. Let E2 and E3 are
Excited State the two excited states. If an atom is excited into the
E3 Radiation less Transition
energy state, within a short interval of time of 10-8 sec,
E2 Metastable state
Laser emission
atom makes a transition into the energy state E2. Let
lifetime of the atom in the energy level E2 is of the
E1 Ground State order of 10-2 to 10-3 sec. Then atoms stay in the
excited state E2 for sufficiently long time without
making any spontaneous emission.
As more and mare atoms are excited from the ground state to E1 more and more atoms
are transferred from E3 to E2. As a result, within a short interval of time population inversion
is established between energy level E2 and E1. The energy level E2 in which atoms remain
for unusually longer time is called Metastable state. When transition from E3 to E2 takes
place excited atom loses energy in the form of heat without emitting any radiation. Such
transitions are called radiation less transition (Non-radiative transitions).
6
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
Requisites of a Laser System: -
The Three requisites of a Laser system are
1) Energy Source or Excitation Source for Pumping action
2) Medium Supporting population inversion called Active Medium
3) The Laser Cavity
Appropriate amount of energy is to be supplied for the atoms in order excite them to
higher energy levels. If the Input energy is in the form of light energy then pumping is called
optical pumping. If it is in the form of electrical energy then pumping is called electrical
pumping.
Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the Active medium due to the
absorption of energy. After this stage the Active medium is capable of Emitting laser light.
The Laser Cavity consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors. The
Mirrors reflect the light two and fro through the active medium. This also helps to tap
certain permissible part of laser energy from the active medium.
Nd: YAG laser
Construction: Nd: YAG laser is a neodymium based laser. Nd stands for Neodymium (rare
earth element) and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet.
This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the cylindrical rod are highly
polished and they are made optically flat and parallel. This cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a
pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside a highly (reflecting) elliptical reflector cavity.
The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting mirrors. One mirror (M1) is
100% reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is partially reflecting.
7
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
Working: When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of light radiation
of wavelength 0.73μm and 0.8μm, the Neodymium (Nd3+) atoms are raised from ground
level E1 to upper levels E4 and E5. The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from
these energy levels E3 by non-radiative transition. E3 is a metastable state. The Neodymium
ions are collected in the level E3 and the population inversion is achieved between E3 and
E2. An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E3 to E2, emitting a photon of
energy h. This emitted photon will trigger a chain of stimulated photons between E3 and
E2. The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two mirrors and grow in
strength. After some time, the photon number multiplies more rapidly. After enough strength
is attained (condition for laser being satisfied), an intense laser light of wavelength 1.06μm
is emitted through the partial reflector. It corresponds to the transition from E3to E2.
Energy Levels of Nd-YAG Laser
Carbon dioxide Laser (CO2)
It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American scientist Prof.
C. K. N. Pillai. It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR region. It is a
very efficient laser.
Construction: It consists of a quartz tube around 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter. This
discharge tube is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2 (active medium), Helium (He) and
Nitrogen (N2) with suitable partial pressures. The terminals of the discharge tubes are
connected to a D.C power supply. The ends of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl
Brewster windows so that the laser light generated will be polarized. Two concave mirrors
one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical resonator or a laser cavity.
8
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
Working: When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen
molecules and they are raised to excited states. This process is represented by the equation
N2 + e = N2* + e*
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state. e = Energy of electron Before collision
N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state. e* = Energy of electron After collision.
Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground state and excite to
higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.
This process is represented by the equation N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2
N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state. CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.
Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of CO2 atom, population in
E5 level increases. As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously
emitted photon will trigger laser action in the tube. There are two types of laser transition
possible.
1. Transition E5 to E4 :
This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm
2. Transition E5 to E3
This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm. Normally 10.6μm transition
is more intense than 9.6μm transition. The power output from this laser is 10 kW.
9
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
Energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.
Applications of Laser
Because of high intensity, high degree of monochromaticity and coherence, lasers find
remarkable applications in medicine, communication, defense, photography, material
processing etc.
LiDAR
LiDAR, or light detection and ranging, is a popular remote sensing method used for
measuring the exact distance of an object on the earth’s surface. Even though it was first
used in the 1960s when laser scanners were mounted to aeroplanes, LiDAR didn’t get the
popularity it deserved until twenty years later. It was only during the 1980s after the
introduction of GPS that it became a popular method for calculating accurate geospatial
measurements.
LiDAR Technology
LiDAR uses a pulsed laser to calculate an object’s variable distances from the earth surface.
These light pulses — put together with the information collected by the airborne system —
generate accurate 3D information about the earth surface and the target object.
There are three primary components of a LiDAR instrument — the scanner, laser and GPS
receiver. Other elements that play a vital role in the data collection and analysis are the
photodetector and optics. Most government and private organizations use helicopters, drones
and airplanes for acquiring LiDAR data.
Types of LiDAR Systems
Airborne LiDAR
Airborne LiDAR is installed on a helicopter or drone for collecting data. As soon as it’s
activated, Airborne LiDAR emits light towards the ground surface, which returns to the
sensor immediately after hitting the object, giving an exact measurement of its distance.
10
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
MODULE-3 LASERS
Terrestrial LiDAR
Unlike Airborne, Terrestrial LiDAR systems are installed on moving vehicles or tripods on
the earth surface for collecting accurate data points. These are quite common for observing
highways, analysing infrastructure or even collecting point clouds from the inside and
outside of buildings.
The distance of the object=(Speed of Light x Time of Flight)/ 2
Other applications of LiDAR
Measurement of pollutants in atmosphere:
The concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere such as carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
nitrous oxide, etc, can be measured using laser the way RADAR system is used. Hence it is
called LIDAR i.e Light Detection and Ranging. The laser technique consists of a Laser
source, retro reflector, optical detector, signal processing unit and analyser.
Project the pulses of laser beam to the atmosphere, the area where the pollutants are
to be measured. The back scattered light by the congestion of matter is detected by the
photo detector. The reflected laser beam undergoes attenuation due to the absorption by the
pollutants in the atmosphere. Since different gases in atmosphere absorb laser energy at
different wavelength, the amount of absorbance by each wavelength indicates the amount of
pollutants in the atmosphere. The energy of the attenuated beam received at the detector is
integrated and compared with the reference laser energy source. The difference in energy
called error signal is analysed and convert into a readout signal by the computer. The
reading indicates the concentration and distribution of pollutants at different section in the
atmosphere.
11
Dept. of Physics, FET, JU
