Module 8: Mobile Robots and Kinematics
1. Introduction to Mobile Robotics
• Definition: Mobile robots are autonomous or semi-autonomous machines capable of
locomotion in a given environment.
• Key Types:
o Wheeled robots: Simple design, high efficiency on smooth terrains.
o Tracked robots: Better traction on rough terrain, used in defense and exploration.
o Legged robots: Imitate animal locomotion, suited for unstructured environments.
2. Kinematics of Mobile Robots
• Mobile robot kinematics describes the motion without considering forces.
• Depends on the robot’s locomotion type and constraints.
a. Differential Drive Robots:
• Two independently driven wheels (e.g., Roomba).
• Simple to model; used for indoor robots.
• Forward kinematics:
Where R is wheel radius, L is wheelbase, wr,_ wl are angular velocities.
b. Omnidirectional Robots:
• Use mecanum or omni wheels.
• Can move in any direction without rotation.
• Higher mechanical complexity.
c. Holonomic vs Non-Holonomic Systems:
• Holonomic: Degrees of freedom (DoF) = number of controllable motions.
• Non-holonomic: Fewer control inputs than DoF, e.g., car-like robots.
3. Path Following and Localization
• Path following: Ensuring a robot adheres to a preplanned trajectory.
• Localization: Estimating robot’s pose (position and orientation) in a map.
Techniques:
• Odometry (wheel encoders)
• Sensor fusion (e.g., EKF)
• Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM)
4. Sensor Integration for Navigation
• LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging):
o Provides 2D or 3D scans of surroundings.
o Crucial for obstacle avoidance and SLAM.
• IMU (Inertial Measurement Unit):
o Measures acceleration and angular velocity.
o Enhances pose estimation and stability.
• GPS:
o Used for outdoor localization.
o Inaccurate in indoor or urban canyon environments.
5. Case Study: Warehouse and Delivery Robots
• Amazon’s Kiva Systems: Robots use QR codes and wireless networks for navigating
warehouse grids.
• Delivery robots (e.g., Starship, Nuro): Combine GPS, vision, and LIDAR for urban
navigation.
• Benefits: Reduced human labor, increased efficiency, 24/7 operation.
✅ Structured Questions with Answers (10)
1. Name three types of mobile robots and a key advantage of each.
Answer:
• Wheeled – high efficiency on smooth surfaces
• Tracked – good traction on uneven terrain
• Legged – can navigate unstructured environments
2. What defines a robot as non-holonomic?
Answer:
A robot is non-holonomic if it has fewer control inputs than degrees of freedom, meaning it
cannot instantaneously move in all directions (e.g., differential drive robot).
3. Describe the key difference between differential drive and omnidirectional
robots.
Answer:
Differential drive robots can only move forward/backward and rotate, whereas omnidirectional
robots can move in any direction without changing orientation.
4. What is the function of an IMU in mobile robotics?
Answer:
An IMU measures linear acceleration and angular velocity, helping estimate the robot’s
orientation and improve navigation accuracy.
5. Give the kinematic equation for the angular velocity of a differential drive
robot.
Answer:
6.
What is path following in the context of mobile robots?
Answer:
Path following ensures that a robot moves along a predefined path, often using feedback control
to correct deviations.
7. Why is GPS unsuitable for indoor mobile robot navigation?
Answer:
GPS signals are weak or unavailable indoors, making them unreliable for accurate localization in
such environments.
8. Explain the role of LIDAR in SLAM.
Answer:
LIDAR provides detailed environmental scans used in SLAM to build maps and determine the
robot’s location relative to features in the environment.
9. How do legged robots differ from wheeled robots in terms of terrain
adaptability?
Answer:
Legged robots can adapt to uneven and complex terrains by adjusting limb positions, unlike
wheeled robots which require relatively flat surfaces.
10. State one real-world application of mobile robots and the technologies
enabling it.
Answer:
Warehouse automation using Kiva robots – enabled by wireless communication, LIDAR, QR
code navigation, and SLAM algorithms.
📝 Essay Questions with Sample Answers
Essay 1:
Question: Compare holonomic and non-holonomic robots in terms of motion capabilities,
control strategies, and real-world examples.
Sample Answer:
Holonomic robots have an equal number of controllable degrees of freedom (DoF) and physical
DoF, allowing them to move in any direction instantaneously. Omnidirectional robots with
mecanum wheels are typical examples. They are easier to control in constrained spaces but
require complex mechanics. In contrast, non-holonomic robots, such as differential drive and
car-like robots, have motion constraints due to their physical design. They cannot move sideways
and require planning for turning maneuvers. While more mechanically robust and simpler to
build, they require more sophisticated control strategies, such as feedback linearization or non-
linear controllers, to follow paths accurately. Holonomic systems are used in service robots and
research, whereas non-holonomic robots dominate in industrial and delivery applications.
Essay 2:
Question: Discuss the role of sensor fusion in mobile robot localization, highlighting the
contribution of LIDAR, IMU, and GPS.
Sample Answer:
Sensor fusion enhances localization by combining data from multiple sources to reduce
uncertainty. LIDAR contributes high-resolution spatial information for obstacle detection and
map building. IMUs provide inertial data that aid in tracking orientation and short-term motion,
especially during rapid changes. GPS offers global positioning, crucial for outdoor navigation.
However, each sensor has limitations—IMU drifts, LIDAR lacks global reference, and GPS is
imprecise indoors. By integrating these using techniques like Extended Kalman Filters (EKF),
robots achieve robust, accurate pose estimation. This fusion is foundational to autonomous
driving, drone operation, and mobile service robots.
Essay 3:
Question: Evaluate the impact of mobile robotics on warehouse automation, using real-world
examples to illustrate challenges and benefits.
Sample Answer:
Mobile robotics has transformed warehouse automation by improving efficiency, accuracy, and
scalability. Systems like Amazon’s Kiva robots autonomously transport shelves to human
pickers, reducing walking time and operational delays. These robots use QR code grids, SLAM,
and wireless communication for navigation. Benefits include 24/7 operation, reduced labor costs,
and optimized space utilization. However, challenges include initial deployment costs,
integration with inventory systems, and reliance on accurate localization. Additionally, scaling
the number of robots in a constrained environment demands sophisticated multi-agent
coordination and path optimization. Despite these challenges, mobile robots are now integral to
smart warehouses and logistics networks.
