Module (Geography)

Physical Geography (General Principles) :

(I) Origin and evolution of earth, interior of earth, Wegner's Continental Drift Theory; Plate
tectonics.Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Tsunamis
(ii)Major types of rocks and their characteristics, evolution and characteristics of landforms in the
Fluvial, Glacial, Arid and Karst regions
(iii) Geomorphic processes; Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition,soil formation,Landscape
cycles, ideas of Davis and Penck
(iv)Composition, Structure and Stratification of the atmosphere
(v) Insolation,heat budget of the earth.
(vi) Horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature, inversion of temperature.
(vii) Air masses and fronts. Tropical and temperate cyclones.
(viii) Evaporation and Condensation: dew, frost, fog, mist and cloud, rainfall types.
(ix)Classification of climates, (Koppen and Thornthwaite), Greenhouse effect, global warming and
climatic changes
(x) Hydrological cycle, distribution of temperature and solicits in the oceans and seas, waves,tides and
currents, ocean floor relief features,

Physical and Human Geography of India

(xi) Structure, relief and physiographic divisions.Drainage Systems Himalayan and the Peninsular.
(xii)Indian monsoon, mechanism, onset and retreat, climatic types (Koppen and Trcwartha).Green
Revolution and its impact on major crops of India. Food scarcity
(xlll) Natural Vegetation-Forest types and distribution, wild life, conservation, biosphere reserves.
(xiv)Major types of Soils.(ICAR classification) and their distribution. Soil degradation and conservation
(xv) Natural Hazards : Floods, Droughts, Cyclones, Landslides,
(xvi) Population growth, distribution and density
(xvii)Age: Sex, ratio, rural-urban composition;
(xviii)Population, environment and development
(xix)Types of Settlements : rural and urban. Urban morphology; functional classification of urban
settlements Problems of human settlement in India.
(C) Natural Resources of India; Development and Utilization Land Resources ie General land use,
agricultural land use,
(xx) geographical condition and distribution of major crops, like,Rice, Wheat,Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane,
Rubber, Tea and Coffee,
(xxi) Water Resources : Availability and utilization for industrial and other purposes, irrigation, scarcity of
water, methods of conservation-rain water harvesting and watershed management, ground water
management.

Page 1
 Module (Geography)

(xxii)Minerals and Energy Resources : Distribution and utility of [a] metallic minerals (ion ore, copper,
bauxite, manganese), (b) non- metallic and conventional minerals [coal,petroleum and natural gas), (c)
hydro electricity and non conventional sources of energy (Solar, Wind, bio-gas),(d) energy sources Their
distribution and conservation.
(xxiii) Development of Industries : Types of Industries;factors of industrial location, distribution and
changing pattern of selected industries [iron and steel, cotton textile, sugar and petro- chemicals);
Weber's theory of industrial location-lts relevance in the modern world.
(xxiv) Transport, Communication and International Trade : Roads, railways and water ways. Bases of
International trade, changing pattern of India's ' foreign trade.

Page 2
 Module (Geography)

Origin and evolution of earth

Beginning of the Universe started about The ball at the center grows dense and
13.6 billion years ago,when the Big Bang hot, eventually nuclear fusion reactions
created the universe from a point start and a star is born (in our case, the
source. sun).
During this process, light elements, like Rings of gas and dust orbiting around
H, He, Li, B, and Be formed. From this the sun eventually condenses into small
point in time, the universe began to particles. These particles are attracted to
expand and has been expanding ever one another and larger bodies called
since. planetismals begin to form.
Concentrations of gas and dust within Planetesimals accumulate into a larger
the universe eventually became galaxies mass. An irregularly-shaped proto-Earth
consisting of millions of stars. develops.
Within the larger stars, nuclear fusion The interior heats and becomes soft.
processes eventually created heavier Gravity shapes the Earth into a sphere.
elements, like C, Si, Ca, Mg, K, and Fe. The interior differentiates into a nickel-
Stars eventually collapse and explode iron core, and a stony (silicate) mantle.
during an event called a supernova. Soon, a small planetoid collides with
During a supernova, heavier elements, Earth. Debris forms a ring around the
from Fe to U, are formed. (See figure 1.9 Earth.The debris coalesces and forms
in your text). the Moon.
Throughout galaxies clusters of gas The atmosphere develops from volcanic
attracted by gravity start to rotate and gases. When the Earth becomes cool
accrete to form stars and solar systems. enough, moisture condenses and
For our solar system this occurred about accumulates, and the oceans are born.
4.6 billion years ago.

Page 3
 Module (Geography)

Interior of earth,

Most of the knowledge we have about  Travelling only through the

Earth‘s deep interior comes from the crust, surface wavesare of a
fact that seismic waves penetrate the lower frequency than body waves,
Earth and are recorded on the other and are easily distinguished on a
side. Earthquake ray paths and arrival seismogram as a result.
times are more complex than illustrated
in the animations, because velocity in
the Earth does not simply increase with
depth. Velocities generally increase Earth’s Layers – Earth’s
downward, according to Snell‘s Law, Composition
bending rays away from the vertical
between layers on their downward The Crust of Earth
journey; velocity generally decreases
upward in layers, so that rays bend It is the outermost and the thinnest
toward the vertical as they travel out of layer of the earth‘s surface, about 8 to 40
the Earth . Snell‘s Law also dictates that km thick. The crust varies greatly in
rays bend abruptly inward at the thickness and composition – as small as
mantle/outercore boundary (sharp 5 km thick in some places beneath the
velocity decrease in the liquid) and oceans, while under some mountain
outward at the outer core/inner core ranges it extends up to 70 km in depth.
boundary (sharp velocity increase).
The crust is made up of two layers an
Major Points to remember about P S upper lighter layer called the Sial
and Love waves (Silicate + Aluminium) and a lower
density layer called Sima (Silicate +
 P wave or primary wave. This Magnesium).The average density of this
is the fastest kind of seismic layer is 3 gm/cc.
wave, and, consequently, the first
to 'arrive' at a seismic station. The Mantle of Earth
 The P wave can move through
solid rock and fluids, like water or This layer extends up to a depth of 2900
the liquid layers of the earth. km.
 P waves are also known
as compressional waves. Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper
 S waveor secondary wave, Mantle or Asthenosphere (up to about
which is the second wave you feel 500 km) and Lower Mantle.
in an earthquake. An S wave is Asthenosphere is in a semimolten
slower than a P wave and can plastic state, and it is thought that this
only move through solid rock, not enables the lithosphere to move about it.
through any liquid medium. Within the asthenosphere, the velocity

Page 4
 Module (Geography)

of seismic waves is considerably reduced thick and is in molten form due to

(Called ‗Low Velocity excessive heat out there. Inner core is
1370 km thick and is in plasticform due
The line of separation between the to the combined factors of excessive heat
mantle and the crust is known as and pressure. It is made up of iron and
Mohoviricic Discontinuity. nickel (Nife) and is responsible for
earth‘s magnetism. This layer has the
maximum specific gravity.The
temperatures in the earth‘s core lie
The Core of Earth between 2200°c and 2750°c. The line of
separation between the mantle and the
Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core core is called GutenbergWiechert
of the earth.The outer core is 2100 km Discontinuity.

Page 5
 Module (Geography)

Wegner's Continental Drift Theory

Alfred Wegner was a German According to Alfred Wegener, the entire
Meteorologist in the early 1900s who landmass of the globe was together
studied ancient climates. Like most about 280 million years ago. It was
people, the jigsaw puzzle appearance of termed as Pangea, a super continent.
the Atlantic continental margins caught The huge water body surrounding the
his attention. He put together the Pangea was known as Panthalasa. From
evidence of ancient glaciations and the 80 to 150 million years ago, Pangea was
distribution of fossil to formulate a broken latitudinally into northern and
theory that the continents have moved southern parts known as Laurasia
over the surface of the Earth, sometimes (Angaraland) and Gondwanaland,
forming large supercontinents and other respectively. Both of them drifted away
times forming separate continental and in between a shallow sea emerged
masses. He proposed that prior to about by filling up the water from Panthalasa.
200 million years ago all of the It was known as Tethys sea. Later on
continents formed one large land mass Laurasia and Gondwanaland rifted and
that he called Pangea . finally drifted to form the present day
distribution of land and water on the
earth .

Page 6
 Module (Geography)

Wegener‘s explanation of continental from the poles rocks were when

drift in 1912 was that drifting occurred they formed, by looking at the
because of the earth‘s rotation. Fossil angle of their magnetic field. The
records from separate continents, story told by different continents
particularly on the outskirts of is contradictory, and can only be
continents show the same species. explained if we assume the
continents have moved over
The evidence which gave rise to the time.There are ridges in the floors
theory of continental drift includes the of the main
following: oceans.Paleomagnetism shows
that the sea floor has spread away
 The coasts of the continents from these ridges. Distinct
surrounding the Atlantic ocean patterns of stripes can be seen in
could, if the continents were the magnetism of rocks on either
moved closer, fit together like a side of the ridges.
jigsaw puzzle.
 Living animals in widely
separated lands are similar. For
example India and Madagascar
have similar mammals, which are
quite different from those in
Africa, even though it is now near
to Madagascar.
 Fossil plants in India, South
Africa, Australia, Antarctica and
South America are similar to each
other. This so-called Glossopteris
flora is quite different from plants
found in other parts of the world
at the same time.
 There are numerous geological
similarities between eastern
South America and western
Africa.
 Apparent Polar Wandering:
Paleomagnetism tells us how far

Page 7
 Module (Geography)

Plate tectonics
The uppermost outer solid and rigid as lithosphere. Mantle is partially
layer of the earth is called crust. Its molten between 100 to 250 km depth.
thickness varies considerably. It is as This zone is said to be asthenosphere,
little as 5 km thick beneath the oceans at also known as Mohr discontinuity, a
some places but under some mountain simplification of Mohorovicic, the name
ranges it extends upto a depth of of the seismologist who discovered it.
700km. Below the crust denser rocks are The lithosphere is broken into several
found, known as mantle crust. This blocks. These blocks are known as
upper part of mantle upto an average plates, which are moving over
depth of 100 km from the surface is asthenosphere. There are seven major
solid. This solid mantle plus upper crust plates.
form a comparatively rigid block termed

While the continents do indeed appear asthenosphere. The plates behave as

to drift, they do so only because they are rigid bodies with some ability to flex, but
part of larger plates that float and move deformation occurs mainly along the
horizontally on the upper mantle boundaries between plates.

Page 8
 Module (Geography)

The plate boundaries can be identified Because the oceanic ridges are areas of
because they are zones along which young crust, there is very little sediment
earthquakes occur.Plate interiors have accumulation on the ridges. Sediment
much fewer earthquakes. thickness increases in both directions
away of the ridge, and is thickest where
There are three types of plate the oceanic crust is the oldest. Knowing
boundaries: the age of the crust and the distance
from the ridge, the relative velocity of
1. Divergent Plate boundaries, the plates can be determined.
where plates move away from
each other. Relative plate velocities vary both for
2. Convergent Plate Boundaries, individual plates and for different plates.
where plates move toward each
other. Sea floor topography is controlled by the
3. Transform Plate Boundaries, age of the oceanic lithosphere and the
where plates slide past one rate of spreading.
another.
If the spreading rate (relative velocity) is
Divergent Plate Boundaries high, magma must be rising rapidly and
the lithosphere is relatively hot beneath
These are oceanic ridges where new the ridge. Thus for fast spreading
oceanic lithosphere is created by centers the ridge stands at higher
upwelling mantle that melts, resulting in elevations than for slow spreading
basaltic magmas which intrude and centers. The rift valley at fast spreading
erupt at the oceanic ridge to create new centers is narrower than at slow
oceanic lithosphere and crust. As new spreading centers. As oceanic
oceanic lithosphere is created, it is lithosphere moves away from the ridge,
pushed aside in opposite directions. it cools and sinks deeper into the
Thus, the age of the oceanic crust asthenosphere. Thus, the depth to the
becomes progressively older in both sea floor increases with increasing age
directions away from the ridge. away from the ridge.

Because oceanic lithosphere may get

subducted, the age of the ocean basins is
relatively young. The oldest oceanic Convergent Plate Boundaries
crust occurs farthest away from a ridge.
In the Atlantic Ocean, the oldest oceanic When a plate of dense oceanic
crust occurs next to the North American lithosphere moving in one direction
and African continents and is about 160 collides with a plate moving in the
million years old (Jurassic) opposite direction, one of the plates
subducts beneath the other. Where this
. In the Pacific Ocean, the oldest crust is occurs an oceanic trench forms on the
also Jurassic in age, and occurs off the sea floor and the sinking plate becomes
coast of Japan. a subduction zone. The Wadati-Benioff

Page 9
 Module (Geography)

Zone, a zone of earthquakes located velocity than other parts One of the
along the subduction zone, identifies a largest such transform boundaries
subduction zone. The earthquakes may occurs along the boundary of the North
extend down to depths of 700 km before American and Pacific plates and is
the subducting plate heats up and loses known as the San Andreas Fault. Here
its ability to deform in a brittle fashion. the transform fault cuts through
continental lithosphere
As the oceanic plate subducts, it begins
to heat up causing the release water of Triple Junctions occur at points where
water into the overlying mantle thee plates meet.
asthenosphere. The water reduces the
melting temperature and results in the Hot Spots
production of magmas. These magmas
rise to the surface and create a volcanic Areas where rising plumes of hot mantle
arc parallel to the trench. If the reach the surface, usually at locations far
subduction occurs beneath oceanic removed from plate boundaries are
lithosphere, an island arc is produced at called hot spots. Because plates move
the surface (such as the Japanese relative to the underlying mantle, hot
islands, the Aleutian Islands, the spots beneath oceanic lithosphere
Philippine islands, or the Caribbean produce a chain of volcanoes. A volcano
islands is active while it is over the vicinity of
the hot spot, but eventually plate motion
Transform Plate Boundaries results in the volcano moving away from
the plume and the volcano becomes
Where lithospheric plates slide past one extinct and begins to erode.
another in a horizontal manner, a
transform fault is created. Earthquakes Because the Pacific Plate is one of the
along such transform faults are shallow faster moving plates, this type of
focus earthquakes. volcanism produces linear chains of
islands and seamounts, such as the
Most transform faults occur where
oceanic ridges are offset on the sea floor.  Hawaiian - Emperor chain, the
Such offset occurs because spreading Line
takes place on the spherical surface of  Islands, the Marshall-Ellice
the Earth, and some parts of a plate Islands,
must be moving at a higher relative  and the Austral seamount chain

Page 10
 Module (Geography)

Volcanoes
Volcano is a place on the earth‘s surface blown into the air and break into small
(or any other planet) where molten rock fragments that fall around the opening
and gases are erupted. or hill or of the volcano. The pile forms an oval-
mountain built up by the eruption of shaped smallvolcano.
molten rock.Volcanic eruptions are
caused by magma (a mixture of liquid Shield volcanoes
rock, crystals, and dissolved gas) Shield volcanoes are the largest
expelled onto the Earth's surface. volcanoes. They have gentle, almost
straight slopes and a wide, circular
Basaltic magmas tend to be fairly fluid base.These volcanoes form when thin,
(low viscosity), Rhyolitic magmas tend running lava flows over a large area.
to have even higher viscosity,Viscosity is Each time the volcano quietly erupts,
an important property in determining thelayers of cooled lava build up.The
the eruptive behavior of magmas. lava that forms shield volcanoes
contains a large volume of basalt. It has
Fissure Volcano a very low viscosity. Basaltic
Fissure volcanoes have no central crater lavacontains few gases, resulting in
at all. Instead,giant cracks open in the quiet, flowing eruptions. Mauna Loa, in
ground and expel vast quantitiesof lava. Hawaii, is an example of a shield
This lava spreads far and wide to form volcano.
huge poolsthat can cover almost
everything around. Whenthese pools of Composite volcano.
lava cool and solidify, the A violent eruption occurs, forcing
surfaceremains mostly flat. Since the cinders and ash fromthe vent. This
source cracksare usually buried, there is material settles around the vent, much
often nothing"volcano-like" to see - only like a cinder-cone volcano. This event is
a flat plain. followed by a quieteruption. The lava
Cinder cones flows over the cinders. It eventually
Cinder cones are simple volcanoes cools and hardens. After many of these
which have a bowl-shaped crater at the alternatingeruptions, a tall cone-shaped
summit and steep sides. They only grow mountain forms.
to about a thousand feet, the size of a The lava that forms composite volcanoes
hill. They usually are created of also has a low viscosity. It contains large
eruptions from a single opening, unlike amounts of silica, water, andgases.
a strato-volcano or shield volcano which These violent volcanoes can be very
can erupt from many different openings. dangerous. Mount Etna, in Italy, and
Cinder cones are typically are made of Mount Saint Helens, in the
piles of lava, not ash. During the UnitedStates, are two examples of
eruption, blobs ("cinders") of lava are composite volcanoes.

Page 11
Module (Geography)

Page 12
 Module (Geography)

Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when energy stored generated by sudden release of stored
in elastically strained rocks is suddenly elastic energy.
released. This release of energy causes
intense ground shaking in the area near The epicenter is the point on the surface
the source of the earthquake and sends of the earth directly above the focus.
waves of elastic energy, called seismic Sometimes the media get these two
waves, throughout the Earth. terms confused.
Earthquakes can be generated by bomb
blasts, volcanic eruptions, sudden Seismic waves are the vibrations from
volume changes in minerals, and sudden earthquakes that travel through the
slippage along faults. Earthquakes are Earth; they are recorded on instruments
definitely a geologic hazard for those called seismographs. Seismographs
living in earthquake prone areas, but the record a zig-zag trace that shows the
seismic waves generated by earthquakes varying amplitude of ground oscillations
are invaluable for studying the interior beneath the instrument. Sensitive
of the Earth. seismographs, which greatly magnify
these ground motions, can detect strong
The point within the earth where the earthquakes from sources anywhere in
fault rupture starts is called the focus or the world. The time, locations, and
hypocenter. This is the exact location magnitude of an earthquake can be
within the earth were seismic waves are determined from the data recorded by
seismograph stations.

Page 13
 Module (Geography)

Two of the most common methods used earthquakes that occur beneath the
to measure earthquakes are the Richter oceans may not even be felt by humans.
scale and the moment magnitude scale. Richter Scale of Earthquake Energy
The magnitude of an earthquake is
The Richter scale is used to rate the determined using information gathered
magnitude of an earthquake, that is the by a seismograph.
amount of energy released during an The Richter magnitude involves
earthquake. measuring the amplitude (height) of the
The Richter scale doesn't measure quake largest recorded wave at a specific
damage (which is done by Mercalli distance from the seismic source.
Scale) which is dependent on a variety of Adjustments are included for the
factors including population at the variation in the distance between the
epicentre, terrain, depth, etc. An various seismographs and the epicentre
earthquake in a densely populated area of the earthquakes.
which results in many deaths and The Richter scale is a base-10
considerable damage may have the same logarithmic scale, meaning that each
magnitude as a shock in a remote area order of magnitude is 10 times more
that does nothing more than frightening intensive than the last one.
the wildlife. Large-magnitude

Tsunamis

Page 14
 Module (Geography)

A tsunami is a very long-wavelength As a tsunami leaves the deep water of

wave of water that is generated by the open sea and arrives at the shallow
sudden displacement of the seafloor or waters near the coast, it undergoes a
disruption of any body of standing transformation. Since the velocity of the
water. Tsunami are sometimes called tsunami is also related to the water
"seismic sea waves", although they can depth, as the depth of the water
be generated by mechanisms other than decreases, the velocity of the tsunami
earthquakes. decreases. The change of total energy of
Tsunami have also been called "tidal the tsunami, however, remains constant.
waves", but this term should not be used
because they are not in any way related Furthermore, the period of the wave
to the tides of the Earth. Because remains the same, and thus more water
tsunami occur suddenly, often without is forced between the wave crests
warning, they are extremely dangerous causing the height of the wave to
to coastal communities. increase. Because of this "shoaling"
effect, a tsunami that was imperceptible
Tsunamis can be associated with in deep water may grow to have wave
earthquakes. Sometimes a large heights of several meters or more.
earthquake beneath the ocean floor will
produce a tsunami, which is a series of The main damage from tsunami comes
large waves. from the destructive nature of the waves
themselves. Secondary effects include
The rate at which a wave loses its energy the debris acting as projectiles which
is inversely related to its wavelength. then run into other objects, erosion that
Since a tsunami has a very large can undermine the foundations of
wavelength, it will lose little energy as it structures built along coastlines, and
propagates. Thus, in very deep water, a fires that result from disruption of gas
tsunami will travel at high speeds with and electrical lines. Tertiary effects
little loss of energy. include loss of crops and water and
electrical systems which can lead to
famine and disease.

Page 15
 Module (Geography)

Major types of rocks and their characteristics

They are aggregates or physical mixture maximum to this uppermost part of the
of one or more minerals. Minerals on earth. These are feldspar, quartz,
the other hand are made up of two or pyroxenes, amphiboles, mica and
more elements in a definite ratio. They olivine.
have a definite chemical composition. Rocks are of immense economic
Crust is made up of more than 2000 importance to us.
minerals, but out of these, 6 are the Rocks differ in their properties, size of
most abundant and contribute the particles and mode of formation. On the

Page 16
 Module (Geography)

basis of mode of formation rocks may be rocks. Deep seated intrusive rocks are
grouped into three types: termed as plutonic rocks and shallow
(a) Igneous depth intrusive rocks are termed as
(b) Sedimentary and hypabyssal. Granite and dolerite are
(c) Metamorphic common examples of intru- sive rocks.
From this point of view, therefore,
Igneous Rocks igneous rocks can, in accor- dance with
their mode of formation, be classified as
Igneous Rocks are formed by (a) Plutonic, (b) Hyp- abyssal and (c)
crystallization from a liquid, or magma. Volcanic rockmasses. The huge blocks of
They include two types coarse granitic rocks are found both in
Volcanic or extrusive igneous rocks form the Himalaya and the Decean Plateau.
when the magma cools and crystallizes
on the surface of the Earth
Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks
wherein the magma crystallizes at depth Sedimentary Rocks
in the Earth.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by
Magma is a mixture of liquid rock, successive deposition of sediments.
crystals, and gas. Characterized by a These sediments may be the debris
wide range of chemical compositions, eroded from any previously existing rock
with high temperature, and properties of which may be igneous rock,
a liquid. metamorphic or old sedimentary rock.
On the basis of their mode of Sedimentary rocks have layered or
occurrence, igneous rocks can be stratified structure. The thickness of
classified as : extrusive or volcanic rocks strata varies from few millimeters to
and intrusive rocks. several metres. So these rocks are also
(i) Extrusive igneous rocks are formed called stratified rocks. Generally, these
by cooling of lava on the earth‘s surface. rocks have some type of fossil between
As lava cools very rapidly on coming out their strata. Fossil is the solid part or an
of the hot interior of the earth, the impression of a prehistoric animal or
mineral crystals forming these rocks are plant embedded in strata of sedimentary
very fine. These rocks are also called rocks. Sedimentary rocks are widely
volcanic rocks. Gabbro and basalt are spread on the earth surface but to a
very common examples of such rocks.
These rocks are found in volcanic areas.
Deccan plateau‘s regur soil in India is
derived from lava.

