CHAPTER 1
NATURE AND ROLE OF SCIENCE IN SOCIETY
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. Develop critical understanding of the role of science and technology in
the development of people and the society;
2. Discuss the scientific method:
3. Integrate the scientific traits and attitudes and the scientific method in
real life; and
4. Present some indigenous science practices and activities in the
province/region through video or vlog.
INTRODUCTION
As responsible citizens of the world, knowing a little bit more about the
nature of science as a human activity has become a necessity. To merely
understand the discoveries/inventions that’s scientists/technologists have
made is no longer enough. Beyond the scientific research, we must see its
consequences affecting our way of life here and now and even our children’s
future. While natural science is transforming human society, Ziman (1976)
argued that the changes that science produces must be assessed and the
sources of its power must be questioned. Through the centuries, the history
of science can be viewed as a continuous expansion at the expense of
religion, philosophy, and the humanities. Hence the ways/processes science
undertakes to produce changes/transformations must be conscientiously
scrutinized.
THE CONCEPT OF SCIENCE
People’s View of Science
“Science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of
its domain value judgment of all kinds remain necessary.” Albert Einstein
Equipped with five senses, man explores the universe around him and calls
the adventure science.” – Edwin Powell Hubbe
“Science is always wrong, it never solves a problem without creating ten
more”- George Bernard Shaw
A branch of knowledge which gives us truth, not always of the consoling kind
– Max Gramick
How Scientists Define Science
Calleja (1987) defined Science as a scholarly activity whose
How Scientists Define Science
Calleja (1987) defined Science as a scholarly activity whose province is the
material world, including man”
Huxley (1974) Science is “common sense. The necessary mode of working of
the human mind”
Simpson (1974) believed that “……. Science is not a body of facts, not a
method, not a technique… science IS, or perhaps HAS, certainly a point of
view, a systematic orientation, application to all material aspects of our
world, in everyone’s daily activities as well as in the laboratory of a
professional scientist”.
… that science is “an exploration of the material universe: that is, first,
orderly and, second, self-testing. The orderliness of science consists in
seeking regularities rationally definable relationships among the enormously
diverse phenomena of the world we live in.”
Posadas (1982) refers to science as the dynamic cumulative system of
verifiable concepts, principles, methods, laws, theories, and processes which
seek to describe, understand, and predict natural phenomena.
Caoili (1968) defined science as “an activity concerned with the systematic
understanding and explanation of the laws of nature, centering on research
toward the discovery or production of new knowledge as the end result.”
Campbell (1974) summarized the definitions by suggesting that science is
the “study of those judgments concerning which universal agreement can be
obtained.”
From the foregoing definitions, we can therefore draw some distinct
characteristics of science that separates it from other systematizations or
bodies of knowledge. Foremost of these is that science rests very much on
objective facts established by correct observation. Observation does not
simply mean sense perception, but includes gathering or collecting, collating,
processing, analyzing, and interpreting data with the requirement that
results from observation be reproduced with essentially the same results by
any person provided same technique and approach are utilized.
Facts lay the foundation for the formulation of a theory, which is an inferred
relationship among facts. A theory to be acceptable should have the capacity
to relate or sufficiently integrate all facts coherently to each other without a
single contradiction by a valid or correct observable data.
A "FACT" should establish a determinate connection between sense
perception and objective phenomena. Statements of what is should be
objectively based on what is observed. Even the most objective observation
which depends on our faith in our senses cannot guarantee a complete
description of a natural phenomenon.
Discrepancy between perception and phenomenon can be attributed largely
to human weakness, personal bias, unskillful perception of relevant data,
inadequate instrumentation, delinquency in logical inference, and the like.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENCE (Newton, 1974)
1. The world does not change, but man’s understanding of the world does
change and his notion of what the truth is change in view of time,
place, and need.
2. The basis of all scientific knowledge is observation of the natural world.
This includes both pure observation and the controlled observation
which is called experimentation.
3. Scientists seek to observe and interpret objectively, i.e., they attempt
to avoid the intrusion of their own “personality” or nature. Implicit in
this notion is the concept that nature has “ways of its own” which
science can understand, if at all, only by adopting the most open-
minded, unbiased, and unregimented methods of analysis possible.
4. Scientists seek to make not only careful qualitative observations but
also precise quantitative observations of their subjects.
5. The quality of an observation is dependent not only upon the care with
which the scientist makes the observations, but also upon the quality
of the instruments which permit the scientist to extend and improve:
(1) his own sense of perception; (2) use of diagrams; and (3) use of
mathematical devices such as formulas and graphs.
6. The results of scientific observations are arranged by the scientist in a
number of arbitrary classifications. The intent of his classification to
bring order into a collection of observations and permit the scientist to
make significant generalizations.
7. Science attempts to put order in the chaos of nature. On the other
hand, scientists also try to recognize the chaos which is a true
characteristic of nature.
8. Our understanding of observed facts is frequently enhanced by the use
of physical models and supposition of ideal systems.
9. The quality of description is a function not only of the scientist making
the report but also the intellectual tools which are available for his use.
The development of various types of mathematics most importantly
has, therefore, increased the utility of many scientific discoveries.
10. Science generally accepts the belief in cause and effect in the
natural world. Thus, scientists may work from known causes to predict
and discover unknown effects, or conversely, they may work from
obvious effects to known causes.