(ii) Intrusive igneous rocks are formed

when magma solidifies below the earth‘s
surface. The rate of cooling below the
earth‘ s surface is very slow which gives
rise to formation of large crystals in the

Page 17
 Module (Geography)

shallow depth. leave clues in the final sediment that tell

us something about the mode of
transportation.
4. Deposition - Sediment is deposited
when the energy of the transporting
medium becomes too low to continue
the transport process. In other words, if
the velocity of the transporting medium
becomes too low to transport sediment,
the sediment will fall out and become
deposited. The final sediment thus
reflects the energy of the transporting
medium.
5. Lithification (Diagenesis) -
Lithification is the process that turns
sediment into rock. The first stage of the
process is compaction. Compaction
occurs as the weight of the overlying
The formation of sedimentary rocks material increases. Compaction forces
involves five processes: the grains closer together, reducing pore
space and eliminating some of the
1. Weathering - The first step is contained water. Some of this water may
transforming solid rock into smaller carry mineral components in solution,
fragments or dissolved ions by physical and these constituents may later
and chemical weathering as discussed in precipitate as new minerals in the pore
the last lecture. spaces. This causes cementation, which
2. Erosion - Erosion is actually many will then start to bind the individual .
process which act together to lower the
surface of the earth. In terms of Metamorphic Rocks
producing sediment, erosion begins the
transpiration process by moving the Metamorphic rocks are formed under
weathered products from their original the influence of heat or pressure on
location. This can take place by gravity sedimentary or igneous rocks.
(mass wasting events like landslides or Tremendous pressure and high
rock falls), by running water. by wind, or temperature change the colour, hard-
by moving ice. Erosion overlaps with ness, structure and composition of all
transpiration. types of pre-existing rocks. The process
3. Transportation - Sediment can be which bring about the change is known
transported by sliding down slopes, as Metamorphism and the ultimate
being picked up by the wind, or by being products, formed due to operation of
carried by running water in streams, such processes are defined as the
rivers, or ocean currents. The distance Metamrphic rocks.
the sediment is transported and the Metamorphism refers to the changes in
energy of the transporting medium all mineral assemblage and texture that

Page 18
 Module (Geography)

result from subjecting a rock to conditions. But, the process is

pressures and temperatures different complicated by such things as how the
from those under which the rock pressure is applied, the time over which
originally formed. the rock is subjected to the higher
The original rock that has undergone pressure and temperature, and whether
metamorphism is called the protolith. or not there is a fluid phase present
Protolith can be any type of rock . during metamorphism. Different types
of metamorphic rocks are found all over
Metamorphism occurs because rocks the world. In India, marble is found in
undergo changes in temperature and Rajasthan, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh,
pressure and may be subjected to whereas slates are available in plenty in
differential stress and hydrothermal Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Haryana. In
fluids. Metamorphism occurs because Kangra and Kumaun regions ]of
some minerals are stable only under Himalaya, slates of different colours are
certain conditions of pressure and found.
temperature. When pressure and
temperature change, chemical reactions
occur to cause the minerals in the rock
to change to an assemblage that is stable
at the new pressure and temperature

Evolution and characteristics of landforms in the

Fluvial, Glacial, Arid and Karst regions

Page 19
 Module (Geography)

Landform geomorphic agents acting over long

periods of time produce systematic
Each landform has its unique physical changes leading to sequential
shape, size, materials and is a result of development of landforms.
the action of certain geomorphic
processes and agent(s). Every landform Fluvial landforms
has a beginning. Landforms once
formed may change in their shape, size The landforms created as a result of
and nature slowly or fast due to degradational action (erosion) or
continued action of geomorphic aggradation work (deposition) of
processes and agents. Due to changes in running water is called fluvial
climatic conditions and vertical or landforms.
horizontal movements of landmasses,
either the intensity of processes or the These landforms result from the action
processes themselves might change of surface flow/run-off or stream flow
leading to new modifications in the (water flowing through a channel under
landforms. the influence of gravity). The creative
work of fluvial processes may be divided
Evolution into three physical phases—erosion,
transportation and deposition.
It implies stages of transformation of
either a part of the earth‘s surface from The landforms created by a stream can
one landform into another or be studied under erosional and
transformation of individual landforms depositional categories.
after they are once formed. That means,
each and every landform has a history of Erosional category
development and changes through time.
A landmass passes through stages of Valleys, gorge and Canyon
development somewhat comparable to
the stages of life — youth, mature and The extended depression on ground
old age. through which a stream flows
throughout its course is called a river
Geomorphic Agents valley. A gorge is a deep valley with
very steep to straight sides. A canyon is
Changes on the surface of the earth owe characterized by steep step-like side
mostly to erosion by various geomorphic slopes and may be as deep as a gorge.
agents. Running water, ground-water,
glaciers, wind and waves are At a young stage, The profile of valley is
powerful erosional and depositional typically ‗V‘ shaped. As the cycle attains
agents shaping and changing the surface maturity, the lateral erosion becomes
of the earth aided by weathering and prominent and the valley floor flattens
mass wasting processes. These out. The valley profile now becomes

Page 20
 Module (Geography)

typically ‗U‘ shaped with a broad base Depositional Features

and a concave slope.
Alluvial Fans
Potholes, Plunge pools
They are found in the middle course of a
Potholes are more or less circular river at the foot of slope/
depressions over the rocky beds of hills mountains.When the stream moves
streams.Once a small and shallow from the higher level break into foot
depression forms, pebbles and boulders slope plain of low gradient, it loses its
get collected in those depressions and energy needed to transport much of its
get rotated by flowing water. load.Thus, they get dumped and spread
Consequently, the depressions grow in as a broad low to the high cone-shaped
dimensions to form potholes.Plunge deposits called an alluvial fan.
pools are nothing but large, deep
potholes commonly found at the foot of Deltas
a waterfall. They are formed because of
the sheer impact of water and rotation of They are found in the mouth of the river,
boulders. which is the final location of
depositional activity of a river. \The
Incised or Entrenched Meanders coarser material settle out first and the
finer materials like silt and clay are
They are very deep wide meanders carried out into the sea.
(loop-like channels) found cut in hard
rocks.In the course of time, they deepen
and widen to form gorges or canyons in
hard rock.The difference between a Flood Plains, Natural Levees
normal meander and an
incised/entrenched meander is that the Natural levees are found along the banks
latter found on hard rocks. of large rivers. They are low, linear and
parallel ridges of coarse deposits along
River Terraces the banks of a river.The levee deposits
are coarser than the deposits spread by
They are surfaces marking old valley flood water away from the river.
floor or flood plains.They are basically
the result of vertical erosion by the
stream. When the terraces are of the
same elevation on either side of the Meanders and oxbow lakes
river, they are called as paired
terraces.When the terraces are seen only  They are formed basically because of
on one side with none on the other or three reasons: (i) propensity of water
one at quite a different elevation on the flowing over very gentle gradient to
other side, they are called as unpaired work laterally on the banks; (ii)
terraces. unconsolidated nature of alluvial
deposits making up the bank with

Page 21
 Module (Geography)

many irregularities; (iii) Coriolis together to form valley of sinks, they are
force acting on fluid water deflecting called as blind valleys.
it like deflecting the wind.
 The concave bank of a meander is
known as cut-off bank and the
convex bank is known as a slip-off
 As meanders grow into deep loops, Caves
the same may get cut-off due to
erosion at the inflection point and In the areas where there are alternative
are left as oxbow lakes. beds of rocks (non-soluble) with
limestone or dolomite in between or in
Braided Channels areas where limestone are dense,
massive and occurring as thick beds,
When selective deposition of coarser cave formation is prominent. Caves
materials causes the formation of a normally have an opening through
central bar, it diverts the flow of river which cave streams are discharged
towards the banks, which increases Caves having an opening at both the
lateral erosion. Similarly, when more ends are called tunnels.
and more such central bars are formed,
braided channels are formed. Riverine
Islands are the result of braided
channels. Stalactites and stalagmites

They are formed when the calcium

carbonates dissolved in groundwater get
Karst Topography deposited once the water
evaporates.These structures are
Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum commonly found in limestone
region showing typical landforms caves.Stalactites are calcium carbonate
produced by the action of groundwater deposits hanging as icicles while
through the process of solution and Stalagmites are calcium carbonate
deposition is called as Karst deposits which rise up from the
Topography (Karst region in the floor.When a stalactite and stalagmite
Balkans). happened to join together, it gives rise
to pillars or columns of different
Sinkholes diameters.

A sinkhole is an opening more or less

circular at the top and funnel-shaped
towards the bottom.When as sinkhole is
formed solely through the process of
solution, it is called as a solution
sink.When several sink holes join

Page 22
 Module (Geography)

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-

shaped with broad floors and relatively
smooth, and steep sides. There may be
lakes gouged out of rocky floor or
formed by debris within the valleys.
There can be hanging valleys at an
elevation on one or both sides of the
main glacial valley. Very deep glacial
GLACIERS troughs filled with sea water and making
up shorelines (in high latitudes) are
Masses of ice moving as sheets over the called fjords/fiords.
land (continental glacier or piedmont
glacier if a vast sheet of ice is spread
over the plains at the foot of mountains)
or as linear flows down the slopes of Depositional landforms
mountains in broad trough-like valleys
(mountain and valley glaciers) are called
glaciers.
Moraines
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
They are long ridges of deposits of
Cirque
glacial till. Terminal moraines are long
ridges of debris deposited at the end
Cirques are the most common of (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines
landforms in glaciated mountains. They form along the sides parallel to the
are deep, long and wide troughs or glacial valleys. The lateral moraines may
basins with very steep concave to join a terminal moraine forming a
vertically dropping high walls at its head horse-shoe shaped ridge. deposits
as well as sides. A lake of water can be varying greatly in thickness and in
seen quite often within the cirques after surface topography are called ground
the glacier disappears. Such lakes are moraines.
called cirque or tarn lakes.

Horns and Serrated Ridges

Eskers
Horns form through head ward erosion
of the cirque walls. If three or more
When glaciers melt in summer, the
radiating glaciers cut headward until
water flows on the surface of the ice or
their cirques meet, high, sharp pointed
seeps down along the margins or even
and steep sided peaks called horns form.
moves through holes in the ice. These

Page 23
 Module (Geography)

waters accumulate beneath the glacier Pediments and Pediplains

and flow like streams in a channel
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over . Gently inclined rocky floors close to the
the ground (not in a valley cut in the mountains at their foot with or without a
ground) with ice forming its banks. Very thin cover of debris, are called
coarse materials like boulders and pediments. through parallel retreat of
blocks along with some minor fractions slopes, the pediments extend backwards
of rock debris carried into this stream at the expense of mountain front, and
settle in the valley of ice beneath the gradually, the mountain gets reduced
glacier and after the ice melts can be leaving an inselberg which is a remnant
found as a sinuous ridge called esker. of the mountain. That‘s how the high
relief in desert areas is reduced to low
Outwash Plains featureless plains called pediplains.

The plains at the foot of the glacial Playas

mountains or beyond the limits of
continental ice sheets are covered with Plains are by far the most prominent
glacio-fluvial deposits in the form of landforms in the deserts. In times of
broad flat alluvial fans which may join to sufficient water, this plain is covered up
form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand by a shallow water body. Such types of
and clay. shallow lakes are called as playas where
water is retained only for short duration
Drumlins due to evaporation and quite often the
playas contain good deposition of salts.
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge-
like features composed mainly of glacial . Deflation Hollows and Caves
till with some masses of gravel and sand.
The long axes of drumlins are parallel to Weathered mantle from over the rocks
the direction of ice movement. They may or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent
measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m movement of wind currents in one
or so in height. direction. This process may create
shallow depressions called deflation
hollows. Deflation also creates
numerous small pits or cavities over
Arid Landforms rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer
impact and abrasion of wind-borne sand
Wind is one of the dominant agents in and first shallow depressions called blow
hot deserts. The wind action creates a outs are created, and some of the blow
number of interesting erosional and outs become deeper and wider fit to be
depositional features in the deserts. called caves.

Mushroom, Table and Pedestal

Rocks
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS

Page 24
 Module (Geography)

Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily dune formation are equally important.
susceptible to wind deflation and There can be a great variety of dune
abrasion are worn out quickly leaving forms Crescent shaped dunes
some remnants of resistant rocks called barchans with the points or
polished beautifully in the shape of wings directed away from wind
mushroom with a slender stalk and a .Parabolic dunes form when sandy
broad and rounded pear shaped cap surfaces are partially covered with
above. Sometimes, the top surface is vegetation. That means parabolic dunes
broad like a table top and quite often, are reversed barchans with wind
the remnants stand out like pedestals. direction being the same.

Depositional Landforms Seif is similar to barchan with a small

difference. Seif has only one wing or
When the wind slows or begins to die point. Longitudinal dunes form when
down, depending upon sizes of grains supply of sand is poor and wind
and their critical velocities, the grains direction is constant. They appear as
will begin to settle. long ridges of considerable length but
low in height. Transverse dunes are
Sand Dunes aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
These dunes form when the wind
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand direction is constant and the source of
dune formation. Obstacles to initiate sand is an elongated feature at right
angles to the wind direction.

Page 25
 Module (Geography)

Geomorphic processes; Weathering, mass wasting,

erosion and deposition,soil formation,Landscape cycles,
ideas of Davis and Penck

Table of content

 Weathering
 Mass Wasting
 Erosion and Deposition
 Soil Formation
 Landscape (Geological) Cycles
 Davis Cycle
 Penck Cycle

Weathering

Weathering is the general term applied Weathering is the response of rocks to a

to the combined action of all processes changing environment. For example,
that cause rock to disintegrate physically plutonic rocks form under conditions at
and decompose chemically because of high pressures and temperatures. At the
ex- posure near the Earth‘s surface Earth's surface they are not as stable as
through the elements of weather. the conditions under which they formed.
Among these elements temperature, In response to the environmental
rainfall, frost, fog and ice are the change, they gradually weather
important ones. Weathering begins as (transform to more stable minerals).
soon as rocks come in contact with one
or more than one elements of weather Different types of Weathering are:-
on the surface of the earth. In nature,
generally both the disintegration and 1. Physical Weathering :-The mechanical
decomposition act together at the breakup or disintegration of rock doesn't
sametime and assist each other. We change mineral makeup. It creates
must remember that the weathered broken fragments or ―detritus.‖ which
material (i.e. disintegrated and are classified by size:
decomposed) lie in situ (i.e. at its
original position). In this process no  Coarse-grained – Boulders,
transportation or movement of material Cobbles, and Pebbles.
is involved other than its falling down  Medium-grained – Sand
under the force of gravity.  Fine-grained – Silt and clay
(mud).

Page 26
 Module (Geography)

Various process of Physical weathering during the rare freeze). As the

are:- water freezes it expands and
exerts a force on its surroundings.
 Development of Joints - Joints Frost wedging is more prevalent
are regularly spaced fractures or at high altitudes where there may
cracks in rocks that show no be many freeze-thaw cycles.
offset across the fracture
(fractures that show an offset are 2. Chemcial weathering :-involves a
called faults). chemical transformation of rock into
 Crystal Growth - As water one or more new compounds. A group
percolates through fractures and of weathering processes viz; solution ,
pore spaces it may contain ions carnonation, hydration , oxidation and
that precipitate to form crystals. reduction acts on the roks to
As these crystals grow they may decompose, dissolve orreduce them to a
exert an outward force that can fine clastic state through chemical
expand or weaken rocks. reactions by oxygen ,surface /soil water
 Thermal Expansion - Although and other acids. Water and air along
daily heating and cooling of rocks with heat must be present to speed up
do not seem to have an effect, all chemical reactions. Over and above
sudden exposure to high the carbon dioxide present in the air,
temperature, such as in a forest decomposition of plants and animals
or grass fire may cause expansion increases the quanitity of carbon dioxide
and eventual breakage of rock. underground . Chamical weathering
Campfire example. involves four major processes:
 Root Wedging - Plant roots can
extend into fractures and grow,  Oxidation is the process in
causing expansion of the fracture. which atmospheric oxygen reacts
Growth of plants can break rock - with the rock to produce oxides.
look at the sidewalks of New The process is called oxidation.
Orleans for example. Greatest impact of this process is
 Animal Activity - Animals observed on ferrous minerals.
burrowing or moving through Oxygen present in humid air
cracks can break rock. reacts with iron grains in the
rocks to form a yellow or red
oxide of iron. This is called
rusting of the iron. Rust
decomposes rocks completely
with passage of time.
 Carbonation is the process by
 Frost Wedging - Upon freezing, which various types of carbonates
there is an increase in the volume are formed. Some of these
of the water (that's why we use carbonates are soluble in water.
antifreeze in auto engines or why For example, when rain water
the pipes break in New Orleans con- taining carbon dioxide

Page 27
 Module (Geography)

passes through pervious  Solution is the process in which

limestone rocks, the rock joints some of the minerals get
enlarge due to the action of dissolved in water. They are
carbonic acid. The joints enlarge therefore removed in solution.
in size and lime is removed in Rock salt and gypsum are
solution. This type of breakdown removed by this process.
of rocks is called carbonation.
 Hydration is the process by 3. Biotic weathering :- is a type of
which water is absorbed by the weathering that is caused by living
minerals of the rock. Due to the organisms. Most often the culprit
absorption of water by the rock, ofbiotic weathering are plant roots.
its volume increases and the These roots can extend downward, deep
grains lose their shape. Feldspar, into rock cracks in search of water, and
for example, is changed into nutrients. In the process they act as a
kaolin through hydration. Kaolin wedge, widening and extending the
on Vindhyan Hills near Jabalpur cracks.
has been formed in this manner.
Mass Wasting

Mass wasting is defined as the down classified in a much more detailed way
slope movement of rock and regolith that reflects the mechanisms responsible
near the Earth's surface mainly due to for the movement and the velocity at
the force of gravity. Mass movements which the movement occurs. Mass
are an important part of the erosional wasting can be classified as:-
process, as it moves material from
higher elevations to lower elevations
where transporting agents like streams
and glaciers can then pick up the  Slope Failures - a sudden
material and move it to even lower failure of the slope resulting in
elevations. Mass movement processes transport of debris down hill by
are occurring continuously on all slopes; sliding, rolling, falling, or
some act very slowly, others occur very slumping.
suddenly, often with disastrous  Sediment Flows - debris flows
results. Any perceptible down slope down hill mixed with water or air.
movement of rock or regolith is often
referred to in general terms as a
landslide. Landslides, however, can be
Erosion and Deposition

Soil erosion is the deterioration of soil erosion. It is a natural process which

by the physical movement of soil usually does not cause any major
particles from a given site. Wind, water, problems. It becomes a problem when
ice, animals, and the use of tools by man human activity causes it to occur much
are usually the main causes of soil faster than under normal conditions.The

Page 28
 Module (Geography)

removal of soil at a greater rate than its  Gully Erosion :-When water
replacement by natural agencies (water, moves as a channel down the
wind etc.) is known as soil erosion. slope, it scoops out the soil and
Soil erosion is of four types which are as forms gullies which gradually
follows:- multiply and in the long run
spread over a wide area. This type
 Wind Erosion :-Winds carry of erosion is called gully erosion.
away vast quantity of fine soil The land thus dissected is called
particles and sand from deserts bad lands or ravines. In our
and spread it over adjoining country, the two rivers Chambal
cultivated land and thus destroy and Yamuna are famous for their
their fertility. This type of erosion ravines in U.P. and M.P. states.
is known as wind erosion. It takes
place in and around all desert Deposition / Sedimentation –
regions of the world. In India, occurs when sediment settles out as
over one lakh kilometers of land winds/water current die down, or as
is under Thar Desert, spread over glaciers melt. When sediment is
parts of Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab transported and deposited, it leaves
and Rajasthan states. These areas clues to the mode of transport and
are subject to intense wind deposition. For example, if the mode of
erosion. transport is by sliding down a slope, the
 Sheet Erosion :-Water when deposits that result are generally chaotic
moves as a sheet takes away thin in nature, and show a wide variety of
layers of soil. This type of erosion particle sizes. Grain size and the
is called sheet erosion. Such type interrelationship between grains gives
of erosion is most common along the resulting sediment texture. Thus, we
the river beds and areas affected can use the texture of the resulting
by floods. In the long run, the soil deposits to give us clues to the mode of
is com- pletely exhausted due to transport and deposition. Sorting - The
removal of top soil and becomes degree of uniformity of grain size.
infertile. Particles become sorted on the basis of
 Rill Erosion :-The removal of density, because of the energy of the
surface material usually soil, by transporting medium. High energy
the action of running water. The currents can carry larger fragments. As
processes create numerous tiny the energy decreases, heavier particles
channels (rills) a few centimeters are deposited and lighter fragments
in depth, most of which carry continue to be transported. This results
water only during storms. in sorting due to density.
Soil Formation

Soil consists of rock and sediment that material and rainwater, over time, to
has been modified by physical and produce a substrate that can support the
chemical interaction with organic growth of plants.Soil is the uppermost

Page 29
 Module (Geography)

layer of the land surface that plants use more rainfall means more
and depend on for nutrients, water and vegetative cover and more animal
physical support. action. It also means more runoff,
more percolation and more water
Factors of soil formation are:- erosion. They all help to
determine the kind of soils in an
 Parent material: soil formation area.
depends on the mineral material,  Relief:i.e. the landscape position
or organic material from which and the slopes it has. Steep, long
the soil is formed. Soils will carry slopes mean water will run down
the characteristics of its parent faster and potentially erode the
material such as color, texture, surfaces of slopes. The effect will
structure, mineral composition be poor soils on the slopes, and
and so on. For example, if soils richer deposits at the foot of the
are formed from an area with slopes. Also, slopes may be
large rocks (parent rocks) of red exposed to more direct sunlight,
sandstone, the soils will also be which may dry out soil moisture
red in color and have the same and render it less fertile.
feel as its parent material.  Organisms:The source and
 Time: Soils can take many years richness of organic matter is
to form. Younger soils have some down to the living things (plants
characteristics from their parent and animals) that live on and in
material, but as they age, the the soils. Plants in particular,
addition of organic matter, provide lots of vegetative residue
exposure to moisture and other that are added to soils. Their
environmental factors may roots also hold the soils and
change its features. With time, protect them from wind and
they settle and are buried deeper water erosion. They shelter the
below the surface, taking time to soils from the sun and other
transform. Eventually they may environmental conditions,
change from one soil type to helping the soils to retain the
another. needed moisture for chemical and
 Climate:Two important climatic biological reactions. Fungi,
components, temperature and bacteria, insects, earthworms,
precipitation are key. They and burrowing animals help with
determine how quickly soil aeration. Worms help
weathering will be, and what kind breakdown organic matter and
of organic materials may be aid decomposition. Animal
available on and inside of the droppings, dead insects and
soils. Moisture determines the animals result in more decaying
chemical and biological reactions organic matter. Microorganisms
that will occur as the soils are also help with mineral and
formed. Warmer climate with nutrient cycling and chemical
reactions.

Page 30
 Module (Geography)

Davis Cycle

After the upliftment of landmass by the  Youth:The uplift is complete and

tectonic forces the process of has stopped. Immediately erosion
denudation is started. The rivers, valleys of the uplifted block sets in. The
and associated landforms passes streams follow initial
through distinctive stages, provided that irregularities available without
there has been no significant adjusting to the structure. These
interference by earth movements or by are consequent streams. The
changes of sea-level or climate. This floors of the valley suffer down
idealized concept of landscape evolution cutting while the summits remain
was introduced to geomorphology more almost unaffected. Increased
than sixty years ago by W.M. Davis, who relief heralds the beginning of
referred to the whole sequence of stage mature age
as a Cycle of Erosion.  Maturity:At this stage, the
vertical erosion slows down and
The basic goal of Davisian model of the horizontal action increases. A
geographical cycle and general theory of characteristic feature is the
landform development was to provide erosion of mountain tops at a
basis for a systematic descriptions and faster rate than lowering of the
genetic classification of landforms. valley floor. The coming closer of
According to this concept a landscape lines ‗A‘ and ‗B‘ indicates
has a definite life history, and as the emergence of a gentle slope. The
processes of land structure operate on it subsequent streams gain
the surface features are marked by importance now.
several changes in its life time. Thus, the  Old Age:A gentle gradient,
evolution of landscape passes through a accentuated by horizontal action
cycle, and cycle follows a definite and deposition, reduces the
sequence of development. erosion intensity. A thick layer of
sediment represents the earlier
The successive stage of developmental erosion activity. The landforms
sequences can be divided into three get mellowed—lines ‗A‘ and ‗B‘
parts and may be identified as youth, run parallel to each other. Relicts
maturity and old age. Davis presentation of mountains or monad knocks
of scheme was both vigorous and vivid are dotting the water divides and
and his colourful analogy of the human a featureless plain—peneplane is
life and landscapes both passing through produced.
the stages of youth, maturity and old age
caught the imagination of scientific In order to understand the evolution of a
world. particular landscape it is extremely
important to know the stage of
development. But the geographical

Page 31
 Module (Geography)

structure and the nature of rocks also itself leading to an inevitable

exert an important influence on the progression of change of landform.
fashioning of landscapes is a function of Process means the agent of denudation
structure, process and time (as called as including both, weathering and erosion
stage by the followers of Davis). These (running water in the case of
three factors are called as ‗Trio of Davis‘. geographical cycle).

Structure :means lithological (rock Process:Implies the factors or agents

types) and structural characteristics responsible for weathering and erosion.
(folding, faulting, joints etc.) of rocks.
Time was not only used in temporal Time:Implies the stage at which the
context but it was also used as a process cycle is—youth, maturity or old age.
Penck Cycle

According to German geomorphologist 2. Convex slope:Indicating waxing

Walther Penck, the characteristics of erosion intensity and a waxing
landforms of a given region are related development of landforms or
to the tectonic activity of that region. ‗Aufsteigende Entwickelung.
Contrary to the Davisian concept that
―landscape is a function of structure, 3. Concave slope:Indicating waning
process and time (stage)‖, Penck put erosion intensity and a waning
forward his view that geomorphic forms development of landforms or
are an expression of the phase and rate ‗Absteigende Entwickelung.‘
of uplift in relation to the rate of
degradation, where it is assumed that Different Phases according to Penck
interaction between the two factors, are:-
uplift and degradation, is continuous.
According to Penck‘s view the landforms (a) Phase of waxing rate of landform
observed at any given site give development (Aufsteigende
expression to the relation between the Entwickelung)
two factors of uplift and degradation Endogenetic forces cause the slow rise of
that has been or is in effect, and not to a the initial land surface (Primarumpf)
stage in a progressive sequence. but later on the upliftment is rapid.
In this phase, because of upliftment and
Penck proposed three types of valley the increase in the channel gradient and
slopes on the basis of erosional intensity stream velocity rivers continue to
acting on crustal movements. degrade their valleys with accelerated
rate of valley deepening.
1. Straight slope:Indicating uniform The rate of upliftment is faster than the
erosion intensity and a uniform rate of down-cutting. It results in the
development of landforms or formation of gorges and narrow V-
‗Gleichformige Entwickelung‘ in shaped valleys. Since the upliftment of
German. landmass far exceeds the valley

Page 32
 Module (Geography)

deepening, the absolute height goes on the same. However, in this phase the
increasing. absolute height and the relative relief's
Altitude of the summit of interfluves and are unchanged. So this may be called the
valley bottom continues to increase due phase of uniform development of
to the faster rate of upliftment than that landforms.
of the vertical erosion. (iii) In this sub-phase there is no more
This phase is characterized by the upliftment of land.
maximum altitude and the maximum
relief (relative heights of the valley (c) Phase of Wanning development of
floors). landscape (Absteigende Entwickelung)
The erosional processes dominate in this
(b) Phase of uniform development of phase. The lateral erosion rather than
land form (Gleichformige Entwickelung) vertical erosion is more important.
This phase may be divided into three There is progressive decrease in the
sub-phases on the basis of upliftment height of the landforms. In other words,
and consequent degradation the absolute and the relative relief
decline.
(i) The first sub-phase is characterised The valley side slope consists of two
by the continuance of accelerated rate of parts, the upper and the lower. The
uplift. The absolute height continues to upper segment continues to have steep
increase because the rate of upliftment angle which is called as gravity slope.
is still greater than the rate of down- The lower segment of the slope is called
cutting. wash slope. The wash slope is composed
The maximum altitude or the absolute of talus materials of lower inclination
relief is achieved, but relative relief which is formed at the base of valley
remains unaffected because the rate of sides.
valley deepening is almost equal to the The later part of this phase is marked by
rate of lowering of the summits of the presence of inselbergs and a series of
stream interfluves. concave wash slopes.
The valley walls are steep. This is known This type of extensive surface produced
as the phase of uniform development at the fag end of absteigende
because of uniformity in the rate of entwickelung has been labelled is
valley deepening and lowering of divide endrumpf which may be equivalent to
summits. peneplain as envisaged by Davis in his
(ii) In the second sub-phase the absolute cycle concept. Thus, the cycle of
relief neither increases nor decreases. landscape development as envisaged by
This is due to the fact that rate of Penck ends in endrumpf.
upliftment and the rate of erosion are

Page 33
 Module (Geography)

Composition, Structure and Stratification of the

atmosphere

An atmosphere is a layer of gases  Neon

surrounding a planet or other material  Helium
body, that is held in place by the gravity  Methane
of that body. Many of the planets in this  Krypton
solar system have atmospheres, but  Hydrogen
none that we know of have an  Nitrous oxide
atmosphere quite like ours - one that  Xenon
can support life.  Ozone

The air is a mixture of several gases. The Water vapor is unique in that its
air encompasses the earth from all sides. concentration varies from 0-4% of the
The air surrounding the Earth is called atmosphere depending on where you are
the atmosphere. The atmosphere is an and what time of the day it is. In the
integral part of our Earth. It is cold, dry artic regions water vapor
connected with the earth due to the usually accounts for less than 1% of the
gravitational force of the earth. It helps atmosphere, while in humid, tropical
in stopping the ultra violet rays harmful regions water vapor can account for
for the life and maintain the suitable almost 4% of the atmosphere. Water
temperature necessary for life. The air is vapor content is very important in
essential for the survival of all forms of predicting weather.
life on the earth.
Greenhouse gases whose percentages
Composition of the atmosphere vary daily, seasonally, and annually have
physical and chemical properties which
make them interact with solar radiation
and infrared light (heat) given off from
The atmosphere is made up of different the earth to affect the energy balance of
types of gases, water vapors and dust the
particles. The composition of the
atmosphere is not static. It changes
according to the time and place.

 Nitrogen N2 78%
 Oxygen O2 20.9%
 Argon Ar 9.34%
 Carbon dioxide CO2 3.84 %

Page 34
 Module (Geography)

globe. beings.
(v) Ozone protects all kinds of life on the
earth from the harmful ultra violet rays
of the sun.

Structure and stratification of the

atmosphere

Variations of temperature, pressure and

density are much larger in vertical
directions than in horizontal. This
strong vertical variations result in the
The atmosphere also change atmosphere being stratified in layers
composition with height and can be that have small horizontal variability
divided into two layers. The lower layer compare to the variations in the vertical.
is called the homosphere and has the
composition we talked about earlier. It's The atmosphere can be divided into five
top is approximately the mesopause. layers according to the diversity of
temperature and density.
Above the homosphere lies the (a) Troposphere :-It is the lowest layer
heterosphere, a layer in which the gases of the atmosphere. The height of this
are stratified into four shells. The layer is about 18 kms on the equator and
lowermost shell is dominated by 8 kms on the poles. The main reason of
molecular nitrogen (N2); next, a layer of higher height at the equator is due to
atomic oxygen (O) is encountered, presence of hot convection currents that
followed by a layer dominated by helium push the gases upward.
atoms (He), and finally, a layer This is the most important layer of the
consisting of hydrogen atoms (H). atmosphere because all kinds of weather
changes take place only in this layer.
Importance of various components of Due to these changes development of
atmosphere are:- living world take place on the earth. The
air never remains static in this layer.
(i) Oxygen is very important for the Therefore this layer is called changing
living beings. sphere or
(ii) Carbon dioxide is very useful for the troposphere.
plants.
(iii) Dust particles present in the
atmosphere create suitable conditions
for the precipitation.
(iv) The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere goes on changing and
directly affects the plants and living

Page 35
 Module (Geography)

(c) Mesosphere :-It spreads above the

stratosphere upto the height of 80 kms.
from the surface of the earth. It‘s extent
is 30 kms. Temperature goes on
decreasing and drops upto – 100 C.

(d) Ionosphere :-The ionosphere lies

from about 80-400 km in height and is
electrically charged as short wave solar
radiation ionizes the gas molecules. The
electrical structure of the atmosphere is
not uniform and is arranged into three
layers, D, E, and F. Since the production
of charged particles requires solar
The environmental temperature
radiation, the thickness of each layer,
decreases with increasing height of
particularly the D and E layers, changes
atmosphere. It decreases at the rate of 1
from night to day. The layers weaken
C at the height of 165 metre. This is
and disappear at night and reappear
called Normal lapse rate.
during the day. The F layer is present
The upper limit of the troposphere is
during both day and night. This change
called tropopause. This is a transitional
in height of the various electrically
zone. In this zone characteristics of both
charged layers doesn't effect the
the troposphere and ionosphere are
weather, but does effect radio signals.
found.
The auroras also take place in the
(b) Stratosphere :-This layer lies above
ionosphere since this is the electrically
the troposphere and spread upto the
charged layer. The aurora borealis
height of 50 kms from the Earth‘s
(northern lights) and aurora australis
surface. Its average extent 40 kms.
(southern lights) is closely correlated to
The temperature remains almost the
solar flare activity.
same in the lower part of this layer upto
the height of 20 kms. After this the
(e) Exosphere:-This is the last layer of
temperature increases slowly with the
the atmosphere located above
increase in the height. The temperature
ionosphere and extends to beyond 400
increases due to the presence of ozone
km above the earth. Gases are very
gas in the upper part of this layer.
sparse in this sphere due to the lack of
Weather related incidents do not take
gravitational force. Therefore, the
place in this layer. The air blows
density of air is very less here.
horizontally here. Therefore this layer is
considered ideal for flying of aircrafts.

Page 36
 Module (Geography)

Insolation,heat budget of the earth

The ultimate source of atmospheric sun is almost overhead, the rays of the
energy is in fact heat and light received sun are vertical. The angle of incidence
through space from the Sun. This energy is large hence, they are concentrated in a
is known as solar insolation. The Earth smaller area, giving more amount of
receives only a tiny fraction of the total insolation at that place. If the sun‘s rays
amount of Sun‘s radiations. Only two are oblique, angle of incidence is small
billionths or two units of energy out of and sun‘s rays have to heat up a greater
1,00,00,00,000 units of energy radiated area, resulting in less amount of
by the sun reaches the earth‘s surface insolation received there. Secondly, the
due to its small size and great distance sun‘s rays with small angle, traverse
from the Sun. The unit of measurements more of the atmosphere, than rays
of this energy is Langley (Ly). On an striking at a large angle. Longer the path
average the earth receives 1.94 calories of sun‘s rays, greater is the amount of
per sq. cm per minute (2 Langley) at the reflection and absorption of heat by
top of its atmosphere. atmosphere. As a result the intensity of
insolation at a place is less.
Incoming solar radiation through short (ii) Duration of the day. (daily sunlight
waves is termed as insolation. The period) :-The duration of day is
amount of insolation received on the controlled partly by latitude and partly
earth‘s surface is far less than that is by the season of the year. The amount of
radiated from the sun because of the insolation has close relationship with
small size of the earth and its distance the length of the day. It is because
from the sun. Moreover water vapour, insolation is received only during the
dust particles, ozone and other gases day. Other conditions remaining the
present in the atmosphere absorb a same, the longer the days the greater is
small amount of insolation. the amount of insolation. In summers,
the days being longer the amount of
The amount of insolation received on insolation received is also more. As
the earth‘s surface is not uniform against this in winter the days are
everywhere. It varies from place to place shorter the insolation received is also
and from time to time. The tropical zone less. On account of the inclination of the
receive the maximum annual insolation. earth on its axis at an angle of 23 ½ ,
It gradually decreases towards the poles. rotation and revolution, the duration of
Insolation is more in summers and less the day is not same everywhere on the
in winters. earth. At the equator there is 12 hours
The following factors influence the day and night each throughout the year.
amount of insolation received. As one moves towards poles duration of
(i) The angle of incidence:-The angle the days keeps on increasing or
formed by the sun‘s ray with the tangent decreasing. It is why the maximum
of the earth‘s circle at a point is called insolation is received in equatorial
angle of incidence. It influences the areas.
insolation in two ways. First, when the

Page 37
 Module (Geography)

(iii) Transparency of the Earth's surface that makes it back to

atmosphere.Transparency of the space is the result of many interrelated
atmosphere: Transparency of the influences, such as the amount of cloud
atmosphere also determines the amount cover, cloud heights, characteristics of
of insolation reaching the earth‘s cloud droplets, amount and distribution
surface. The transparency depends upon of water vapor and other greenhouse
cloud cover, its thickness, dust particles gases, land features, surface
and water vapour, as they reflect, absorb temperature, and the transparency of
or transmit insolation. Thick clouds the atmosphere. In the warm tropical
hinder the insolation to reach the earth areas, low values of outgoing longwave
while clear sky helps it to reach the radiation (OLR) correspond to large
surface. Water vapour absorb insolation, amounts of high, cold clouds while high
resulting in less amount of insolation values of OLR correspond to relatively
reaching the surface. clear areas or cloudy areas with low,
warm clouds. In the extra-tropics OLR
Heat Budget values typically decrease with decreasing
temperature.
Energy emitted by the Earth's climate
system tends to maintain a balance with Let us suppose that the total heat
solar energy coming into the system. (incoming solar radiation) received at
This balance, known as the radiation the top of the atmosphere is 100 units
budget, allows the Earth to maintain the (see fig. 10.2) Roughly 35 units of it are
moderate temperature range essential reflected back into space even before
for life as we know it. reaching the surface of the earth. Out of
There is positive radiation balance these 35 units, 6 units are reflected back
between 35°S and 40°N, which drives to space from the top of the atmosphere,
the weather systems. Ocean currents 27 units reflected by clouds and 2 units
even out the difference from the snow and ice covered
When incoming short-wave solar surfaces.
radiation (Figure 3), known as
insolation, enters the Earth's climate
system, a portion of it is absorbed at the
Earth's surface, causing the surface to
heat up. Some of the absorbed energy is
then radiated outward in the form of
long-wave infrared radiation. Cloud
layers trap some of the radiation from
the Earth's surface, and then emit long-
wave radiation, both outward and back
to the surface. The temperature of the
Earth's surface is about 33°C higher due
to long-wave radiation contribution
from the atmosphere .
The amount of radiation emitted by the Out of the remaining 65 units (100-35),

Page 38
 Module (Geography)

only 51 units reach the earth‘s surface absorbed by it) back to space. Thus 65
and 14 units are absorbed by the various units of solar radiation entering the
gases, dust particles and water vapour of atmosphere are reflected back into the
the atmosphere. space. This account of incoming and
The earth in turn radiates back 51 units outgoing radiation always maintains the
in the form of terrestrial radiation. Out balance of heat on the surface of the
of these 51 units of terrestrial radiation, earth.
34 units are absorbed by the atmosphere
and the remaining 17 units directly go to
space. The atmosphere also radiates 48
units (14 units of incoming radiation
and 34 units of outgoing radiation

Horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature,

inversion of temperature
The temperature is the measurement in inclination of sun rays, which is further
degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a depends upon the latitude of the place.
place) is. At the equator sun‘s rays fall directly
The temperature of the atmosphere is overhead throughout the year. Away
not same across the Earth. It varies in from the equator towards poles, the
spatial and temporal dimensions. The inclination of the Sun‘s rays increases.
temperature of a place depends largely In conclusion, if other things remain the
on the insolation received by that place. same, the temperature of air goes on
The interaction of insolation with the decreasing from the equator towards
atmosphere and the earth‘s surface poles.
creates heat which is measured in terms
of temperature. It is important to know 2. The altitude of the place – the
about the temperature distribution over atmosphere is largely heated indirectly
the surface of the earth to understand by re-radiated terrestrial radiation from
the weather, climate, vegetation zones, the earth‘s surface. Therefore, the lower
animal and human life etc. following layers of the atmosphere are
factors determine the temperature of air comparatively warmer than the upper
at any place. layers, even in the same latitudes. For
example, Ambala (30 21‘ N) and Shimla
1. The latitude of the place – Intensity of (31 6‘) are almost at the same latitude.
insolation depends on the latitude. The But the average temperature of shimla is
amount of insolation depends on the much lower than the Ambala. It is

Page 39
 Module (Geography)

because Ambala is located in plain at an temperature is commonly shown by

altitude of 272 m above sea level ―Isotherms‖, lines connecting points
whereas Shimla is located at an altitude that have equal temperatures. An
of 2202 m above sea level. In other isotherm is made of two words ‗iso‘ and
words, the temperature generally ‗therm‘, ‗Iso‘ means equal and ‗therm‘
decreases with increasing height (figure means‖ temperature. If you study an
6(a)). The rate of decrease of isotherm map you will find that the
temperature with height is termed as the distribution of temperature is uneven.
normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 The factors responsible for the uneven
m. That‘s why, the mountains, even in distribution of temperature are as
the equatorial region, have snow follows:
covered peaks, like Mt. Kilimanjaro, (i) Latitude
Africa. (ii) Land and Sea Contrast
(iii) Relief and Altitude
3. Distance from the Sea – the land (iv) Ocean Currents
surface is heated at a faster rate than the (v) Winds
water N surface. Thus the temperature (vi) Vegetation Cover
of the air over land and water surfaces is (vii) Nature of the soil
not the same Student Notes: at a given (viii) Slope and Aspect
time. In summers, the sea water is
cooler than the land and in winters, land (b) Vertical Distribution of Temperature
is much colder than the sea water. The The permanent snow on high
coastal areas experience the sea breezes mountains, even in the tropics, indicate
during the daytime and the land breezes the decrease of temperature with
during the night time. This has a altitute. Observations reveals that there
moderating influence on the is a fairly regular decrease in
temperature of the coastal areas. Against temperature with an increase in altitude.
this the places in the interior, far away The average rate of temperature
from the sea, have extreme climate. The decrease upward in the troposphere is
daily range of temperature is less near about 6 C per km, extending to the
the coastal area and it increases with tropopause. This vertical gradient of
increase in distance from the sea coast temperature is commonly referred to as
(figure 6(b)). The low daily range of the standard atmosphere or normal
temperature is the characteristic of lapse rate, but is varies with height,
marine climate. That‘s why, the people season, latitude and other factors.
of Mumbai have hardly any idea of Indeed the actual lapse rate of
extremes of temperature. temperature does not always show a
decrease with altitude.
(a) Horizontal Distribution of
Temperature Temperature Inversion
Distribution of temperature across the
latitudes over the surface of the earth is Temperature decreases with increase in
called its horizontal distribution. On altitude. In normal conditions, as we go
maps, the horizontal distribution of up, temperature decreases with normal

Page 40
 Module (Geography)

lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m. with it cooled.

Against this normal rule sometimes,
instead of decreasing, temperature may
rise with the height gained. The cooler
air is nearer the earth and the warmer
air is aloft. This rise of temperature with
height is known as Temperature
inversion. Temperature inversion takes
place under certain specific conditions.
These are discussed below:

 Long winter nights – if in winters

the sky is clear during long
nights, the terrestrial radiation is  Dry air – humid air absorbs the
accelerated. The reason is that terrestrial radiation but dry air is
the land surface gets cooled fairly no obstruction to terrestrial
quickly. The bottom layer of radiation and allows the radiation
atmosphere in contact with the to escape into space.
ground is also cooled and the  Calm atmosphere – the blowing
upper layer remains relatively of winds bring warm and cold air
warm. into contact. Under conditions of
 Cloudless clear sky – The clouds calm atmosphere the cold air
obstruct the terrestrial radiation. stays put near the ground.
But this radiation does not face  Ice covered surface – in ice
any obstacles for being reflected covered areas due to high albedo
into space when the sky is clear. less insolation is received. During
Therefore the ground is cooled night due to terrestrial radiation
quickly and so is the air in contact most of the heat is lost to
atmosphere and the surface is
cooled. The air in contact with it
is also cooled but the upper layer
remains warm.

Air masses and fronts

Airmasses

Page 41
 Module (Geography)

An airmass is a large body of air with cold air mass advances faster and
relatively uniform thermal and moisture undercuts the warm air mass and forces
characteristics. Airmasses cover large the warm air upwards, the front so
regions of the earth, typically several formed is called cold front. The frontal
hundred thousand square kilometers. surface of cold front is steeper than that
Airmasses can be as deep as the depth of of a warm front . A prevailing air mass in
the troposphere or as shallow as 1 to 2 any region - polar, tropical, maritime or
km. continental largely controls the regions
Airmasses form when air remains over a general weather.
relatively flat region of the earth* with
homogeneous surface characteristics for Different air masses are:-
an extended period of time. ( Canadian
and Siberian plains, cool oceanic regions i. Maritime tropical (mT)
such as the North Atlantic and Pacific, ii. Continental tropical (cT)
deserts, such as the Sahara and the iii. Maritime polar (mP)
American southwest, and tropical iv. Continental polar (cP)
oceanic regions including the equatorial v. Continental arctic (cA).
Atlantic and Pacific, and smaller water
bodies such as the Caribbean Sea and Where ‗m‘ stands for Maritime; ‗c‘
the Gulf of Mexico). stands for continental; ‗T‘ stands for
tropical; ‗P‘ stands for polar and ‗A‘
Polar air masses, containing little stands for arctic region.
moisture and low temperatures move
downward from the poles. Air masses Fronts
that form over water are generally moist,
and those that form over the tropical An important properties of air is that it
oceans are both moist and warm. is a poor conductor of energy. This
Because of the Coriolis effect due to the means that when two different bodies of
Earth's rotation, air masses generally air come together, they do not readily
move across North America from west to mix. Rather, each body of air will retain
east. But, because of the differences in its individual properties, and a boundary
moisture and heat, the collision of these forms between them. When two large air
air masses can cause instability in the masses meet, the boundary that
atmosphere. separates them is called a front. Fronts
represent fairly abrupt transitions
Polar air mass is cold and tropical air between two large air masses. The
mass is warm. When cold air mass and warm, moist air might dominate an area
warm air mass blow against each other, hundreds of miles across, while in
the boundary line of convergence another part of the continent a cold, dry
separating the two air masses is termed air mass holds sway over an equally
as front. When the warm air mass, large region. However, where the two air
moves upward over the cold air mass the masses meet, the transition layer
front formed in such a situation is called between them may be only a few tens of
warm front. On the contrary, when the

Page 42
 Module (Geography)

miles across, clearly a sharp transition masses of air are pushing against each
between two massive bodies of air. other but neither is powerful enough to
move the other. Winds blowing parallel
Fronts are recognized by the following to the front instead of perpendicular can
properties:- help it stay
in
 Sharp temperature changes over
a relatively short distance.
Sometimes change of 10 to 20 C
may be observed.
 Change in moisture content
 Rapid shifts in wind direction
 Pressure changes
 Clouds and precipitation patterns

Types of Fronts:- place.