11. Science recognizes that all present knowledge is subject to
question and possible revision.
12. The progress of science in the past has often been accelerated
by the striking contributions of a single man; on the other hand,
progress in more recent times has almost invariably been the product
of the achievement of groups of scientists working
THE AIMS AND METHODS OF SCIENCE
Aims of Science
The most basic and fundamental aim of science is to provide us with
the “best description” of the natural world. Scientific laws, therefore,
are the summarizing statements that embody the “best descriptions”
of nature.
There are two opposing schools of thought concerning the other aspect
of the aims of science. This involves the controversial question of
whether science and scientific inquiry are to be utilized for the service
of mankind, thereby improving lives, or be pursued solely for the
purpose of satisfying intellectual curiosity, thereby contributing to the
store of human knowledge.
Calleja (1987) believes that science should not be made to answer for
the social ills of mankind; these he noted are not problems of science.
The utilitarian school of thought believes that science and the vast
knowledge acquired from it should be used to improve the life of
mankind.
Fox, et al. (1963) epitomizes the arguments of the utilitarian school of
thought by redefining and putting forth the utilitarian purpose of
science. Accordingly, science is a structure composed of interlocking
disciplines whose growth rests on man’s eagerness to understand
himself and his environment. The most basic, yet supreme and
absolute of all purposes, is the survival of the species. Man, being the
hierarch of rationality, is destined to be the steward of his
environment. Whatever method he uses are only means to an end
survival and stewardship.
Methods of Science
No matter what purpose science and scientists seek to pursue, a
methodology for such is necessary. The process of doing science which
involves experimentation is called scientific method.
The scientific method involves the following steps:
1. Keen observation of things around you. Observation leads you to
ask questions such as how, why, where, and when. Your questions
lead you to formulate your problem.
2. State the question in terms of a hypothesis or an assumption. A
hypothesis is a tentative explanation or prediction that guides
inquiry or investigation of a question.
3. Make predictions or forecast results base on the hypothesis or
assumption formed.
4. Test the hypothesis through observation or conducting an
experiment.
5. Compare the results of your experiment with the predictions to
reject determine hypothesis/assumption. In other words, arrive at a
conclusion if the support results from your observation or
experiments. Or the
6. If the results support your hypothesis, make additional observations
to further validate. If the hypothesis/assumption is rejected, develop
and test a new hypothesis or assumption.
This makes science a never-ending-task unable to reach finality or
completeness.
THE ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE
Statements that embody the set of information or attitudes that we readily
accept without the need of verifying authenticity are called assumptions
which could be broadly categorized into two:
1. assumptions about nature; and
2. assumptions of a scientist's objectivity
A. The material universe is REAL.
Science assumes that the concepts of time, matter, and space are not mere
abstract ideas but existing empirical quantities. Both living and non-living
components of the material universe operate within these tangible
quantities. Organisms are made up of matter's elementary particles in
matter's occupying specific space stipulated impenetrability. Development
and gradual change in species lead to their evolution in time.
B. The material universe is RATIONAL.
Cause-and-effect relationships in the universe spring from their regularity
and consistency, establishing regular patterns that allow us to predict future
events. Our concepts of day and night, breeding behavior of organisms,
among others, illustrate nature's rationality.
C. The material universe is UNDERSTANDABLE.
Man’s ultimate purpose is survival which is closely interwoven with his ability
to understand himself and his environment. Through science, human
experience has been transformed within the bounds of natural law from the
bondage of ignorance and superstitions.
D. The material universe Is MEASURABLE.
The empirical characteristics of nature allow us to define it in quantifiable
forms based on accepted standards or frames of reference.
E. The material universe is PREDICTABLE.
The above characteristics of nature allow scientists to make accurate
description of it in a probabilistic manner. Facts derived from inferred
relationships in a highly reproducible method permit us to grasp new and
vast horizons of knowledge, increasing the species’ probability of survival
LIMITATIONS OF SCIENCE
1. Science cannot make moral judgment.
2. Science cannot make value judgment.
3. Science cannot question the existence of God
SOCIAL CHARACTER OF SCIENCE
It should be evident that scientific truth can be established, if and only
if, the effects of these statements can actually be observed in the real
world repeatedly without a single exception by different scientists.
Confirmation of validity by other scientists suggests the "social
character of science. This implies that science is not simply a personal
endeavor detached from the rest of humanity; on the contrary,
individual achievement is intricately connected with the works of many
other scientists. The history of the development of science is replete
with examples attesting to the necessity of getting "peer approval."
The "social" color of science can be seen clearly with the establishment
of scientific societies on different and varied disciplines. Members of
these societies are kept informed on the work status of each one
through the scientific journals. These publications keep an open line of
communication to allow each one of them to verify and check, and
eventually build upon the successes and failures of other scientists,
thereby providing a mechanism to reject or confirm an idea.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN DISCOVERY AND INVENTION
Discovery is the recognition and careful observation of new natural
objects and phenomena, (Forbes (1967) considered it as a very
subjective event until it leads to some practical application shared by
others either directly or indirectly.
Invention is a mental process wherein man’s various discoveries and
observation, combined and guided by experience, lead man to make
some other new ways (operations) or means (tools) of obtaining things
useful or profitable.