Warm Fronts: A warm front occurs Occluded Fronts:- Sometimes a cold
when a warm air mass advances and front follows right behind a warm front.
replaces a cold air mass. On a weather A warm air mass pushes into a colder air
map, a warm front is depicted as a red mass (the warm front) and then another
arc, with red semicircles pointing in the cold air mass pushes into the warm air
direction of the advancing warm air. mass (the cold front). Because cold
fronts move faster, the cold front is
Cold Fronts :-A cold front occurs when a likely to overtake the warm front. This is
mass of cold air advances into a region known as an occluded front
of warmer air.

Stationary Fronts:- A stationary front

forms when a cold front or warm front
stops moving. This happens when two

Tropical and temperate cyclones

The atmospheric disturbances which southern hemisphere are called
involve a closed circulation about a low cyclones. They fall into the following two
pressure centre, broad categories: (a) Extra-tropical or
anticlockwise in the northern Temperate and (b) tropical cyclones.
atmosphere and clockwise in the

Page 43
 Module (Geography)

(a) Temperate Cyclones generally occur in Mexico, South-

Temperate cyclones are formed along a Western and North Pacific Ocean, North
front in mid-latitudes between 35° and Indian Ocean and South Pacific
65° N and S. They blow from west to
east and are more pronounced in winter
season.Temperate

Ocean.
These cyclones differ from temperate
cyclones in many ways. There are no
cyclones clear warm and cold
are mainly observed in Atlantic Ocean fronts as temperature seldom differs in
and North West Europe . They are Inter Tropical Convergence Zone. They
generally extensive having a thickness of do not have well-defined pattern of
9 to 11 kilometers and with 1040-1920 winds and are energised by convectional
km short and long diametres currents within them. Generally, these
respectively. Each such cyclone are shallow depressions and the velocity
alternates with a high pressure of winds is weak. These are not
anticyclone. The weather associated accompanied by anticyclones. The
with the cyclone is drizzling rain and of arrangement of isobars is almost
cloudy nature for number of days. The circular. These are not extensive and
anticyclone weather is sunny, calm and have the diametres of 160-640km.
of cold waves. However, a few of them become very
(b) Tropical Cyclones violent and cause destruction in the
Tropical cyclones are formed along the regions of their influence. They are
zone of confluence of north-east and called hurricanes in the Carribean Sea,
south-east trade winds. This zone is typhoons in the China, Japan and
known as the Inter Tropical phillipines,
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Cyclones

Evaporation and Condensation: dew, frost, fog, mist

and cloud, rainfall types

Page 44
 Module (Geography)

Evaporation

Evaporation is the process of which wind keep blowing saturated air away
water changes from its liquid state to and bring drier air.
gaseous form. This process takes place (v) Cloud cover :-The cloud cover
at all places, at all times and at all prevents solar radiation and thus
temperatures except at dew point or influences the air temperatures at a
when the air is saturated. The rate of place. This way, it indirectly controls the
evaporation is affected by several process of evaporation.
factors. Important among them are as
under: Condensation
(i) Accessibility of water bodies :-The
rate of evaporation is higher over the Condensation the process by which
oceans than on the continents. water vapor (gas) in the atmosphere
(ii) Temperature :-when the turns into water (liquid state). It is the
temperature of an air is high, it is opposite of evaporation. This stage is
capable of holding more moisture in its very important because it is the cloud
body than at a low temperature. It is formation stage. Cool temperatures are
because of this that the rate of essential for condensation to happen,
evaporation is more in summers than in because as long as the temperature in
winters. That is why wet clothes dry the atmosphere is high, it can hold the
faster in summers than in winters. water vapor and delay condensation.
(iii) Air moisture :-If the relative
humidity of a sample of air is high, it is When a gas is cooled sufficiently or, in
capable of holding less moisture. On the many cases, when the pressure on the
other hand if the relative humidity is gas is increased sufficiently, the forces of
less, it can take more moisture. Hence, attraction between molecules prevent
the rate of evaporation will be high. them from moving apart, and the gas
Aridity or dryness of the air also condenses to either a liquid or a solid.
increases the rate of evaporation. During
rainy days, wet clothes take more time  Example: Water vapor condenses
to dry owing to the high percentage of and forms liquid water (sweat) on
moisture content in the air, than on dry the outside of a cold glass or can.
days.  Example: Liquid carbon dioxide
(iv) Wind :-If there is no wind, the air forms at the high pressure inside
which overlies a water surface will get a CO2 fire extinguisher.
saturated through evaporation. This
evaporation will cease once saturation The temperature of the air falls in two
point is reached. However, if there is ways. Firstly, cooling occurs around very
wind, it will blow that saturated or small particles of freely floating air when
nearly saturated air away from the it comes in contact with some colder
evaporating surface and replace it with object. Secondly, loss in air temperature
air of lower humidity. This allows takes place on a massive scale due to
evaporation to continue as long as the rising of air to higher altitudes. The

Page 45
 Module (Geography)

condensation takes place around the distinctive mottled effect upon the
smoke, salt and dust particles which quilting.
attract water vapour to condense around
them. They are called hygroscopic
nuclei. When the relative humidity of an
air is high, a slight cooling is required to Dew, Frost, Fog, Mist and Cloud
bring the temperature down below dew
point. But when the relative humidity is Dew: When the atmospheric moisture is
low and the temperature of the air is condensed and deposited in the form of
high, a lot of cooling of the air will be water droplets on cooler surface of solid
necessary to bring the temperature objects such as grass blades, leaves of
down below dew point. Thus, plants and trees and stones, it is termed
condensation is directly related to the as dew. Condensation in dew form
relative humidity and the rate of cooling. occurs when there is clear sky, little or
no wind, high relative humidity and cold
here are four types of condensation and long nights. These conditions lead to
the worst period for such problems is greater terrestrial radiation and the
September to May:- solid objects become cold enough to
bring the temperature of air down below
1. Surface condensation. This is the most dew point. In this process the extra
familiar type of condensation, taking the moisture of the air gets deposited on
form of water on window panes, cold these objects. Dew is formed when dew
wall surfaces and tiles. point is above freezing point. Dew
formation can be seen if the water is
2. Interstitial condensation. This is poured into a glass from the bottle kept
condensation forming between walls or in a refrigerator. The outer cold surface
within the building structure. of the glass brings the temperature of
the air in contact with the surface down
3. Reverse condensation. This is also below dew point and extra moisture gets
called ―Summer condensation‖. If rains deposited on the outer wall of the glass.
drenches a wall and strong sunlight then Frost: When the dew point is below
dries it, the heat can actually force water freezing point, under above mentioned
vapour into the wall. When it then meets conditions, the condensation of extra
an insulated surface, it forms moisture takes place in the form of very
condensation at that barrier. minute particles of ice crystals. It is
called frost. In this process, the air
4. Radiation condensation. This is moisture condenses directly in the form
sometimes called ―clear night of tiny crystal of ice. This form of
condensation―. If there is a sudden condensation is disastrous for standing
temperature drop at night, it can cause crops such as potato, peas, pulses,
condensation on the underside of roof grams, etc. It also creates problems for
coverings, for example: often this drips road transport system.
onto the insulation quilting and causes a Mist and Fog: When condensation takes
place in the air near the earth‘s surface

Page 46
 Module (Geography)

in the form of tiny droplets of water humid air starts falling

hanging and floating in the air, it is below dew point
called mist. In mist the visibility is more continuously, clouds are
than one kilometer and less than two formed. These clouds
kilometers. But when the visibility is cause heavy rainfall which
reduced to less than one kilometer, it is is associated with lightning
called fog. Ideal conditions for the and thunder. This type of
formation of mist and fog are clear sky, rainfall is called
calm and cold winter nights. conventional rainfall. It is
Cloud: Clouds are visible aggregates of very common in equatorial
water droplets, ice particles, or a region where it is a daily
mixture of both along with varying phenomenon in the
amounts of dust particles. A typical afternoon
cloud contains billions of droplets (b) Orographic or Relief
having diameters on the or- der 060.01 Rainfall :-Orographic
to 0.02 mm; yet liquid or solid water rainfall on formed where
accounts for less than 10 parts per air rises and cools because
million of the cloud volume. Clouds are of a topographic barrier.
generally classified on the basis of their When their temperature
general form or appearance and alti- fall below dew point,
tude. clouds are formed. These
clouds cause widespread
Rainfall types. rain on the windward
slopes of the mountain
Precipitation or Rainfall is defined as range. This type of rain
water in liquid or solid forms falling to is called orographic
the earth. It happens when continuous rainfall. However when
condensation in the body of air helps the these winds cross over the
water droplets or ice crystals to grow in mountain range and
size and weight that the air cannot hold descend along the leeward
them and as a result these starts falling slopes, they get warm and
on the ground under the force of gravity. cause little rain. Region
lying on the leeward side
Different types of Rainfall are:- of the mountain receiving
little rain is called
(a) Convectional Rainfall :- rainshadow area (see
Excessive heating of the figure 12.4). A famous
earth‘s surface in tropical example of orographic
region results in the rainfall is Cherrapunji on
vertical air currents. These the southern margin of the
currents, lift the warm Khasi Hills in Meghalaya
moist air to higher strata India.
of atmosphere. When-the (c) Convergence or
temperature of such a Cyclonic Rainfall:-

Page 47
 Module (Geography)

Convergence rainfall, densities and temperature

produced where air meet, the warmer moist air
currents converge and rise. mass is lifted above the
In tropical regions where colder one. When this
opposing air currents have happens, the rising warm
comparable temperatures, air mass condenses to
the lifting is more or less form clouds which cause
vertical and is usually extensive down pour. This
accompanied by con- rainfall is associated with
vention. Convectioned thunder and lightning.
activity frequently occurs ‗This type of rainfall is also
along fronts where the called frontal rainfall. This
temperature of the air type of rainfall is
masses concerned are associated with both warm
quite different. Mixing of and cold fronts, (fig. 12.5)
air along the front also It is gener- ally steady and
probably contributes to may persist for a whole
condensation and day or even longer.
therefore to the frontal
rainfall. When two large
air masses of different

Classification of climates, (Koppen and Thornthwaite)

Climatic Regions of India : Koeppen’s Classification
Climate
Climatic Region Annual Rainfall in the Region
Type
Amw
(Monsoon
type with Western coastal region,
over 300 cm
shorter dry south of Mumbai
winter
season)

Page 48
 Module (Geography)

As
(Monsoon
Coromandel coast = Coastal 75 – 100 cm
type with
Tamil Nadu and adjoining
dry season
areas of Andhra Pradesh [wet winters, dry summers]
in high sun
period)
Aw
Most parts of the peninsular
(Tropical
plateau barring Coromandel 75 cm
Savanah
and Malabar coastal strips
type)
Some rain shadow areas of
BShw Western Ghats, large part of
(Semi-arid Rajasthan and contiguous 12 to 25 cm
Steppe type) areas of Haryana and
Gujarat
BWhw
(Hot desert Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm
type)
Cwg Most parts of the Ganga
(Monsoon Plain, eastern Rajasthan,
100 – 200 cm
type with Assam and in Malwa
dry winters) Plateau
Dfc
(Cold,
Humid Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
~200 cm
winters type and parts of Assam
with shorter
summer)
Mountain areas of
Et Uttarakhand
(Tundra Rainfall varies from year to year.
Type) The average temperature
varies from 0 to 10°C
Higher areas of Jammu &
Kashmir and Himachal
E
Pradesh in which the
(Polar Precipitation occurs in the form of snow
temperature of the warmest
Type)
month varies from 0° to
10°C

Page 49
Module (Geography)

Page 50
 Module (Geography)

Climatic Regions of India : Trewartha’s Classification

Climate Type Climatic Region Other Cliamatic Condtions

Am 200 cm annual rainfall &
Western coastal region, Sahayadris
(Tropical Rain
and parts of Assam
Forest) 18.2 C to 29 C temperature
Aw
Peninsular India except the semi 150 cm annual rainfall & 18 C-32
(Tropical arid zone C temperature
Savanna)
Aw Most parts of the peninsular
(Tropical plateau barring Coromandel and 75 cm
Savanah type) Malabar coastal strips
BS Runs southwards from central
40-75 cm annual rainfall & 20-32 C
(Semi-arid Maharashtra to Tamilnadu, Andhra
temperature
Steppe type) Pradesh
BSh
(Tropical and Annual temperature 35 C & 30-60
Ranges from Punjab to Kutch
subtropical cm annual rainfall
Steppe)
BWh Western parts of Barmer, Jaiselmer Annual Temperature 35 C & annual
(Tropical Desert) and Bikaner and parts of Kutch rainfall 25 cm
Caw

(Humid
It ranges from Punjab to Assam Rainfall from 100-150 cm
Subtropical
Climate with dry
winters)
Mountain areas of Himalayas
H (Mountain The average temperature varies
including Jammu & Kashmir,
Climate) from 0 to 10°C.
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,

Page 51
 Module (Geography)

Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh

Page 52
 Module (Geography)

Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth's surface. When the
Sun's energy reaches the Earth's atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and
the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. It is the process by which
radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the planet's surface to a temperature above
what it would be without its atmosphere. If a planet's atmosphere contains radioactively
active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions.

The greenhouse effect comes from molecules that are more complex and much less
common. Water vapour is the most important greenhouse gas, and carbon dioxide
(CO2) is the second-most important one. Methane, nitrous oxide, ozone and several
other gases present in the atmosphere in small amounts also contribute to the
greenhouse effect. In the humid equatorial regions, where there is so much water vapour
in the air that the greenhouse effect is very large, adding a small additional amount of
CO2 or water vapour has only a small direct impact on downward infrared radiation.
However, in the cold, dry polar regions, the effect of a small increase in CO2 or water
vapour is much greater. The same is true for the cold, dry upper atmosphere where a
small increase in water vapour has a greater influence on the greenhouse effect than the
same change in water vapour would have near the surface.

Green house effects changes are due to:-

 Energy;
 Industry;
 Agriculture;
 Waste; and
 Land Use Land Use Change

Page 53
 Module (Geography)

Global warming

 An increase in the average temperature of Earth‘s near surface air and oceans since the
mid-20th century
 4th assessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 74+0.18 degree C during
the 20th century.
 Caused by greenhouse gases
o Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of
abundance)
 Since the industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2
in the atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm.

Climatic changes
 It is the long term change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over
periods of time
 Though it has been happening naturally for millions of years, in recent years it
has accelerated due to anthropogenic causes and has been causing global
warming.
 UNFCCC defines climate change as – ―a change of climate which is attributed
directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods‖

Page 54
 Module (Geography)

(x) Hydrological cycle, distribution of temperature and

solicits in the oceans and seas, waves,tides and
currents, ocean floor relief features,

Structure, relief and physiographic divisions

Three Geological divisions:

1. The peninsular block

2. The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
3. Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain

 Peninsualar block is made of gneisses (metamorphic) and granites (igneous).

Six physiographic divisions:

1. The Northern and North-eastern Mountains

2. The Northern Plain
3. The Peninsular Plateau
4. The Indian Desert
5. The Coastal Plains
6. The Islands

Page 55
 Module (Geography)

Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

Approximate length of the Great Himalayan range: 2500 KM. Width: 160-400 KM

Impact of Himalayas on the climate of India?

It can be divided into five sub-divisions:

1. Kashmir (or Northwestern) Himalayas

2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
4. Arunachal Himalayas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains

Kashmir Himalayas

 Ranges: Karakoram, Ladhakh, Zaskar, Pir Pinjal

 Glaciers: Baltoro, Siachen
 Passes: Zoji La (Great Himalayas), Banihal (Pir Pinjal), Photu La (Zaskar) and Khardung
La (Ladakh)
 Lakes: (freshwater) Dal and Wular; (saltwater) Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri
 Pilgrimage: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar-e-Sharif
 They are also famous for Karewa formations which are useful for the cultivation of
Zafran (a local variety of Saffron). Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other
materials embedded with moraines.

Page 56
 Module (Geography)

 Kashmir is located on the banks of Jhelum river.

 Meanders is a typical feature associated with the rivers in this region.
 In South, there are longitudinal valleys called duns; Jammu dun and Pathankot dun

Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas

 Lies between rivers Ravi and Kali

 Drained by two major river systems: Indus and Ganga
 Northernmost part is an extension of the Ladakh desert, lies in Spiti.
 Ranges: Great Himalayan Range, Lesser Himalayas (Dhaoladhar in HP and Nagtibha in
Uttarakhand), Shivalik range
 Pilgrimage: Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath, Hemkund Sahib and the five
famous prayags (Refer to Panch Prayag)
 Famous for hill stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani; Cantt.: Kasauli,
Almora, Lansdowne, Ranikhet
 The important distinguishing features of this area are the ‗Shivalik‘ and ‗Dun
formations‘.
 Important duns: Chandigarh-Kalka, Nalagarh, Dehra, Harike, Kota
 Dehradun is the largest of all duns: Length – 35-45 KM, Width: 22-25 KM
 Inhabited with the Bhotia They migrate to higher reaches (Bugyals) in summer and
return to the valleys during winters.

Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas

 Between Nepal Himalayas and Bhutan Himalayas.

 Fast flowing rivers such as Tista
 Peaks: Kanchenjunga
 Tribe: Lepcha
 Has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and tribals from Central India.
 Importance: Due to the moderate slope, it is best suited for tea plantations. <India
produces about 26 pc of tea in the world; second after China. Also, accounts for 12 pc of
tea exports; fourth in the world.>
 Duar formations are peculiar to this region.

Arunachal Himalayas

 From Bhutan Himalayas to Diphu pass in the east.

 Direction: Southwest to Northeast
 Peaks: Kangtu and Namya Barwa
 Rivers: Brahmaputra, Kameng, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.

Page 57
 Module (Geography)

 These rivers are perennial and have the highest hydro-electric power potential in
the country.
 Tribes: Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and Nagas
 These communities practice shifting cultivation known as Jhumming.

Eastern Hills and Mountains

 Direction: North to South

 Ranges: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills, Mizo or Lushai hills
 These are low hills
 Tribes practice Jhum cultivation
 Rivers: Barak. Most of the Nagaland rivers form a tributary of Brahmaputra. Rivers in
eastern Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of the
Irrawady of Myanmar.
 Lake: Loktak
 Loktak Lake: is an important lake in Manipur which is surrounded by mountains on all
sides. It is the largest freshwater lake in northeastern India. Also called the
only Floating Lake in the world due to floating masses of organic matter on it. It serves
as a source for hydropower generation, irrigation and drinking water supply.
 Keibul Kamjao National Park located in the Bishnupur district of Manipur is the only
floating park in the world and is an integral part of the Loktak Lake. Home to the
endangered Manipur Eld‘s Deer or Brow-antlered Deer or Sangai or Dancing Deer.
 Mizoram is also known as the ‗Molassis basin‘ which is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits.

The Northern Plains

 Formed by the alluvial deposits of rivers – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.

 Length: 3200 KM; Width: 150-300 KM

Three main zones:

1. Bhabar
2. Tarai
3. Alluvial Plains (Khadar and Bangar)

Bhabar

 Narrow belt. 8-10 KM wide.

 Paralllel to Shivalik at the break-up of the slope. Hence, streams and rivers deposit heavy
rocks (and at times disappear) in this zone.

Page 58
 Module (Geography)

Tarai

 South of Bhabar. 10-20 KM wide.

 Rivers re-emerge and create marshy and swampy conditions known as Tarai.

Alluvial Belt

 South of Tarai.
 Features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand
bars, meanders, ox-bow lakes and braided channels. Riverine islands in Brahmaputra.
 Brahmaputra takes a turn an almost 90 degree turn at Dhubri (Assam) before entering
Bangladesh.

Peninsular Plateau

 Bounded by the Delhi ridge, Rajmahal Hills, Gir range and Cardamom hills.
 Made up of a series of patland plateaus: Hazaribagh, Palamu, Ranchi, Malwa,
Coimbatore, Karnataka etc.
 One of the oldest and most stable landmass of India.
 Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures,
hummocky hills and quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
 Black soil in western and northwestern parts.
 Bhima fault in this region has frequent seismic activity (Lathur earthquake)
 NW part also has ravines and gorges: Chambal, Bhind and Morena.

Three broad regions:

1. Deccan Plateau
2. Central Highlands
3. Northwestern Plateau

Deccan Plateau

 Bordered by Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills

 Important ranges: WG: Sahyadri, Nilgiri, Anaimalai and Caradamom hills; EG: Javadi
hills, Palconda range, Nallamala Hills, Mahendragiri hills
 EG and WG meet at Nilgiri hills.
 Highest peak: Anaimudi (2695 m) on Anaimalai hills; Dodabetta (2637 m) on Nilgiri
hills.
 Rivers: Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri etc.

Central Highlands

Page 59
 Module (Geography)

 Bounded by the Aravali and Satpura range.

 Relic mountains, highly denuded and form discontinuous ranges.
 Near Jaisalmer it is covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand
dunes called barchans.
 Elevation: 700-1000 m
 Banas, a tributary of Chambal, originates in the Aravalli. Other tributaries of Yamuna
originate from the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
 Minerals in Chotanagpur plateau.

Northeastern Plateau

 Extension of the main Peninsular plateau.

 Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau.
 Megahalaya plateau: Garo hills, Khasi hills and Jaintia hills (named after the tribals
inhabiting the region)
 Rich in minerals like coal, iron, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
 Receives maximum rainfall from SW monsoon. Hence, Meghalaya plateau has a highly
eroded surface. Cherrapuni and Myswarnam.

Indian Desert

 Aka Marusthali
 Northwest of the Aravali hills
 Dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
 Low rainfall: >150 mm per year Low vegetation cover
 Evidence that this area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era.
 Features: mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis.
 Rivers are ephemeral: Luni. Brackish lakes. Inland drainage.

Coastal Plains

Two divisions:

1. Western coastal plains

2. Eastern Coastal Plains

Western Coastal Plains

Page 60
 Module (Geography)

 Submerged coastal plain. Hence, a narrow belt. Narrow in middle and broader towards
north and south.
 Ports: Provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours due to
submergence. Kandla, Mazagaon (Mumbai), JLN port Navha Sheva, Maramagao,
Mangalore, Cochin etc.
 Mumbai has the world‘s largest natural harbour.
 May be divided into: Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat, Konkan coast, Goan coast
and Malabar coast.
 Rivers don‘t form delta.
 Kayals (Backwaters): Found in the Malabar coast. Used for fishing and inland
navigation. Every year Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada
Kayal in Kerala.

Eastern Coastal Plains

 Broader
 Emergent coast. Hence, less number of ports and harbours. Chennai, Vizag, Paradwip,
Haldia.
 Delta formation

The Islands

Two major Divisions:

1. Andaman and Nicobar

2. Lakshwadeep & Minicoy

Andaman and Nicobar

 Two major island groups: Ritchie‘s archipelago and the Labrynth island.
 The group is divided into: Andaman in the North and Nicobar in the South.
 Andaman and Nicobar separated by the Ten Degree channel.
 Barren Island
 Peaks: Saddle Peak (N.Andaman – 738 m), Mt. Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mt.
Koyob (S Andaman – 460 m) and Mt. Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
 Coral deposits found
 Convectional rainfalls and equatorial type of vegetation.

Lakshadweep and Minicoy

Page 61
 Module (Geography)

 Entire group built of coral deposits.

 Total of 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
 Smallest UT
 Minicoy is the largest island
 Separated by the 9 Degree Channel, north of which is the Amini Island and to the south
Canannore island.
 These islands have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles
and boulders.

Drainage Systems Himalayan and the Peninsular

Drainage: Flow of water through well-defined channels. Network of such channels is
called a drainage system .

Drainage basin: An area drained by a river and its tributaries.

Watershed: Boundary line separating one drainage basin from other.

River basins are larger watersheds.

Drainage pattern of an area depends on the geological time period, nature and structure
of rocks, topography, rocks, slope, amount of water and periodicity of flow.

Important drainage patterns:

1. Dendritic: Resembling the branches of a tree. Eg. Northern Plain rivers

2. Radial: Originate from a hill and flow in all directions. Eg. Rivers in Amarkantak
3. Trellis: Primary tributaries parallel to each other and secondary tributaries join them at
right angles.
4. Centripetal: Rivers discharge waters from all directions in a lake or depression

A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment
area.

Nearly 77 pc of drainage is towards the Bay of Bengal while about 23 pc is towards the
Arabian Sea.

The Himalayan Drainage System

Mainly includes the Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra river basins.

Page 62
 Module (Geography)

Over the plains, rivers of this system change the course often. River Kosi is also known
as the ‗sorrow of Bihar‘ due to flooding by its frequent change of course by deposition of
sediments.

Evolution

Geologists believe that a mighty river called Shivalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the
entire length of the Himalayas some 5-24 million years ago. Over time this got
dismembered into the present three major river systems.

The Indus System

Indus river originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in Tibet in the Kailash Mountain
range. Known as Singi Khamban (Lion‘s mouth) in Tibet. It forms a spectacular gorge
near Gilgit in J&K. Enters Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region. Flows only
through the Leh distt of J&K.

Smaller tributaries: Shyok, Gilgit, Zaskar, Nubra, Hunza, Shigar, Gasting, Dras. On right
bank: Kabul river, Khurram, Tochi, Gomal, Viboa and hte Sangar.

Major tributaries: Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum

Origin: Verinag at foot of Pir Pinjal.

Jhelum
Flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake. Joins Chenab near Jhang
in Pakistan
Origin: Two streams (Chandra and Bhaga) which join at Tandi near
Keylong in HP.
Chenab
Largest tributary of Indus. Aka Chandrabhaga. Flows for 1180 KM
before entering Pakistan
Origin: Kullu hills of HP near Rohtang Pass. Enters Pakistan and joins
Ravi
Chenab near Sarai Sidhu

Origin: Beas Kund near Rohtang pass.

Beas
Forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. Meets
Satluj near Harike.
Origin: Rakas lake near Mansarowar in Tibet. Known as Langchen
Satluj Khambab in Tibet.

Enters India at Ropar. Antecedent river. Bhakra Nangal Project is on

Page 63
 Module (Geography)

this river.

The Ganga System

It is the largest river system in India.

Ganga rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh in the Uttarkashi district. Here it is
known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, Bhagirathi meets Alaknanda and is known as
Ganga hereafter.

Panchprayag

Joshimath
Vishnu Ganga
Dhauli and Vishnu Ganga meet to form Alaknanda

Page 64
 Module (Geography)

Origin: Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Consists of Dhauli and Vishnu

Alaknanda
Ganga.

Origin: Yamnotri glacier on Banderpunch range. Joins Ganga at

Prayag (Allahabad).

Yamuna RBT: Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken

LBT: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, Varuna.

Agra canal
Origin: Mhow in Malwa plateau.
Chambal
Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam.

Famour for Chambal ravines.

Origin: In Nepal between Dhaulgiri and Mt. Everest. Enters Ganga
plain in Champaran and joins Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
Gandak
Two streams: Kaliganfak and Trishulganga.

Origin: Glaciers of Mapchachungo

Tributaries: Tila, Seti and Beri

Ghaghra
Deep gorge at Shishpani

Sarda (Kali) joint it and meet Ganga at Chhapra.

Page 65
 Module (Geography)

Origin: North of Mt. Everest in Tibet.

Kosi
Tributaties: Son Kosi, Tamur Kosi, Arun

Changes course often. Sorrow of Bihar.

Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.

Left Bank tributaries (LBT): Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and
Mahananda.

Right Bank tributaries (RBT): Son

Discharges into Bay of Bengal near Sagar island.

Indian monsoon, mechanism, onset and retreat

The word ―monsoon‖ comes from the Arabic word mausim, meaning season.Monsoons
refer to a system of winds in the tropical regions under which the direction of winds is
reversed completely between the summer and the winter seasons. Under this system,
the winds blow from land to sea in winter and from sea to land in summer. Therefore,
most of the rainfall in the regions influenced by the monsoons is received in the summer
season while winter season is generally dry.

Due to a higher temperature over the land in summer, a low pressure area develops over
the continents and the winds blow from neighbouring oceans towards the land. These
winds are of maritime origin and hence cause ample rainfall in summer. On the other
hand, the continents become colder than the neighboring oceans in winter. As a result a
high pressure area is developed
over the continents. Therefore, winds blow from land to sea in winter. These winds,
being of continental origin, are dry and do not cause rain.

Role of Jet streams, Tibet Plateau and atmosphere-ocean circulation is of prime

importance for the origin of Indian Monsoon.During this summer season the vertical

Page 66
 Module (Geography)

sun rays at tropic of cancer ,the circum polar whirl along with westerly jet stream
weakened and shifted northward of the Himalayas and southern branch of this jet
stream disappeared by 6-10 June. This removal of westerly jet stream to the north of
Tibet plateau leads to reversal of curvature of flow of free air to the north and northwest
of the subcontinent. It further leads to development of dynamic depression overlying the
thermal depression already established at the surface of northwest Indian subcontinent
which ultimately help to trigger the burst of Indian monsoon along with it vigorous
advance over the Indian subcontinent.

As long as the position of upper air jet stream is maintained above the surface low
pressure to the south of the Himalayas the dynamic anticyclonic conditions persist in
the northwestern part of Indian subcontinent which obstruct the ascent of air from the
surface low as the air is continuously descending from the above. This is the reason why
the months of April, May and June are dry inspite of high temperature and evaporation
while upper air low pressure in the east of the Himalayas over Myanmar, Assam and
Bangladesh helps in ascend of air and produce rainfall.

During October and November, the high pressure over northern lndia, the winds start
blowing from northeast as retreating monsoons. Clear skies and the increase in mercury
northern plains is observed which is termed as ‗October heat‘. At this time, the low
pressure conditions shift to the Bay of Bengal giving rise to cyclonic depressions. These
cyclonic depressions often results in the destruction of life and property generally on the
eastern coast and the southern coast. Most of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
derived from depressions and cyclones.

Page 67
 Module (Geography)

Green Revolution and its impact on major crops of India

The Green Revolution was initiated in the 1960‘s to address the issue of malnutrition in
the developing world. The technology of the Green Revolution involved bio-engineered
seeds that worked in conjunction with chemical fertilizers and heavy irrigation to
increase crop yields.

Green Revolution was largely confined in wheat crop and in northern India such as
Punjab, resulting in a limited contribution to overall economic development of the
country. On the contrary, the agricultural growth in the 1980s (the second wave of the
Green Revolution) involved almost all the crops including rice and covered the whole
country, it enabled to raise rural income and alleviate rural poverty substantially. Such a
rise of rural India as a "market‟ for non-agricultural products and services was an
important pre-requisite for the rapid economic growth based on non-agricultural
sectors‟ development in India after the 1990s.

Green Revolution is based on:-

(i) improved seeds of high yielding varieties,

(ii) adequate and assured supply of water for irrigation, and

Page 68
 Module (Geography)

(iii) increased and appropriate application of chemical fertilizers for increasing

agricultural production.

India has failed to extend the concept of high-yield value seeds to all crops or all regions.
In terms of crops, it remain largely confined to foodgrains only, not to all kinds of
agricultural produce. In regional terms, only Punjab and Haryana states showed the best
results of the Green Revolution. The eastern plains of the River Ganges in West Bengal
state also showed reasonably good results. But results were less impressive in other
parts of India. Those states which were originally rich derived the benefits of Green
Revolution, e.g., Punjab, Haryana and Western U.P. As the benefits of new technology
concentrated mainly in these areas, other Indian states could not match them.

Food scarcity
According to FAO Food Security is "a situation in which all people at all times have
access to adequate quantities of safe and nutritious food to lead a healthy and active
life".

This definition requires three basic conditions to be met:

1) adequacy, i.e. supplies from domestic production, stocks and imports are sufficient to
meet the nation's needs,

2) availability i.e. stability of supply both spatially and temporally throughout the year
and

3) access, i.e. the population has sufficient purchasing power to gain access to its food
needs.

India is one of the few countries which have experimented with a broad spectrum of
programmes for improving food security. It has already made substantial progress in
terms of overcoming transient food insecurity by giving priority to self-sufficiency in
foodgrains and through procurement and public distribution of foodgrains, employment
programmes, etc. However, despite a significant reduction in the incidence of poverty
chronic food insecurity persists in a large proportion of India‘s population.

The range of adverse events, including reduced freshwater availability and more
frequent extreme weather events, will considerably increase the risks for more efficient
crop production and livestock management. Climate change is also likely to affect soil

Page 69
 Module (Geography)

quality by depleting organic matter – a major contributor to soil fertility. In extreme

cases, the degradation of the agricultural ecosystems could mean desertification,
resulting in a total loss of the productive capacity of the land in question.

Food security is a multidimensional concept covering even the micro level household
food security,energy intakes and indicators of malnutrition.

Major components of food security are:-

1. Production and Procurement

2. Storage
3. Distribution

Indian Agriculture is rightly called as a gamble with Monsoon, variability in food

production and rising population creates food insecurity in the nation and worst
effected are the downtrodden section of the society.

While India has seen impressive economic growth in recent years, the country still
struggles with widespread poverty and hunger. India‘s poor population amounts to
more than 300 million people, with almost 30 percent of India‘s rural population living
in poverty. The good news is, poverty has been on the decline in recent years. According
to official government of India estimates, poverty declined from 37.2% in 2004-05 to
29.8% in 2009-10.

Need for Self-Sufficiency:

India suffered two very severe droughts in 1965 and 1966. Food Aid to India was
restricted to a monthly basis by USA under the P.L. 480 programme. The Green
Revolution made a significant change in the scene. India achieved self-sufficiency in
food grains by the year 1976 through the implementation of the seed- water-fertilizer
policy adopted by the Government of India.

Food grain production increased four-fold during 1950-51 and 2001-2002 from 51
million tons to 212 million tones. The country is no longer exposed to real famines. But
the regional variation in the success of Green Revolution which was chiefly limited to
northern- Western states has lead to the divide in the nation. Evergreen revoloution and
Bringing green revolution to eastern India is the need of the hour.

Green revolution was focused on wheat and rice and thus the production of pulses was
stagnant.

National Food Security Mission comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase the
production of rice by 10 million tons, wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million
tons by the end of the Eleventh Plan (2011-12). The Mission is being continued during

Page 70
 Module (Geography)

12th Five Year Plan with new targets of additional production of food grains of 25
million tons of food grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 million tons of wheat, 4
million tons of pulses and 3 million tons of coarse cereals by the end of 12th Five Year
Plan.
The National Food Security Mission (NFSM) during the 12th Five Year Plan will have
five components

(i) NFSM- Rice;

(ii) NFSM-Wheat;

(iii) NFSM-Pulses,

(iv) NFSM-Coarse cereals and

(v) NFSM-Commercial Crops.

Government through Public Distribution System has tried to counter the problem of
food insecurity by providing the food grains through fair price shops.

The central Government through Food Corporation of India has assumed the
responsibilities of procurement,storage,transfer and bulk allocation of food grains to
state governments.

The public distribution system (PDS) has played

an important role in attaining higher levels of the household food security and
completely eliminating the threats of famines from the face of the country, it will be in
the fitness of things that its evolution, working and efficacy are examined in some
details.

PDS was initiated as a deliberate social policy of the government with the objectives of:

i) Providing foodgrains and other essential items to vulnerable sections of the society at
resonable (subsidised) prices;

Page 71
 Module (Geography)

ii) to have a moderating influence on the open market prices of cereals, the distribution
of which constitutes a fairly big share of the total marketable surplus; and

iii) to attempt socialisation in the matter of distribution of essential commodities.

The focus of the Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS) is on ―poor in all areas‖
and TPDS involves issue of 35 Kg of food grains per family per month for the
population Below Poverty Line (BPL) at specially subsidized prices. The TPDS requires
the states to Formulate and implement :-

1. foolproof arrangements for identification of poor,

2. Effective delivery of food grains to Fair Price Shops (FPSs)
3. Its distribution in a transparent and accountable manner at the FPS level.

Natural Vegetation-Forest types and distribution, wild

life, conservation, biosphere reserves
In India, at present forest areas cover about 76.5 million hectares of land, which is about
23 per cent of the total geographical area. It ranges from about 87 per cent in Andaman
& Nicobar Islands to only about 4 percent in Haryana making to range difference of 83
percent. According to our National Forest Policy, 33% of the total geographical area of
the country should be under the forest cover to maintain ecological balance.
Unfortunately, it is below the norm outlined in our forest policy. The vegetation found in
India can be divided into six main types. They are tropical evergreen forests, tropical
deciduous forests, thorn forests, tidal forests and mountain forests.

Tropical Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North –
eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where
the monsoon period lasts for several months.

Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that
lasts for only a few months. Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type.
The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months.

Page 72
 Module (Geography)

Dry tropical thorn forest occurs in areas of low rainfall. Forest types are saprophytic in
nature. Trees are shorter than deciduous type. These forests mostly occur in the scanty
rainfall region of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. Most of the species are ‗acacia‘ type.

Tidal Forests grow along the coast especially in the river deltas. These plants are
uniquely adapted to be able to grow in a mix of saline and freshwater. They grow
luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the rivers have brought down. The
mangrove trees have breathing roots that emerge from the mud banks.

Conservation of Biodiversity and Wildlife

Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the variety of all life forms.Sum total of all the
variety of living organisms on earth constitute biodiversity. There are three levels of
biodiversity:

 genetic diversity—the variety of genetic information contained in individual

plants, animals and micro-organisms
 species diversity—the variety of species
 ecosystem diversity—the variety of habitats, ecological communities and
ecological processes.

Biodiversity is not static; it is constantly changing. It can be increased by genetic change

and evolutionary processes, and it can be reduced by threats which lead to population
decline and extinction.

Biodiversity is not uniformly distributed across the geographical regions of the earth.
Certain regions of the world are very rich in biodiversity. We call such areas as ―mega
diversity zones‖. We also refer to them as ―hot-spots‖. For example, India accounts for
only 2.4 % of the land area of the world; but it contributes approximately 8% species to
the global diversity due to existence of such pockets.

Humans depend for their sustenance, health, well being and cultural growth on nature.
Biotic resources provide food, fruit, seed, fodder, medicines and a host of other goods
and services. Importance of Biodiversity is due to:-

 Food, fibre, medicines, fuel wood and ornamental plants

 Protection of water resources
 Soil protection
 Breeding material for crop improvement
 Nutrient storage and cycling
 Pollution reduction
 Climate stability

Page 73
 Module (Geography)

 Maintenance of ecological processes

Causes of Loss of Biodiversity:-

 Direct ways: Deforestation, hunting, poaching, commercial exploitation

 Indirect ways: Loss or modification of the natural habitats, introduction of exotic
species, pollution, etc.
 Natural causes - Climate change.

International efforts for biodiversity conservation:-

 Convention on Biological Diversity :-The objectives of the CBD are the

conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and
the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from commercial and other
utilization of genetic resources. The agreement covers all ecosystems, species,
and genetic resources.
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES)
The CITES aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival. Through its three appendices, the
Convention accords varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 plant and
animal species.
 CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals :-The
CMS, or the Bonn Convention aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian
migratory species throughout their range. Parties to the CMS work together to
conserve migratory species and their habitats by providing strict protection for
the most endangered migratory species, by concluding regional multilateral
agreements for the conservation and management of specific species or
categories of species, and by undertaking co-operative research and conservation
activities.
 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture :-The
objectives of the Treaty are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic
resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological
Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. The Treaty covers all
plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, while its Multilateral System of
Access and Benefit-sharing covers a specific list of 64 crops and forages. The
Treaty also includes provisions on Farmers' Rights.
 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (popularly known as the Ramsar Convention) :-
The Ramsar Convention provides the framework for national action and
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources. The convention covers all aspects of wetland conservation and wise
use, recognizing wetlands as ecosystems that are extremely important for

Page 74
 Module (Geography)

biodiversity conservation in general and for the well-being of human

communities.
 WHC World Heritage Convention (WHC) :-The primary mission of the WHC is to
identify and conserve the world's cultural and natural heritage, by drawing up a
list of sites whose outstanding values should be preserved for all humanity and to
ensure their protection through a closer co-operation among nations.
 IPPC International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) :-The IPPC aims to
protect world plant resources, including cultivated and wild plants by preventing
the introduction and spread of plant pests and promoting the appropriate
measures for their control. The convention provides the mechanisms to develop
the International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs), and to help
countries to implement the ISPMs and the other obligations under the IPPC, by
facilitating the national capacity development, national reporting and dispute
settlement.
The Secretariat of the IPPC is hosted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO).

There are several strategies which are adapted for conservation of Biodiversity. Some of
these are:

Legislation Formal policies and programmes for conservation and sustainable

utilisation of biodiversity resources dates back to several decades. The concept of
environmental protection is enshrined in the Indian constitution in articles 48a and
51a(g). Major central acts relevant to biodiversity include:
• Environment Protection Act, 1986
• Fisheries Act, 1897
• Forest Act, 1927
• Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
• Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 and Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act 1991

In-situ Conservation Conserving the animals and plants in their natural habitats is
known as in situ conservation. The established natural habitats are:
• National parks and sanctuaries
• Biosphere reserves
• Nature reserves
• Reserved and protected forests
• Preservation plots
• Reserved forests

Ex-situ Conservation like Boatanical and Zoological parks

Recording Indigenous Knowledge
Community Participation in Biodiversity Conservation

Page 75
 Module (Geography)

Major types of Soils.(ICAR classification) and their

distribution. Soil degradation and conservation
Soil is defined as upper layer of the earth composed of loose surface material. It is a
mixture of many substances including endless variety of minerals, remnants of plants
and animals, water and air. It is the end product of continuing interaction between the
parent material, local climate, plant and animal organisms and elevation of land. Since
each of the elements varies over space, soils also differ from place to place. Soil is an
important segment of our ecosystem, as it serves an anchorage for plants and source of
nutrients. Thus, soil is the seat, the medium and fundamental raw material for plant
growth.
Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by
various processes of physical and chemical weathering. The nature and structure of a
given soil depends on the processes and conditions that formed it:

 Breakdown of parent rock: weathering, decomposition, erosion.

 Transportation to site of final deposition: gravity, flowing water, ice, wind.
 Environment of final deposition: flood plain, river terrace, glacial moraine,
lacustrine or marine.

Page 76
 Module (Geography)

 Subsequent conditions of loading and drainage: little or no surcharge, heavy

surcharge due to ice or overlying deposits, change from saline to freshwater,
leaching, contamination.

According to ICAR Indian soils are classified as:-

 Alluvial soils:-Alluvial soils are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo
Gangetic Brahmaputra rivers. In coastal regions some alluvial deposits are
formed due to wave action.
 Black soils:-The black soils are found mainly on the Deccan lava region covering
large parts of Maharashtra, some parts of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh and small
parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The soils are formed by
disintegration of volcanic basaltic lava. The colour of the soil is generally black
due to presence of compounds of aluminium and iron.
 Red soils:- these soils are light textured with porous and friable structure and
there is absence of lime Kankar and free carbonates. They have neutral to acidic
reaction and are deficient in nitrogen humus, phosphoric acid and lime.
 Laterite and Lateritic soils:-These soils are red to reddish yellow in colour and
low in N, P, K, lime and magnesia. These soils are formed in-situ under
conditions of high rainfall with alternation dry and wet periods. On account of

Page 77
 Module (Geography)

heavy rainfall there is an excessive leaching of soil colloids and silica hence the

soils are porous.

 Forest and Mountain soils:-These soils occur at high elevations as well as at low
elevations, where the rainfall is sufficient to support trees. These soils are very
shallow, steep, stony, and infertile for the production of field crops. However,
they serve a very useful purpose by supplying forest product such as timber and
fuel.
 Arid and Desert soils:-These soils occur in western Rajasthan, Saurashtra,
Kutchchh, western Haryana and southern Punjab . The soil is sandy to gravelly
with poor organic matter, low humus contents, infrequent rainfall, low moisture
and long drought season. The soils exhibit poorly developed horizons.
 Saline and Alkaline soils :-These soils occur in areas having a little more rainfall
than the areas of desert soils. They show white incrustation of salts of calcium &
Magne sium and sodium on the surface. These are poor in drainage and are
infertile.
 Peaty and Marshy soils:-These are soils with large amount of organic matter and
considerable amount of soluble salts. The most humid regions have this type of
soil. They are black, heavy and highly acidic. They are deficient in potash and
phosphate.

Page 78
 Module (Geography)

Soil erosion is described as the carrying away of soil. It is the removal of the soil by
natural elements like water, wind, glacier and wave. Gravity tends to move soil down
slope either very slowly as in soil creep or very rapidly as in landslides. The present
shape of land has been carved through thousands of years.

Soil conservation is the preventing of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused
by over usage,Soil acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination.
Slash-and-burn and other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced
in some lesser developed areas.

Natural Hazards : Floods, Droughts, Cyclones, Landslides

Natural Hazards of India

Disaster

A disaster is a sudden, calamitous event that seriously disrupts the functioning of a

community or society and causes human, material and economic or environmental
losses that exceed the community‘s capacity to cope using its own resources.

Vulnerability + Hazard =Disaster

Vulnerability- it is defined as the diminished capacity of an individual or group to

anticipate, copes with, resist and recover from the impact of a natural or manmade
hazard.

Types of Disaster

Hazards are routinely divided into natural or manmade, although complex disasters,
where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A
specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster. A classical example is Earthquake that
cause Tsunami that results in coastal flooding.

Natural Hazards

Natural Hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomenon caused either by rapid or
slow onset events which can be

 Geophysical- Earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic activity

Page 79
 Module (Geography)

 Hydrological- Avalanches and Floods

 Climatological- extreme temperatures, drought and wildfires
 Meteorological- Cyclones and storms
 Biological- epidemics and animal plagues

Natural Disasters and Aggravating Factors

Although these hazards are natural but there are certain aggravating factors which will
result in increased frequency, complexity and severity of disasters. These factors are

 Climate change
 Unplanned urbanisation
 Under development
 Poverty
 Pandemics

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are tectonic in origin; that is the moving plates are responsible for the
occurrence of violent shakes. The occurrence of an earthquake in a populated area may
cause numerous casualties and injuries as well as extensive damage to property.

The Earthquake Risk in India

India's increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions mushrooming all

over, including multistoried luxury apartments, huge factory buildings, gigantic malls,
supermarkets as well as warehouses and masonry buildings keep - India at high risk.
During the last 15 years, the country has experienced 10 major earthquakes that have
resulted in over 20,000 deaths.

As per the current seismic zone map of the country, over 59 per cent of India‘s land area
is under threat of moderate to severe seismic hazard-; that means it is prone to shaking
of MSK Intensity VII and above In fact, the entire Himalayan belt is considered prone to
great earthquakes of magnitude exceeding 8.0-; and in a relatively short span of about
50 years, four such earthquakes have occurred: 1897 Shillong (M8.7); 1905 Kangra
(M8.0); 1934 Bihar-Nepal (M8.3); and 1950 Assam-Tibet (M8.6). Scientific publications
have warned of the likelihood of the occurrence of very severe earthquakes in the
Himalayan region, which could adversely affect the lives of several million people in
India.

Page 80
 Module (Geography)

In our present state of knowledge, earthquakes can neither be prevented nor predicted
in terms of their magnitude, or place and time of occurrence. Therefore the most
effective measures of risk reduction are pre disaster mitigation, preparedness and
preventive measures.

Govt efforts

 National Earthquake Mitigation Project – it aims at strengthening the

structural and non structural earthquake mitigation efforts and reducing the
vulnerability in high risk areas.
 National Building Code- a national instrument providing guidelines for
regulating the building construction activities.
 Building Material & Technology promotion council
 Institutional arrangements like NDMA
 Capacity building
 Retrofitting

Floods

Floods have been recurrent phenomenon in many parts of India, causing loss of lives
and public property and bringing untold misery to the people, especially those in the
rural areas. There is also a larger economic impact, as they derail economic activities,
thus affecting growth. Indian continent has peculiar climatic conditions since it has
floods in some parts whereas drought in other parts.

Over the years, several expert Committees have studied the problems caused by floods
and suggested various measures for their management to the Government. However,
despite the various steps undertaken over the last five decades, the trend of increasing
damage and devastation brought by floods has posed a challenge to the Government as
well as to the people. The approaches to flood management presently exercised in India
also need to give a re-look to have an integrated strategy for policy and management
related to floods.

Brahmaputra River Region:

This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra & Barak and their tributaries covering
seven states .The catchments of these rivers receive very heavy rainfall ranging from 110
cm. to 635 cm. a year which occurs mostly during the months of May / June to
September. As a result, floods in this region are severe and quite frequent.

Ganga River Region:

Page 81
 Module (Geography)

The river Ganga and its numerous tributaries, of which important ones are the Yamuna,
the Sone, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda, constitute this river
region. The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the northern bank of the
river Ganga. The damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga by spilling
over their banks and changing their courses.
North West River Region:

The main rivers in this region are the Sutlej, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the
Jhelum, the tributaries of Indus, all flowing from the Himalayas. These carry quite
substantial discharge during the monsoon and also large volumes of sediment. They
change their courses frequently and leave behind tracts of sandy waste. Compared to the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra river region, the flood problem is relatively less in this
region. The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes
inundation and water logging over vast areas.
Central India and Deccan Region:

The important rivers in this region are the Narmada, the Tapi , the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery. These rivers have mostly well defined stable
courses. They have adequate capacity within the natural banks to carry the flood
discharge except in the delta area. The lower reaches of the important rivers on the East
Coast have been embanked, thus largely eliminating the flood problem.

Flood management measures in India

Different measures have been adopted to reduce the flood losses and protect the flood
plains. Depending upon the nature work, Flood protection and flood management
measures may be broadly classified as under:

(a) Engineering / Structural Measures

The engineering measures for flood control which bring relief to the flood prone areas
by reducing flood flows and thereby the flood levels are –

(a) an artificially created reservoir behind a dam across a river

(b) a natural depression suitably improved and regulated, if necessary or

(c) by diversion of a part of the peak flow to another river or basin, where such diversion
would not cause appreciable damage.

(d) by constructing a parallel channel bye passing a particular town/reach of the river
prone to flooding.

Page 82
 Module (Geography)

The engineering methods of flood protection, which do not reduce the flood flow but
reduce spilling, are:

(a) embankments which artificially raise the effective river bank and thereby prevent
spilling and

(b) channel and drainage improvement works, which artificially reduce the flood water
level so as to keep the same, confined within the river banks and thus prevent spilling.

Administrative methods

The administrative methods endeavour to mitigate the flood damages by;

(a) Facilitating timely evacuation of the people and shifting of their movable property to
safer grounds by having advance warning of incoming flood i.e. flood forecasting, flood
warning in case of threatened inundation

(b) Discouraging creation of valuable assets/settlement of the people in the areas subject
to frequent flooding i.e. enforcing flood plain zoning regulation.

Landslides

the northward movement of the Indian plate towards China causes continuous stress on
the rocks rendering them friable, weak and prone to landslides and earthquakes. The
slow motion of the Indian crust, about 5 cm/year accumulates stress to which natural
disasters are attributed. Some landslides make unique, and unparalleled catastrophes.
Landslides and avalanches are among the major hydro-geological hazards that affect
large parts of India besides the Himalayas, the Northeastern hill ranges, the Western
Ghats, the Nilgiris, the Eastern Ghats and the Vindhyans, in that order, covering about
15 % of the landmass. The Himalayas alone count for landslides of every fame, name and
description- big and small, quick and creeping, ancient and new.

The Northeastern region is badly affected by landslide problems of a bewildering

variety. Landslides in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal as also those in Sikkim,
Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh pose chronic
problems, causing recurring economic losses worth billions of rupees. A different variety
of landslides, characterized by a lateritic cap, pose constant threat to the Western Ghats
in the South, along the steep slopes overlooking the Konkan coast besides Nilgiris,
which is highly landslide prone.

Page 83
 Module (Geography)

Some spectacular events of tragedies are reported as Varnavat landslide, Uttarkashi

District, Malpha landslide Pithoragarh district, Okhimath landslide in Chamoli district,
UK and Paglajhora in Darjeeling district as well as Sikkim, Aizawl sports complex,
Mizoram.These are some of the more recent examples of landslides. The problem
therefore needs to be tackled for mitigation and management for which hazard zones
have to be identified and specific slides to be stabilized and managed in addition to
monitoring and early warning systems to

Remedial Measures

 Afforestation
 Use of geo textiles which reduces slope instability
 Making community aware about impact of landslides and build their capacity to
reduce vulnerability
 Proper mapping of Landslide zone and shifting people from such zones
 No mining activities should be allowed in Eco sensitive zones

Cyclones

Cyclones are caused by atmospheric disturbances around a low-pressure area

distinguished by swift and often destructive air circulation. Cyclones are usually
accompanied by violent storms and bad weather. The air circulates inward in an
anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern
hemisphere. Cyclones are classified as: (i) extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate
cyclones); and (ii) tropical cyclones.

The Indian subcontinent is one of the worst affected regions in the world. The
subcontinent with a long coastline of 8041 kilometres is exposed to nearly 10 per cent of
the world‘s tropical cyclones. Of these, the majority of them have their initial genesis
over the Bay of Bengal and strike the East coast of India. On an average, five to six
tropical cyclones form every year, of which two or three could be severe. More cyclones
occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1.

Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-June and October-November. Cyclones of

severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character,
with their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May. The disaster potential
is particularly high during landfall in the North Indian Ocean (Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea) due to the accompanying destructive wind, storm surges and torrential
rainfall. Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying
areas of coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments,
destroys vegetation and reduces soil fertility.

Page 84
 Module (Geography)

Remedial measures

 Early warning and Communication- inform those who are likely to be

affected and disseminate the information by AIR, Door Darshan, local
community radio etc.
 Capacity Building among people and educate people on various aspects of
disaster management.
 Storm Shelters- with full amenities for both Humans and Animals
 Bio shields- vegetation, trees, shrubs which develops near the coast, they
protect from strong storms and winds.
 Integrated development of coastal areas with strong infrastructure.

DROUGHT

It is difficult to provide a precise and universally accepted definition of drought due to

its varying characteristics and impacts across different regions such as rainfall patterns,
human response and resilience etc. Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate
and occurs in all climatic regimes and is usually characterized in terms of its spatial
extension, intensity and duration. Drought causes economic, environmental and social
impacts.

Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal Ministry in respect of monitoring and managing

drought conditions and droughts are classified into meteorological droughts,
hydrological droughts and agricultural droughts.

Meteorological drought is classified based on rainfall deficiency w.r.t. long term

average – 25% or less is normal, 26-50% is moderate and more than 50% is severe.

Hydrological drought is best defined as deficiencies in surface and sub-surface water

supplies leading to a lack of water for normal and specific needs. Such conditions arise
even in times of average (or above average) precipitation when increased usage of water
diminishes the reserves.

Agricultural drought is identified by 4 consecutive weeks of meteorological drought,

weekly rainfall is 50 mm from 15/5/ to 15/10, 6 such consecutive weeks rest of the year
and crop planted is 80% in kharif season.

In India, around 68% of the country is prone to drought in varying degrees. 35% which
receives rainfall between 750 mm and 1125 mm is considered drought prone while 33%
receiving less than 750 mm is chronically drought prone.

National Disaster Management Guidelines on Management of Drought

Page 85
 Module (Geography)

 The NDMA guidelines on management of drought are issued in 2010. The

recommendations are as follows:
 Creation of Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) cells at state level with requisite
staff.
 Preparation of vulnerability maps for each state by the State DMCs. Development
of real-time drought related information by using information and
communication technology.
 The watershed development approach would be taken up for drought
management.
 Assessment of damage would include agricultural production, depletion of water
resources, livestock population, land degradation and deforestation as well as
human health.
 Revamping of Drought Management Information System of Department of
Agriculture.
 To enable micro level analysis and forecasting, automatic weather station and
rain-gauges to be put in place.
 Development of drought resistant crop varieties through large scale research.
 Formulation of a cloud seeding policy.
 Promoting crop diversification through sprinklers/Drip irrigation systems (micro
irrigation techniques) etc.

Cloud Bursts

Highly concentrated rainfall over a small area lasting for a few minutes to few hours is
called a cloud burst. It leads to sudden flash floods and landslides in which houses
collapse and ultimately results in human casualties on a large scale.

Cloud bursts are manifestations of an intense whirling mass of fluid, on small scale, that
generate strong currents, which lift the moisture laden air with sufficient rapidity to
form dense towering vertical clouds which are capable of shedding water load with great
strength and ferocity.

Steep hills favour the formation of these clouds. Also, water flowing down steep slopes
brings debris, boulders and uprooted trees with great velocity, damaging any structure
that comes in the way.

There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating a cloud burst because they occur in
relatively small scale. A very fine network of radars is required to detect the likelihood of
a cloud burst which could be very expensive.Cloud bursts causes landslides and
flooding.

Tsunami

Page 86
 Module (Geography)

A tsunami (pronounced su-nah-me) is a wave train, or series of waves, generated in a

body of water by an impulsive disturbance that vertically displaces the water column.
Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, and even the impact of cosmic
bodies, such as meteorites, can generate tsunamis. Tsunamis can savagely attack
coastlines, causing devastating property damage and loss of life.

The tsunami that occurred during 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of Mw 9.3 was
primarily caused by vertical displacement of the seafloor, in response to slip on the
inter-plate thrust fault. The earthquake and resulting tsunami in the Indian Ocean
affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, India, Thailand, the Maldives, Somalia, Myanmar, Malaysia, Seychelles and
others.

The Government of India has put in place an Early Warning System for mitigation of
such oceanogenic disasters under the control of Indian National Center for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad. A state-of-the-art early warning centre was
established with the necessary computational and communication infrastructure that
enables reception of real-time data from sensors, analysis of the data, generation and
dissemination of tsunami advisories following a standard operating procedure.

The 2004 tsunami also prompted NDMA to formulate Tsunami Risk

Management Guidelines to outline inter-agency roles and responsibilities,
tsunami risk preparedness, mitigation and response.

The Guidelines recommends practical and effective ways for awareness generation,
capacity building, education, training and research & development for better tsunami
risk management. The Guidelines explore options for effective dissemination of
tsunami alert and warning messages generated by INCOIS to the concerned agencies
and coastal vulnerable communities exposed to tsunamis in a coordinated manner.

Heat Wave

A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal
maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western
parts of India. Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare
cases even extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric
conditions adversely affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological
stress, sometimes resulting in death.

Page 87
 Module (Geography)

Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of
climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in
nature with each passing year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby
increasing the number of heat wave casualties.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:

 Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied

by fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
 Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting,
muscle cramps and sweating.
 Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium,
seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition

Population growth, distribution and density

India is the second most populous country in the world next only to China. On March 1,
2011 the total population of India was at 1.247 billion. This accounted for 17.5% of the
world‘s total population. In other words, about every sixth person in the world there is
an Indian. China, the most populous country of the world, is a step ahead of us as every
fifth person in the world there is a Chinese. While India possesses only 2.42% of the
world‘s total land area, she is required to sustain almost 17.5% of the world‘s population.

Two components of population growth are: Natural growth: It is analysed by assessing

the crude birth and death rates. Induced growth: It is assessed by the volume of inward
and outward movement of people in any given area. There are four phases of population
growth in India. The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant growth
of India‘s population. The high birth rate was counterbalanced by high death rate. The
decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth. The
mortality rate started showing downward trend as a result of improvement in general
health and sanitation conditions after 1921.

Page 88
 Module (Geography)

The density of population is expressed as the number of persons per square kilometre.
According to 2011 census, the density of population in India is 382 persons per square
kilometre. Over the last 100 years density has increased more than four times.

Density and its variation across states can be accessed by the following table:-

Density
State Area Sq. Km Density 2011 Density 2001
2011
- India (Average) 3,287,240 382 324
1 Delhi 1,483 11,320 9,340
2 Chandigarh 114 9,258 7,900
3 Puducherry 490 2,547 2,034
4 Daman and Diu 111 2,191 1,413
5 Lakshadweep 30 2,149 1,895
6 Bihar 94,163 1,106 881
7 West Bengal 88,752 1,028 903
8 Kerala 38,852 860 819
9 Uttar Pradesh 240,928 829 690
Dadra and Nagar
10 491 700 449
Haveli
11 Haryana 44,212 573 478
12 Tamil Nadu 130,060 555 480
13 Punjab 50,362 551 484
14 Jharkhand 79,716 414 338
15 Assam 78,438 398 340
16 Goa 3,702 394 364
17 Maharashtra 307,713 365 315
18 Tripura 10,486 350 305
19 Karnataka 191,791 319 276
20 Gujarat 196,244 308 258
21 Andhra Pradesh 275,045 308 277
22 Orissa 155,707 270 236
23 Madhya Pradesh 308,252 236 196
24 Rajasthan 342,239 200 165

Page 89
 Module (Geography)

Density
State Area Sq. Km Density 2011 Density 2001
2011
25 Uttarakhand 53,483 189 159
26 Chhattisgarh 135,192 189 154
27 Meghalaya 22,429 132 103
28 Manipur 22,327 128 103
29 Himachal Pradesh 55,673 123 109
30 Nagaland 16,579 119 120
31 Sikkim 7,096 86 76
32 Jammu and Kashmir 222,236 56 46
33 Mizoram 21,081 52 42
Andaman and Nicobar
34 8,249 46 43
Islands
35 Arunachal Pradesh 83,743 17 13

Page 90
 Module (Geography)

Age: Sex, ratio, rural-urban composition

Rural-Urban Composition:

For the first time since Independence, the absolute increase in population is more in
urban areas that in rural areas

Rural Population in India: 68.84%

Urban Population in India: 31.16%

Level of urbanization increased from 27.81% in 2001 Census to 31.16% in 2011 Census

The proportion of rural population declined from 72.19% to 68.84%

TOTAL RURAL URBAN RURAL POP URBAN POP

INDIA/STATE/U
POPULATIO POPULATIO POPULATIO PERCENTAG PERCANTAG
T
N N N E E

A & N ISLANDS 3,79,944 2,44,411 1,35,533 64.33 35.67

ANDHRA
8,46,65,533 5,63,11,788 2,83,53,745 66.51 33.49
PRADESH

ARUNACHAL
13,82,611 10,69,165 3,13,446 77.33 22.67
PRADESH

ASSAM 3,11,69,272 2,67,80,516 43,88,756 85.92 14.08

Page 91
 Module (Geography)

BIHAR 10,38,04,637 9,20,75,028 1,17,29,609 88.7 11.3

CHANDIGARH 10,54,686 29,004 10,25,682 2.75 97.25

CHHATTISGARH 2,55,40,196 1,96,03,658 59,36,538 76.76 23.24

DADRA &
NAGAR HAVELI 3,42,853 1,83,024 1,59,829 53.38 46.62
#

DAMAN & DIU 2,42,911 60,331 1,82,580 24.84 75.16

GOA 14,57,723 5,51,414 9,06,309 37.83 62.17

GUJARAT 6,03,83,628 3,46,70,817 2,57,12,811 57.42 42.58

HARYANA 2,53,53,081 1,65,31,493 88,21,588 65.21 34.79

HIMACHAL
68,56,509 61,67,805 6,88,704 89.96 10.04
PRADESH

INDIA 1,21,01,93,422 83,30,87,662 37,71,05,760 68.84 31.16

JAMMU &
1,25,48,926 91,34,820 34,14,106 72.79 27.21
KASHMIR

JHARKHAND 3,29,66,238 2,50,36,946 79,29,292 75.95 24.05

KARNATAKA 6,11,30,704 3,75,52,529 2,35,78,175 61.43 38.57

KERALA 3,33,87,677 1,74,55,506 1,59,32,171 52.28 47.72

LAKSHADWEEP 64,429 14,121 50,308 21.92 78.08

MADHYA
7,25,97,565 5,25,37,899 2,00,59,666 72.37 27.63
PRADESH

MAHARASHTRA 11,23,72,972 6,15,45,441 5,08,27,531 54.77 45.23

MANIPUR 27,21,756 18,99,624 8,22,132 69.79 30.21

Page 92
 Module (Geography)

MEGHALAYA 29,64,007 23,68,971 5,95,036 79.92 20.08

MIZORAM 10,91,014 5,29,037 5,61,977 48.49 51.51

NAGALAND 19,80,602 14,06,861 5,73,741 71.03 28.97

NCT OF DELHI 1,67,53,235 4,19,319 1,63,33,916 2.5 97.5

ORISSA 4,19,47,358 3,49,51,234 69,96,124 83.32 16.68

PUDUCHERRY 12,44,464 3,94,341 8,50,123 31.69 68.31

PUNJAB 2,77,04,236 1,73,16,800 1,03,87,436 62.51 37.49

RAJASTHAN 6,86,21,012 5,15,40,236 1,70,80,776 75.11 24.89

SIKKIM 6,07,688 4,55,962 1,51,726 75.03 24.97

TAMIL NADU 7,21,38,958 3,71,89,229 3,49,49,729 51.55 48.45

TRIPURA 36,71,032 27,10,051 9,60,981 73.82 26.18

UTTAR
19,95,81,477 15,51,11,022 4,44,70,455 77.72 22.28
PRADESH

UTTARAKHAND 1,01,16,752 70,25,583 30,91,169 69.45 30.55

WEST BENGAL 9,13,47,736 6,22,13,676 2,91,34,060 68.11 31.89

Age Structure:

Page 93
 Module (Geography)

Age- sex structure is one of the most important characteristics of population

composition. Almost all population characteristics vary significantly with age.

Information is included by sex and age group (0-14 years, 15-64 years, 65 years and
over). The age structure of a population affects a nation's key socioeconomic issues.
Countries with young populations (high percentage under age 15) need to invest more in
schools, while countries with older populations (high percentage ages 65 and over) need
to invest more in the health sector. The age structure can also be used to help predict
potential political issues. For example, the rapid growth of a young adult population
unable to find employment can lead to unrest.

Below is the age structure of India:

0-14 years: 27.71% (male 186,420,229/female 164,611,755)

15-24 years: 17.99% (male 121,009,850/female 106,916,692)
25-54 years: 40.91% (male 267,203,029/female 251,070,105)
55-64 years: 7.3% (male 46,398,574/female 46,105,489)
65 years and over: 6.09% (male 36,549,003/female 40,598,872) (2016 est.)

Sex Ratio:

Sex ratio is used to describe the number of females per 1000 of males. Sex ratio is a
valuable source for finding the population of women in India and what is the ratio of
women to that of men in India.

In the Population Census of 2011 it was revealed that the population ratio in India 2011
is 940 females per 1000 of males. The Sex Ratio 2011 shows an upward trend from the
census 2001 data. Census 2001 revealed that there were 933 females to that of 1000
males.

While Kerala with sex ratio of 1084 top the list, Daman and Diu with sex ratio of 618 is
at the bottom of the list.

Page 94
 Module (Geography)

Below is the list of states according to the sex ration. In the list we can see the states
with good sex ratio.

2011 Census

Child
S.No. State Sex Ratio
Sexratio

- India 943 919

1 Kerala 1084 964

2 Puducherry 1037 967

3 Tamil Nadu 996 943

4 Andhra Pradesh 993 939

5 Chhattisgarh 991 969

6 Meghalaya 989 970

7 Manipur 985 930

8 Orissa 979 941

9 Mizoram 976 970

Page 95
 Module (Geography)

Population, environment and development

The rapid pace of population growth has led to the excessive utilization of natural
resources. Huge population also leads to huge production of wastes. The resultant
outcomes are loss of biodiversity, pollution of air, water and soil and increased pressure
on arable land. All these have been putting great stress on the environment. If you take
the case of India, it supports 17 percent of world population on just 2.4 per cent of the
world land area.

The earth‘s carrying capacity in terms of its food resource is approaching its limits.
Oceanic supply of fish, rangelands which support livestock, and the hydrological cycle to
produce freshwater are strained. The backlog of unused agricultural technology is
shrinking in industrial and developing countries alike, slowing the rise in cropland
productivity. At the same time, soil erosion, air pollution, soil compaction, aquifer
depletion, the loss of soil organic matter, and the waterlogging and salting of irrigated
land are all slowing food production. At present, it appears that nothing can reverse the
worldwide decline in grain output per person. The bottomline is that the world‘s farmers
can no longer be counted on to feed the projected additions to the present population.
Attaining a humane balance between food production and population growth now
depends more on family planners instead of farmers.

Mazor impact of popuatlion growth on Environment are:

• Resource Scarcity:

– Food

– Energy (coal, oil, uranium)

– Raw materials (iron, copper, wood, water)

• Environmental Impacts

Page 96
 Module (Geography)

– Soil degradation

– Deforestation

– Global Warming

Population growth would not be sustainable if it has important negative impacts that
will jeopardize the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

Types of Settlements : rural and urban

Settlement can be defined as any form of human habitation which ranges from a single
dwelling to large city. The word settlement has another connotation as well as this is a
process of opening up and settling of a previously uninhabited area by the people. In
geography this process is also known as occupancy.

Settlements can broadly be divided into two types – rural and urban. Before discussing
about meaning and types of rural and urban settlement in India, we should know some
basic differences between rural and urban areas in general. (i) The major difference
between rural and urban areas is the function. Rural areas have predominantly primary
activities, whereas urban areas have domination of secondary and tertiary activities. (ii)
Generally the rural areas have low density of population than urban.

Types of Rural Settlements:

Geographers have suggested various schemes of classification. If we group settlements

found all over the country, these can broadly be grouped under four categories:

1. Compact/clustered/nucleated settlement
2. Semi-compact/Semi-clustered/fragmented settlement
3. Hemleted settlement
4. Dispersed settlement

Compact Settlements:

 As the name suggests, these settlements have closely built up area. Therefore in
such settlements all the dwellings are concentrated in one central sites and these
inhabited area is distinct and separated from the farms and pastures.
 Maximum settlements of our country comes under this category. They are spread
over almost every part of the country.

Page 97
 Module (Geography)

 These settlements are distributed over the entire northern Indo-Ganga plain
(from Punjab in the north-west to West Bengal in the east), Orissa coast, basins
of Mahanadi in Chhattisgarh, coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh, cauvery delta of
Tamil Nadu, Maidaus of Karnataka, lower Assam and Tripura, in the valleys of
Siwaliks etc.
 Sometimes people live in compact settlement for security or defence purpose. The
greatest example of this type is in Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh.
 In Rajasthan also people live in compact settlement because of the scarce
availability of cultivable land and water body. Therefore, they want to make
maximum use of available natural resources.

Semi compact Settlement:

As the name suggests, the dwellings or houses are not well-knitted. Such settlements are
characterized by a small but compact nuclears around which hamlets are dispersed.

 It covers more area than the compact settlements.

 These settlements are found both in plains and plateaus depending upon the
environmental conditions prevailing in that area.
 Such settlements are situated along streams in Manipur Mandla and Balaghat
districts of Madhya Pradesh, and Rajgarh district of Chhattisgarh. Different tribal
groups inhabit such settlements in the Chhota Nagpur region. In Nagaland, such
settlements may be in the form of blushing villages.

Hamleted Settlements:

These type of settlements, are fragmented into several small units. The main settlement
does not have much influence on the other units. Very often the original site is not easily
distinguishable and these hamlets are often spread over the area with intervening fields.
This segregation is often influenced by social and ethnic factors. The hamlets are locally
named as faliya, para, dhana, dhani, nanglay etc. These settlements are generally found
in West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and coastal plains.
Geographically it covers lower Ganga plain, lower valleys of the Himalayas and central
plateau or upland region of the country.

Dispersed Settlements:

This is also known as isolated settlements. Here the settlement is characterized by units
of small size which may consist of a single house to a small group of houses. It varies
from two to seven huts. Therefore, in this type, hamlets are scattered over a vast area
and does not have any specific pattern. Such type of settlements are found in tribal areas
of central part of India covering Chhota Nagpur plateau, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,

Page 98
 Module (Geography)

etc. Such patterns are also common in the hills of north Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

There are three factors that influence the type of settlements in India. These factors are
(i) Physical (ii) Ethnic or cultural and (iii) Historical or defence. Let us discuss these
factors one by one.

Physical Factors:

These include relief, altitude, soil capability, climate, drainage, ground water level, etc.
These factors influence the type and spacing of dwelling or instance, in dry regions of
Rajasthan, water is a crucial factor and, therefore, houses are situated along a pond or
well which guides the compactness of the settlement.

Ethnic and Cultural Factors:

These include aspects like caste, community, ethnicity and religion. In India it is
commonly found that the main land owning caste resides at the centre of the village and
the other service providing castes on the periphery. This leads to social segregation and
fragmentation of a settlement into several units

Historical or Defence Factors:

In the past, mostly border areas of northwestern plains were conquered or attacked
frequently by outsiders. For a long time, apart from attack from outsiders, there had
been continuous fight between princely states and kingdom within the country
therefore, security concerns favoured the evolution of nucleated settlements.

Type of urban settlement:

Like rural settlements, urban settlements are classified on various bases. However,
classification based on size and function are most common. Let us discuss them one by
one

Classification based on Population Size

According to population size, census of India classifies urban centres into six classes.
Classwise urban settlements and their population

Page 99
 Module (Geography)

Class Population

Class I 1,00,000 and above

Class II 50,000 – 99,999

Class III 20,000 – 49,999

Class IV 10,000 – 19,999

Class V 5,000 – 9,999

Class VI less than 5,000

There is another classification of urban settlements. The classification is as follows:

Town Places which have less than one lakh population

City Urban centres having population between one lakh to one

million.

Metropolitan Cities Cities having population in between one million to five million

Mega cities Cities having more than 5 million population

Page 100
 Module (Geography)

Urban morphology
Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of
their formation and transformation.Morphological studies often deal with development
of forms and
pattern of the present city or other urban areas through time.

Urban morphology is the study of the physical form of a city, which consists of street
patterns, building sizes and shapes, architecture, population density and patterns of
residential, commercial, industrial and other uses, among other things. Special attention
is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how different cities
compare with each other.

India exhibits a very stable settlement structure such that much of the urban growth
that has occurred has been because of the accretion to existing towns and settlements
and only marginally because of the emergence of new towns. As a result, the proportion
of urban population residing in towns above a certain population cut-off point continues
to increase, but there is little evidence of correlation between city size and rates of
population growth.

In other words we can state that the development of new urban centers in India has
been minimal and the urban growth has been accredited to the development of existing
centers.

Prof. E. Ahmad has identified some of the components of urban morphology as site
characteristics, historical background, sky-line, green open spaces, and water bodies,
physical and cultural dominants.

For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;

1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area
committee, etc.

Page 101
 Module (Geography)

2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria: i) A minimum population of
5,000; ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-
agricultural pursuits; and iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km.

Urban centres of India are of 4 types:

1. Those that have grown from ancient town and villages e.g. Varansi, Madurai, Patna

2. Those that have grown from medieval towns such as Lucknow, Delhi, Jaipur. These
towns have lot of features of medieval Islamic architecture with palaces, minarates,
walled city with Meena bazaars.

3. Cities that have grown from the British administrative centres. Most of them were
medieval towns or cantonment areas which retain lot of features of European Victorial
architecture.

4. During the post independence period a number of planned cities have been
developed. Chandigarh, Bhuvneshwar, Gandhinagar, Dispur and Bokaro are some of the
typical examples of planned cities.

City is a complex agglomeration of multiple activities – economic, social, cultural, etc.

Its ‗central area‘ also known as Central Business District is its distinct section which is
identified as the centre of marketing, business and financial activities as well as dense
built-up sector where lines of transportation converge from various parts and nearly
from all direction.

Page 102
 Module (Geography)

functional classification of urban settlements Problems

of human settlement in India

The definition of function varies across the disciplines. In political science it refers to
duties, in mathematics it means the relationship between two variables and in
geography it is synonymous to occupation.

Geographers have classified towns on the basis of their site, situation, size, rank,
location and relative elevation. Functional classification of towns attempts to categorize
towns and cities according to their economic functions, thereby identifying their roles
within urban systems. Most classifications use employment and occupational data. In
the functional classification approach, towns are classified on the basis of their
dominant function. The functional classification of towns has been illustrated in the
following paras:

1.)Administrative town

The main function of administrative cities and towns is to administer the country/state
or a specific territory.It includes not only the capital cities of countries, but all the
centres of provinces, states, districts and other administrative divisions of the country.

2.Defensive Towns:

During the medieval period, most of the towns and cities used to be developed on the
defensive sites.Forts and garrisons used to be constructed at strategic places. The
defensive towns have barracks, cantonments, and training facilities for the armed forces,
airfields, and harbours for warships.Visakhapatnam, MHOW and Khadakwasla (India);

In many garrison and defensive towns, there is a clear division of land use between the
civil and military authorities, so that the military installations are often at a little
distance from the town or are grouped together in one part of the town. This is

Page 103
 Module (Geography)

necessary to maintain security, though often many town people are employed by the
military.

3.Cultural Centres:

There are numerous towns and cities in the world, almost in each of the countries,
which perform cultural functions.The cities of Oxford and Cambridge in England are the
most suitable examples of educational towns. In these towns, one may find colleges,
libraries, hostels, churches, playgrounds, parks and shopping centres. The
environmental pollution in these towns is almost insignificant.

4.) Collection Centres:

The mining towns, fishing ports and lumbering centres fall under the category of
collection centres/towns. There are numerous metallic, non-metallics, precious stones
and energy resources which are obtained from mines.The towns which serve these
mines may be small settlements serving a particular mine such as Zawar near Udaipur
(Rajasthan), Bjiladela (Madhya Pradesh) and Digboi (Assam).They may be large in size
such as Raniganj, Hazaribagh (Bihar), Ipoh in the tin rich Kinta valley of Malaysia, or
Kuwait and Abadan in the oil producing regions of Kuwait and Tehran,
respectively.Such towns may have some industries related to the mineral mines, such as
smelters and refineries. The shops in such towns sell mining equipments and special
clothes needed for miners.

5.) Production Centres:

Urban places, town and cities in which some kind of manufacturing industry is the
major function is known as a production centre. The size and appearance of the town
are affected by the type of industry located there.

 For example, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Durgapur, Dhanbad and Bhadravati

in India, Pittsburgh in USA, Magnitogorsk in Russia and Birmingham in UK are
dominated by large steel plants. Such iron and steel producing towns are
generally located near the coal fields.
 For the manufacturing towns, as collecting centres, transportation is very
important for the transport of raw materials and the finished goods. These days
such towns are generally set up on lines of communication.

In manufacturing towns, there is a segregation of houses and establishments; the

officer‘s quarters may be grouped at one place and that of the labourers at the other.

6.) Towns of Diversified Functions:

Page 104
 Module (Geography)

As stated at the outset, towns are classified according to their major functions. So, all
those towns (such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc.) can be put into a definite category
in which a large number of activities are conducted. Such towns are referred as
diversified in functions.

Over space and time, the functions of towns change. For example, defensive sites often
become restrictive when the town expands.Thus, many towns have restricted centres
which were once confined within the town walls and more extensive suburbs which grew
up outside the walls or after the walls were demolished.

Shahjahanabad (old Delhi), Padova (Italy), Lahore and Rawalpindi (Pakistan), Baghdad
(Iraq) and Baku (Azerbaijan) are some of the examples of such towns.

7.)Residential Towns:

In some towns, the chief function is simply to house a concentration of population. In

such areas, most of the land is devoted to houses, parks and hospitals. These towns are
very- well-connected with the major cities, which enables the commuters to get to work
each day.

8. Resorts:

The urban places which cater to the recreation needs of people are known as resorts or
recreation towns.These urban places may be based on health-giving water (hot springs),
seaside recreation, mountain climbing, cultural attractions, historical monuments,
sports facilities, national parks and attractive scenery.Resorts and recreational towns
have many hotels to accommodate visitors, and also provide sporting facilities such as
golf courses, swimming pools, trekking and skiing. Moreover, they have numerous
entertainment facilities, such as theatres, cinemas, and night clubs and children parks.

9. Transfer and Distribution Centres:

The main functions performed at transfer centres are the trade, commerce and services.
Towns which are concerned with the transfer and distribution of goods, however, have
trade as their major function.

They include several types of towns. For example, market towns, sea ports and financial
towns.Market towns are characterized by markets, a wide range of shops, stores,
warehouses, godowns, cold storages and wholesale .markets.Market towns also have
banks, insurance companies and other financial organizations. Kanpur, Ahmedabad,
Vadodara, Indore, Bhopal, Patna, Lucknow, Ludhiana and Hapur in India, Norwich in
England, Alexandria in Egypt, and Kumasi in Ghana are some of the examples of such
towns.

Page 105
 Module (Geography)

Problem of Human settlement:

Some of the major problems of urbanisation in India are

1. Urban Sprawl

Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area,
of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic
base is incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size

2. Overcrowding

Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space.
Overcrowding is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally
expected that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must
suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.

3.Slums and Squatter Settlements:

The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the
growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in
the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.

4.)Overcrowding

Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This

problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of
unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter
cities/towns from the surrounding areas.

5.)Seweage problem

Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient
sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch faced by the
municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this
pathetic state of affairs.

Page 106
 Module (Geography)

Natural Resources of India

What are natural resources ?

Natural resources are useful raw materials that we get from the Earth. They occur
naturally, which means that humans cannot make natural resources. Instead, we use
and modify natural resources in ways that are beneficial to us. The materials used in
human-made objects are natural resources. Some examples of natural resources and the
ways we can use them are:

Natural resources Products and services

Page 107
 Module (Geography)

Air Wind energy

Animals Foods ( Milk, Steak, Bacon etc.),

Clothing ( wool, silk etc.

Coal Electricity

Minerals Coins, wire, Steel, Aluminium etc.

Natural gas Electricity and Heating

Oil Electricity, Fuel for vehicles

Plants Wood, Paper, Cotton etc.

Sunlight Solar power, Photosynthesis

Water Hydroelectricity, Drinking,

Cleaning

INDIA : NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Land Resources: In terms of area India ranks seventh in the world with a total area of
32, 87.263 sq. km. (32.87 crore hectare). It accounts for 2.42% of total area of the world.
In absolute terms India is really a big country. However, land man ratio is not favourable
because of the huge population size.

Land utilisation figures are available for about 92.9% of total geographical area, that is,
for 3,287.3 lakh hectare. Forest constitutes 24.01 % of the total geographical area of
country. Out of a total land area of 304.2 million hectares about 170.0 million hectares
is under cultivation. Food grains have preponderance in gross cropped areas as
compared to non food grains. According to Agricultural Census, the area operated by
large holdings (10 hectares and above) has declined and area operated under marginal
holdings (less than one hectare) has increased. This indicates that land is being
fragmented.

2. Forest Resources: India‘s forest cover is 78.92 million hectare which is 24.01 % of the
geographical area of the country. The per capita forest in India (0.5 hectare) is much less
than that in the world (1.9 hectares). According to the National Policy on Forests (1988),
one-third (33%) of the country‘s area should be covered by forests in order to maintain
ecological balance.

Page 108
 Module (Geography)

3. 3. Mineral Resources :

Iron-Ore: India possesses high quality iron-ore in abundance. The total reserves of
iron-ore in the country are about 14.630 million tonnes of haematite and 10,619 million
tonnes of magnetite. Haematite iron is mainly found in Chbattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Odisha, Goa and Karnataka. The major deposit of magnetite iron is available at western
coast of Karnataka. Some deposits of iron ore arc also found in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.

Coal reserves : India has the fifth largest coal reserves in the world. As on 31 March
2015, India had 306.6 billion metric tons (338.0 billion short tons) of the resource. The
known reserves of coal rose 1.67% over the previous year, with the discovery of an
estimated 5.04 billion metric tons (5.56 billion short tons). The estimated total reserves
of lignite coal as on 31 March 2015 was 43.25 billion metric tons (47.67 billion short
tons). The energy derived from coal in India is about twice that of the energy derived
from oil, whereas worldwide, energy derived from coal is about 30% less than energy
derived from oil. Coal deposits are primarily found in eastern and south-central India.
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana and
Maharashtra accounted for 99.08% of the total known coal reserves in India. As on 31
March 2015, Jharkhand and Odisha had the largest coal deposits of 26.44% and 24.72%
respectively .

The top producing states are:

 Odisha
 Chhattisgarh
 Jharkhand

Other notable coal-mining areas are as follows :

 Singarenicollieries in Bhadradi district (Old Khammam District), Telangana

 Jhariamines in Dhanbad district, Jharkhand
 Nagpur& Chandrapur district, Maharshtra
 Raniganjin Bardhaman district, West Bengal
 Neyvelilignite mines in Cuddalore district, Tamil Nadu
 Singrauli Coalfieldand Umaria Coalfield in Madhya Pradesh

Bauxite:

Bauxite is a main source of metal like aluminium. It is not a specific mineral but a rock
consisting mainly of hydrated aluminium oxides. It is clay-like substance which is
pinkish whitish or reddish in colour depending on the amount of iron content.

Page 109
 Module (Geography)

The total reserves of bauxite in India are estimated at 27.40 crores tonnes. The major
bauxite producing states in India are Orissa, Jharkhand, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and Goa in a descending order of
importance.

Large amount of bauxite comes from:

Orissa : Sambalpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Ganjam,

Jharkhand : Lohardaga near Ranchi and Palamau districts,

Maharashtra: Ratnagiri and Kolaba, Thane, Satara of Kolhapur district,

Madhya Pradesh: Chhattisgarh – Balaghat, Rajgarh and Bilashpur,

Gujarat : Bhavanagar, Junagarh and Amreli,

Karnataka: Belgaum and Bababudan hills,

Tamil Nadu: Salem.

Uranium deposits : Jaduguda in Singhbhum Thrust Belt (in the state of Jharkhand,
formerly part of Bihar) is the first uranium deposit to be discovered in the country in
1951. The Singhbhum Thrust Belt (also known as Singhbhum Copper belt or Singhbhum
shear Zone) is a zone of intense shearing and deep tectonization with less than 1km
width and known for a number of copper deposits with associated nickel, molybdenum,
bismuth, gold, silver etc. It extends in the shape of an arc for a length of about 160 km.
This discovery of uranium at Jaduguda in this belt paved the way for intensive
exploration work and soon a few more deposits were brought to light in this area. Some
of these deposits like Bhatin, Narwapahar and Turamdih are well known uranium mines
of the country. other deposits like Bagjata, Banduhurang and Mohuldih are being taken
up for commercial mining operations. Some of the other areas like Garadih, Kanyaluka,
Nimdih and Nandup in this belt are also known to contain limited reserves with poor
grades. Apart from discoveries in the Singhbhum Thrust Belt, several uranium
occurrences have also been found in Cuddapah basin of Andhra Pradesh. These include
Lambapur-Peddagattu, Chitrial, Kuppunuru, Tumallapalle, Rachakuntapalle which have
significantly contributed towards the uranium reserve base of India. In the Mahadek
basin of Meghalaya in NorthEastern part of the country, sandsyone type uranium
deposits like Domiasiat, Wahkhyn, Mawsynram provide near-surface flat orebodies
amenable to commercial operations. Other areas in Rajsthan, Karnataka and
Chattishgarh hold promise for developing into some major deposits.

Page 110
 Module (Geography)

Thorium

The IAEA's 2005 report estimates India's reasonably assured reserves of thorium at
319,000 tonnes, but mentions recent reports of India's reserves at 650,000 tonnes. A
government of India estimate, shared in the country's Parliament in August 2011, puts
the recoverable reserve at 846,477 tonnes. The Indian Minister of State V.
Narayanasamy stated that as of May 2013, the country's thorium reserves were 11.93
million tonnes (monazite, having 9-10% ThO2, with a significant majority (8.59 Mt;
72%) found in the three eastern coastal states of Andhra Pradesh (3.72 Mt; 31%), Tamil
Nadu (2.46 Mt; 21%) and Odisha (2.41 Mt; 20%). Both the IAEA and OECD appear to
conclude that India may possess the largest share of world's thorium deposits.

Iron reserves : Iron ore is a metal of universal use. It is the backbone of modern
civilisation. It is the foundation of our basic industry and is used all over the
world. four varieties of iron ore are generally recognized.

(i) Magnetite: This is the best quality of iron ore . It possesses magnetic property and
hence is called magnetite. It is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Goa, Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka.

(ii) Haematite:

It contains 60 % to 70 % pure iron and is found in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa,

Chhattisgarh, Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.

(iii) Limonite:

It contains 40 per cent to 60 per cent pure iron. It is of yellow or light brown colour.
Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar
Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.

(iv) Siderite:

Page 111
 Module (Geography)

It contains many impurities and has just 40 to 50 per cent pure iron. However, due to
presence of lime, it is self fluxing.

(4) Oil reserves : India had about 750 Million metric tonne of proven oil reserves as
April 2014 or 5.62 billion barrels as per EIA estimate for 2009, which is the second-
largest amount in the Asia-Pacific region behind China. Most of India's crude oil
reserves are located in the western coast (Mumbai High) and in the northeastern parts
of the country, although considerable undeveloped reserves are also located in the
offshore Bay of Bengal and in the state of Rajasthan. The combination of rising oil
consumption and fairly unwavering production levels leaves India highly dependent on
imports to meet the consumption needs. In 2010, India produced an average of about
33.69 million metric tonne of crude oil as on April 2010 or 877 thousand barrels per day
as per EIA estimate of 2009. As of 2013 India Produces 30% of India's resources mostly
in Rajasthan.

India's oil sector is dominated by state-owned enterprises, although the government has
taken steps in past recent years to deregulate the hydrocarbons industry and support
greater foreign involvement. India's state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation is the
largest oil company. ONGC is the leading player in India's upstream sector, accounting
for roughly 75% of the country's oil output during 2006, as per Indian government
estimates. As a net importer of all oil, the Indian Government has introduced policies
aimed at growing domestic oil production and oil exploration activities. As part of the
effort, the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas crafted the New Exploration License
Policy (NELP) in 2000, which permits foreign companies to hold 100% equity
possession in oil and natural gas projects. However, to date, only a handful of oil fields
are controlled by foreign firms. India's downstream sector is also dominated by state-
owned entities, though private companies have enlarged their market share in past
recent years.

The Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserve (ISPR) is an emergency fuel store of total 5
MMT (million metric tons) or 36.92 MMbbl of strategic crude oil enough to provide 10
days of consumption which are maintained by the Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves
Limited.

Strategic crude oil storages are at 3 underground locations

: in Mangalore, Visakhapatnam and Padur(nr Udupi). All these are located on the east
and west coasts of India which are readily accessible to the refineries. These strategic
storages are in addition to the existing storages of crude oil and petroleum products
with the oil companies and serve in response to external supply disruptions .

In the 2017-18 budget speech by the Indian finance minister Arun Jaitley, it was
announced that two more such caverns will be set up Chandikhole in Jajpur district of

Page 112
 Module (Geography)

Odisha and Bikaner in Rajasthan as part of the second phase. This will take the strategic
reserve capacity to 15.33 million tons.

Apart from this,India is planning to expand more strategic crude oil facilities in second
phase at Rajkot in Gujarat, Padur in and Udupi district of Karnataka.

(5) Natural gas reserves : Natural gas consists primarily of methane .Propane ,
butane, pentane and hexane are also present . KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat,
Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in Rajasthan etc. are natural gas reserves of
India.

Wind energy resources : The development of wind power in India began in the
1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. Although a relative
newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, domestic policy
support for wind power has led India to become the country with the fourth largest
installed wind power capacity in the world.

As of March 31, 2016 the installed capacity of wind power in India was
26,769.05 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (7,269.50
MW), Maharashtra (4,100.40 MW), Gujarat (3,454.30 MW), Rajasthan (2,784.90
MW), Karnataka (2,318.20 MW), Andhra Pradesh (746.20 MW) and Madhya
Pradesh (423.40 MW) Wind power accounts for 14% of India's total installed power
capacity. India has set an ambitious target to generate 60,000 MW of electricity from
wind power by 2022.

Solar power : Solar power is attractive because it is abundant and offers a solution
to fossil fuel emissions and global climate change. Earth receives solar energy at
the rate of approximately 1,73,000 TW. This enormously exceeds both the current
annual global energy consumption rate of about 15 TW, and any conceivable

Page 113
 Module (Geography)

requirement in the future. India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation,
providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. India is already a leader
in wind power generation. In solar energy sector, some large projects have
been proposed, and a 35,000 km² area of the Thar Desert has been set aside
for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 GW.

With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, India‘s theoretical solar power reception, just
on its land area, is about 5 PWh/year (i.e. = 5 trillion kWh/yr ~ 600 TW). The daily
average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with about 1500–
2000 sunshine hours per year, depending upon location. This is far more than current
total energy consumption. The India Energy Portal estimates that if 10% of the land
were used for harnessing solar energy, the installed solar capacity would be at
8,000GW, or around fifty times the current total installed power capacity in the country.
For example, even assuming 10% conversion efficiency for PV modules, it will still be
thousand times greater than the likely electricity demand in India by the year 2015.

NATIONAL SOLAR MISSION

NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam(NVVN) ,the nodal agency for implementing the first phase
of JNNSM , received 418 applications against a requirement of 650 MW(500 MW Solar
Thermal and 150 MW Solar PV) for Batch I. Out of this 343 applications were for solar
PV and 55 for Solar Thermal. The interest was high in the investor community for solar
PV as applications worth 1715 MW (343*5 MW) were received as against a total of 150
MW. 30 bidders were selected through reverse bidding and projects were allocated to
companies that offered highest discount to base tariff rate of Rs. 17.91/kWh. Projects
totaling 610 MW were awarded with 145 MW under solar PV and 470 MW under Solar
Thermal. The winning bids for solar PV varied from Rs. 10.95/kWh to Rs. 12.76/kWh
and for Solar Thermal it was Rs. 11.14/kWh in Phase I Batch I. Camelot Enterprises
Private Ltd was the lowest bidder and other successful bidders included Mahindra Solar
One, Azure Power, SunEdison Energy, Lanco Infratech. The project capacity under
Batch I is 5 MW for solar PV and minimum 5 MW and maximum 100MW for Solar
Thermal. By July 2011, negotiations were concluded, PPAs awarded and financial
closure achieved for 34 projects.

Under batch II, the project size has been increased up to 20 MW and the base price for
solar PV projects is Rs. 15.39/kWh. NTPC Vidyut Vyapar Nigam (NVVN) received 154
applications for 1915 MW of solar PV projects against a requirement of 350 MW. The
results of the bidding for solar PV projects indicate that the grid parity for solar power
may not be too far off. The winning bids varied from Rs. 7.49/kWh to Rs. 9.41/kWh. The
average bid price for both batch I and II was Rs. 12.15/kWh. French project developer
Solairedirect emerged as the lowest bidder and Green Infra Solar the highest bidder.
The other successful bidders included companies like Welspun Solar, Azure Power,

Page 114
 Module (Geography)

SunBorne Energy and Mahindra Solar One. Around 70% and 85% of the allocated
capacity under Phase I Batch I and Phase I Batch II respectively is to be implemented in
Rajasthan.

LAND RESOURCES : UTILIZATION PATTERN IN INDIA

Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or

wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as
arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. It also has been defined as "the total of
arrangements, activities, and input that people undertake in a certain land cover type.

Land is a scarce resource, whose supply is fixed for all practical purposes. At the same
time, the demand for land for various competing purposes is continuously increasing
with the increase in human population and economic growth.

Agricultural land: Agricultural land (also agricultural area) denotes the land suitable
for agricultural production, both crops and livestock. It includes net sown area, current
fallows and land under miscellaneous trees crops and groves. Agricultural land in India
totals approx. 46 % of the total geographical area in the country. This is the highest
among the large and medium-sized countries of the world. This indicates The influence
of favourable physical factors (like size, extent of plains and plateaus, etc.) and The
extension of cultivation to a large proportion of the cultivable land. But, because of the
large population of the country, the per capita arable land (i.e. land suitable for
agriculture) is low: 0.16 hectares against the world average of 0.24 hectares. About 15
per cent of the sown area is multi-cropped.

Non-agricultural land: This includes land under forests and permanent pastures,
land under other non-agricultural uses (towns, villages, roads, railways, etc.)
and land classified as cultivable waste as well as barren and uncultivated land of
mountain and desert areas.

The population continues to grow rapidly in India and great pressure is being placed on
arable land resources to provide an adequate supply of food and energy requirements.
Even if land resources are never exhausted, on a per capita basis they will decline
significantly because they must be divided among more people. Land is one such natural
resources of a nation on which the entire superstructure is created. Thus, land use is a
synthesis of physical, chemical and biological systems and processes on the one hand
and human/societal processes and behavior on the other hand. Land is important not
only for producing food stuffs, cereals, fruits and vegetables for consumption but also
for generating surpluses to meet the increasing demands created by rising population
and developing industrial sector, for laying down the transport network, communication

Page 115
 Module (Geography)

lines, for the construction of dwellings and public institutions, etc. Due to
unprecedented population growth, man has made uses and misuses of land resources
causing environmental degradation.

Again environmental degradation in developing countries like India, especially its

manifestations in the form of soil erosion, deforestation etc, is often attributed to rapid
population growth. It has however been increasingly realized that since these
predominantly agricultural countries are undergoing the process of technological
progress and development, many other factors also modify the relationship between
population and land. Changing techniques of production, changes in the pattern of land
utilization of natural as well as human resources, industrialization, urbanization,
changing life styles, rising aspirations, change in consumption pattern are some of the
macro level factors which make the relationship between population and land use much
more complex.

Objective questions

Q 1. Which one of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?

1. Wind
2. Natural gas
3. Solar energy
4. Soil

Q 2. Consider the following statements regarding the reserves of natural resources in

India ?

1. Naharkatia and Kalol are famous for reserves of Crude oil .

2. Kolar is source of Diamond .
3. India‘s forest cover is 14 % of the total geographical area .

Which of the statements given above is / are correct ?

1. only 1

Page 116
 Module (Geography)

2. only 1 and 2
3. only 2 and 3
4. only 1 and 3

Q 3. Which of the statements given below is / are correct ?

1. Natural gas primarily consists of Butane and methane and propane are also present in
minor amount .
2. Barmer in Rajasthan is natural gas reserve.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

1. only 1
2. only 2
3. 1 and 2 both
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Q 4. Which of the following place is well known for Uranium reserves ?

1. Narwapahar
2. Koraput
3. Ratnagiri
4. Balaghat

Q 5. Consider the following statements regarding land use pattern in India :

1. More than 50 % area is swon area in the country .

2. Urbanization and industrialization are the factors changing India‘s land use pattern

Which of the statements given above is / are correct :

1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. 1 and 2 both
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Q 6. Which of the following statements is / are correct ?

1. India‘s geographical location is favourable for solar power .

2. India ranks first in wind energy production.

Page 117
 Module (Geography)

Choose the correct answer from the code given below :

1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. 1 and 2 both
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Q 7. Which the following is / are non-metallic mineral/s ?

1. Limestone
2. Mica
3. Gypsum
4. All of the above

Q 8. With reference to the Iron ore which of the following statement/s is /

are correct ?

1. Limonite contains max. percentage of pure iron.

2. Magnetite is not found in India.

Choose the correct answer from the code given below:

1. Only 1
2. Only 2
3. 1 and 2 both
4. Neither 1 nor 2

Q 9. Which of the following statement is correct ?

1. Neyveli lignite mines are located in Jharkhand.

2. Singrauli coalfield is in Uttar pradesh .
3. Kalahandi is famous for Bauxite.
4. Lohardaga bauxite mine is located in Karnataka.

Q 10. Siderite is an ore of :

Page 118
 Module (Geography)

1. Aluminium
2. Thorium
3. Iron
4. Uranium

ANSWER KEYS

1. B
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. B
6. A
7. D
8. D
9. C
10. C

Development and Utilization Land Resources ie General

land use, agricultural land use
Land is a finite resource. Land availability is only about 20% of the earth‘s surface. Land
is crucial for all developmental activities, for natural resources, ecosystem services and
for agriculture. Growing population, growing needs and demands for economic
development, clean water, food and other products from natural resources, as well as
degradation of land and negative environmental impacts are posing increasing
pressures to the land resources in many countries of the world.

India covers an area of 32,87,263 sq km. According to area size, it is the seventh largest
country of the world after Russia, Canada, China, U.S.A., Brazil and Egypt. This vast size
itself is the most important resource. About 30 per cent of area is covered by the
mountains which are source of scenic beauty, perennial rivers, home of forests and
wildlife. About 43 per cent of land area is plain which is highly suitable for agriculture.
Remaining about 27 percent under plateaus is the store house of minerals and metals.

The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows :

Page 119
 Module (Geography)

(i) Forests : In India, at present forest areas cover about 76.5 million hectares of land,
which is about 23 per cent of the total geographical area. It ranges from about 87 per
cent in Andaman & Nicobar Islands to only about 4 percent in Haryana making to range
difference of 83 percent. According to our National Forest Policy, 33% of the total
geographical area of the country should be under the forest cover to maintain ecological
balance.

(ii) Land put to Non-agricultural Uses : Land under settlements (rural and urban),
infrastructure (roads, canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc. are included in this category.
An expansion in the secondary and tertiary activitieswould lead to an increase in this
category of land-use.

(iii) Barren and Wastelands : The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as
barren hilly terrains, desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under
cultivation with the available technology.

(iv) Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands : Most of this type land is owned
by the village ‗Panchayat‘ or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is
privately owned. The land owned by the village panchayat comes under ‗Common
Property Resources‘.

(v) Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves(Not included is Net sown Area) :
The land under orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land
is privately owned.

(vi) Culturable Waste-Land : Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than
five years is included in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after
improving it through reclamation practices.

(vii) Current Fallow : This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less
than one agricultural year. Fallowing is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land
rest. The land recoups the lost fertility through natural processes.

(viii) Fallow other than Current Fallow : This is also a cultivable land which is left
uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated
for more than five years, it would be categorised as culturable wasteland. (ix) Net Area
Sown : The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as
net sown area.

Page 120
 Module (Geography)

Geographical condition and distribution of major crops,

like,Rice, Wheat,Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Rubber, Tea
and Coffee

Rice

The rice is cultivated on the largest areas in India. Historians believe that while the
indica variety of rice was first domesticated in the area covering the foothills of the
Eastern Himalayas (i.e. north-eastern India).Rice is a nutritional staple food which
provides instant energy as its most important component is carbohydrate (starch). Rice
is grown in almost all the states of India. The main rice producing states are Tamilnadu,
West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Chhatisgarh, Punjab,
Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam and Maharashtra. It is also grown in Haryana,
Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Gujrat and Kashmir Valley. The rice growing areas in the
country can be broadly grouped into five regions as discussed below :

i. North-Eastern Region:This region comprises of Assam and North eastern states. In

Assam rice is grown in the basin of Brahmnaputra river. This region receives very heavy
rainfall and rice is grown under rain fed condition.

ii. Eastern Region This region comprises of Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In this region rice is grown in
the basins of Ganga and Mahanadi rivers and has the highest intensity of rice cultivation
in the country. This region receives heavy rainfall and rice is grown mainly under rain
fed conditions.

iii. Northern Region: This region comprises of Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh,
Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir. The region experiences low
winter temperature and single crop of rice from May-July to September-December is
grown.

iv. Western Region: This region comprises of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. Rice
is largely grown under rain fed condition during June-August to October - December.

Page 121
 Module (Geography)

v. Southern Region: This region comprises of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. Rice is mainly grown in deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery
rivers and the non-deltaic rain fed area of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. Rice is
grown under irrigated condition in deltaic tracts.

Wheat

Wheat is the second most important food crop of India next to rice. It is a Rabi or winter
crop. It is sown in the beginning of winter and harvested in the beginning of summer.
Normally (in north India) the sowing of wheat begins in the month of October-
November and harvesting is done in the month of March-April. This is the staple food of
millions of people particularly in the northern and north-western regions of India.
Unlike rice, wheat is grown mostly as a rabi or winter crop.

The main regions of wheat production in India are U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat,Maharashtra. U.P., Punjab and Haryana together produce
more than 66% of the total wheat of the country.

Cotton

Cotton requires a daily minimum temperature of 16ºC for germination and 21ºC to 27ºC
for proper crop growth. During the fruiting phase, the day temperature ranging from
27ºC to 32ºC and cool nights are needed. The sowing season of cotton varies
considerably from tract to tract and is generally early (April-May) in northern India
where it is mostly irrigated. It is delayed on proceeding to down south. It is cultivated
largely under rainfed or dryland conditions. An annual rainfall of atleast 50 centimetre
distributed through-out the growing season is required for good yield. It is mainly raised
during tropical monsoon season, although in southern India it is cultivated during late-
monsoon season in winter. The cotton-picking period from mid September to November
must have bright sunny days to ensure a good quality.

India has the largest area under cultivation and third largest producer of cotton next
only to China and the USA. Within the country two third of total area and production is

Page 122
 Module (Geography)

shared by four states. The main states for cotton production are Panjab, Maharashtra,
Gujarat and Haryana.

Jute

Jute is a crop of humid tropical climates. It thrives well in areas with well distributed
rainfall of 2,500 mm spread over vegetative growth period of the crop with no
cloudiness. Locations with a mean rainfall of <1,000 mm, incessant rainfall and
waterlogging are not suitable for its cultivation.

West Bengal, Bihar and Assam grow jute extensively.

Sugercane

Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It has a thick jointed stem, Which contains the
cane sugar, The juice can be taken as a drink or made into sugar, jaggery or khandsari. .
The by-products of sugar are very useful. Bagasse is used to make paper, cattle feed, fuel
for mills-and cardboard; molasses for power alcohol. Fertilizers, yeast and rum; and
press mud of wax. and shoe polish. It supports the pesticide and fertilizer industries.
Sugar factories provide employment to over a million 'workers. India is the second
largest sugarcane producer in the world.

Climatic and soil conditions which favour the cultivation of sugarcane are:-

 Temperature: 20°C-30°C. Temperature above 50°C arrests its growth and

temperature below 20°C slows down its growth.
 Rain: 75-120cms. It cannot withstand frost. For ripening it needs a cool dry
season.
 Soil: A medium heavy loam is ideal-In northern India it is cultivated on clay
loams and alluvial soil while in south India it is cultivated on brown or reddish
loams, black cotton soil and laterites.

Leading sugarcane producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab.Haryana,

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

Page 123
 Module (Geography)

Rubber

Rubber tree is sturdy, quick growing and tall. It grows on many types of soil provided
the soil is deep and well drained. A warm humid equitable climate (2 1' to 35') and a
fairly distributed rainfall of not less than 200 c m are necessary for the cultivation of
rubber crop.

Kerala (accounts for 90% of the total area under rubber), Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Andamanand Nicobar Islands. Parts of West Bengal. Orrisa., Maharashtra, Karnataka
and'N.E parts of India are potential regions for rubber-cultivation.

Tea

Commercial Tea plantation in India was started by the Britishers in 1923 when wild tea
plants were discovered by them in the hilly and forest areas of Assam.

Climatic conditions required for the growing of tea are

 Temp: 13-35°C. Average of 25°C is suitable.

 Humidity: - High humidity, heavy dew and morning fog promote growth if
healthy leaves.
 Rainfall: Annual rainfalI (range) 150-350cm (well distributed)
 Soil- Well drained mountain soil, light, loamy, porous rich in nitrogen and iron/
laterite like the soil found in Assam

Assam is the leading producer that accounts for more than 50% of tea production of
India. Tea producing areas of Assam are the hill slopes bordering the Brahmaputra and
Surma valleys. West Bengal is the second largest producer of tea where tea is mostly
grown in the districts of Darjeeling, Siliguri, Jalpaiguri and Cooch Bihar districts. Tamil
Nadu is the third largest producer where tea growing areas are mostly restricted to
Nilgiri hills.

Coffee

Page 124
 Module (Geography)

Commercial cultivation of coffee was started by British entrepreneurs in South India

during 1820's.

Most of India‘s coffee is grown in three Southern states: Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil
Nadu, the first two account for nearly 90 percent of total production. Much of the coffee
in Kerala and Karnataka is grown in the Western Ghats, a mountain chain that runs
parallel to the coast line and about 100 miles inland from the Arabian Sea. India exports
nearly 70 percent of the coffee it produces. These exports consist mainly of high grade
beans from both the Arabica and the Robusta growing regions.

Geographical Requirement for Coffee cultivation are as follows:-

 Temperatute:- should be ranging between 15 to 28°C throughout the year. Frost

free environment. Direct raysof the sun are harmfui as it.is grown in the shade of
trees. In its early stages of growth it needs to be protected from hot.dry winds.
 Rainfall:- 125cm- 250 cms throughout the year.
 Soil:-. Well drained, weathered volcanic soil, red and laterite soil. The presence of
humus is essential. .
 Topography:- grows on hill slopes at elevation ranging from 500mts to 1800mts.

Water Resources : Availability

Water is a prime natural resource, a basic human need and a precious national asset.
Planning, development and management of water resources need to be governed by
national perspectives.

India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world‘s surface area, 4 per cent of the world‘s
water resources and about 16 per cent of world‘s population. The total water available
from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability
from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this only 60
per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the
country is only 1,122 cubic km.

There are four main sources of water:

Page 125
 Module (Geography)

(i) Surface water

(ii) Underground water

(iii) Atmospheric water, and

(iv) Oceanic water

(i) Surface water

Water found on the surface is called surface water. About two – third of the total surface
water flows into three major rivers of the country – Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputras.
The water storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17400
billion cubic metres. At the time of independence, the water storage capacity was only
180 billion cubic metres. Hence water storage capacity has increased about ten times.

India‘s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt is estimated
to be about 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). However, it is estimated that only about
690 BCM or 37 per cent of the surface water resources can actually be mobilised. This is
because (i) over 90 per cent of the annual flow of the Himalayas rivers occur over a four
month period and (ii) potential to capture such resources is complicated by limited
suitable storage reservoir sites.

(ii) Underground water

It refers to all water below the water table to great depths. In the soil, both water and air
coexist in the pore spaces. A profound consequence is that the capillary water in the soil
can only be extracted by plant roots, within certain range of conditions. Ground water,
on the other hand can be extracted by humans through wells. Ground water and soil
water together constitute the lower part of the hydrological cycle. The annual potential
natural of ground water recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3 , which is
8.56% of total annual rainfall of the country.

Underground water is used on a large scale in the areas where the rainfall is
comparatively less. Underground water is used on a large scale in Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh whereas Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnatake and Chhattisgarh are such states where inspite of less
rainfall, the use of underground water is less. There is a great need to develop
underground water resources here.

(iii) Atmospheric water

Page 126
 Module (Geography)

Evaporation and transpiration change liquid water into vapor, which ascends into the
atmosphere due to rising air currents. Cooler temperatures aloft allow the vapor to
condense into clouds and strong winds move the clouds around the world until the
water falls as precipitation to replenish the earthbound parts of the water cycle. About
90 percent of water in the atmosphere is produced by evaporation from water bodies,
while the other 10 percent comes from transpiration from plants.

(iv) Oceanic water

The Ocean plays a key role in this vital cycle of water. The ocean holds 97% of the total
water on the planet; 78% of global precipitation occurs over the ocean, and it is the
source of 86% of global evaporation. Besides affecting the amount of atmospheric water
vapor and hence rainfall, evaporation from the sea surface is important in the
movement of heat in the climate system. Water evaporates from the surface of the
ocean, mostly in warm, cloud-free subtropical seas.

Utilization for industrial and other purposes, irrigation

Industrial Uses

The share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and
5 per cent of the ground-water. Rough estimates indicate that the present water use in
the industrial sector is of the order of 15 km3 . The water use by thermal and nuclear
power plants with installed capacities of 40,000 MW and 1500 MW respectively, is

Page 127
 Module (Geography)

estimated to be about 19 km3 . The industries are needed to be switched over to water
efficient technologies.

By 2050, India expects to be a major industrial power in the world. Industry needs
water fresh or recycled. Processing industries depend on abundance of water. It is
estimated that 64 cubic km of water will be needed by 2050 A.D. to sustain the
industries. Thermal power generation needs water including a small part that is
consumptive. Taking into account the electric power scenario in 2050 A.D., energy
related requirement (evaporation and consumptive use) is estimated at 150 cubic km.

With the advent of globalization and privatization ,industrial activities water demands
share of water is changing rapidly. In addition increase in population and rapid
urbanisation also put an additional demand on water resources.

Water treatment plants for all industries emanating polluted water is the need of the
hour.

Domestic Uses

The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as
compared to groundwater.The National Water Policy has assigned the highest priority
for drinking water supply needs followed by irrigation, hydro-power, navigation and
industrial and other uses.

Million Development Goals target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015. The indicators of progress
towards this target are;

1) proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved drinking water

source (urban and rural);

2) proportion of population with access to improved sanitation.

It is estimated that by 2050, water requirements per year for domestic use will be 90
km3 for low demand scenario and 111 km3 for high demand scenario. It is expected that
about 70% of urban water requirement and 30% of rural water requirement will be met
by surface water sources and the remaining from groundwater.

Page 128
 Module (Geography)

Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in the country. The

large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone. North-western
India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas. Winter and summer seasons are more
or less dry in most part of the country. Hence, it is difficult to practise agriculture
without assured irrigation during dry seasons.

After independence, the Government of India gave high priority to the construction of
major irrigation related infrastructure. At present, India has a capacity to store about
200 billion cubic meters of water, a gross irrigated area of about 90 million hectares 2
and an installed hydro-power capacity of about 30,000 megawatts (World Bank, 2005)

Expansion of Irrigation facilities, along with consolidation of the existing systems, has
been the main part of the strategy for increasing production of food grains. With
sustained and systematic development of irrigation, the irrigation potential through
major, medium and minor irrigation projects has increased from 22.6 million hectares
(mha.) in 1951, when the process of planning began in India, to about 98.84 mha. at the
end of the year 2004-05.

Scarcity of water, methods of conservation-rain water

harvesting and watershed management, ground water
management

Scarcity of water

Water scarcity is possibly to pose the greatest challenge on account of its increased
demand coupled with shrinking supplies due to over utilisation and pollution. Water is a
cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the
earth‘s surface is covered with it but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per cent of the

Page 129
 Module (Geography)

total water. In fact, a very small proportion of fresh water is effectively available for
human use. The availability of fresh water varies over space and time.

According to the United Nation Developement Program ,occurrence of water availability

at about 1000 cubic meters per capita per annum is a commonly threshold for water
indicating scarcity.

Krishna, Cauvery, Subernarekha, Pennar, Mahi, Sabarmati, Tapi, East Flowing Rivers
and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni are some of the basins,
which fall below the 1000 cubic meter mark- out of which Cauvery, Pennar, Sabarmati
and East Flowing rivers and West Flowing Rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including
Luni facing more acute water scarcity with per capita availability of water less than or
around 500 cu m.

The need of the hour to change the condition of water scarity are as follows:-

 The need to change cropping patterns based on scientific advice,

 use of drip and sprinkler irrigation,
 fertigation for increasing water use efficiency,
 community participation, especially women, for better water management
 Use of treated urban waste water to be used for farming in the adjoining areas
 desilting of rivers
 recharging of rivers,
 check dams and other water storage mechanisms.

Rain water harvesting

Rain water harvesting generally means collection of rain water. Its special meaning is a
technique of recharging of underground water. In this technique water is made to go
underground after collecting rain water locally, without polluting the same.

Rain water harvesting is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop
of water by guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and wells. Rainwater harvesting
increases water availability, checks the declining ground water table, improves the
quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants like fluoride and nitrates,
prevents soil erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if
used to recharge aquifers.

Page 130
 Module (Geography)

Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually acceptable for many purposes
with little or even no treatment. The physical and chemical properties of rainwater are
usually superior to sources of groundwater that may have been subjected to
contamination. Rainwater harvesting can co‐exist with and provide a good supplement
to other water sources and utility systems, thus relieving pressure on other water
sources. Rainwater harvesting provides a water supply buffer for use in times of
emergency or breakdown of the public water supply systems, particularly during natural
disasters.

Watershed management

The term watershed refers to a ―contiguous area draining into a single water body or a
water course‖ or ―it is a topographical area having a common drainage‖. This means that
the rainwater falling on an area coming within a ridgeline can be harvested and will flow
out of this area thorough single point. Some refer it as a catchment area or river basin.

Watershed management is an efficient management and conservation of surface and

groundwater resources. It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of
groundwater through various methods like percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.
However, in broad sense watershed management includes conservation, regeneration
and judicious use of all resources – natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and
human with in a watershed.

Integrated Watershed Management Programme is to restore the ecological balance by

harnessing, conserving and developing degraded natural resources such as soil,
vegetative cover and water. The outcomes are prevention of soil run-off, regeneration
of natural vegetation, rain water harvesting and recharging of the ground water
table. This enables multi-cropping and the introduction of diverse agro-based
activities, which help to provide sustainable livelihoods to the people residing in the
watershed area.

The main benefits of watershed management are:-

1. Supply of water for drinking and irrigation.

2. Increase in bio-diversity.
3. Loss of acidity in the soil and free for standing water.
4. Increase in the agricultural production and productivity.

Page 131
 Module (Geography)

5. Decrease in the cutting of forests.

6. Increase in the standard of living.
7. Increase in employment.
8. Increase in personal get together by participation of local people.

Ground water management.

Scientific management of ground water resources involves a combination of

A) Supply side measures aimed at increasing extraction of ground water depending on

its availability and

B) Demand side measures aimed at controlling, protecting and conserving available

resources.

The rainfall occurrence in different parts of India is limited to a period ranging from
about 10 to 100 days. The natural recharge to ground water reservoir is restricted to this
period only and is not enough to keep pace with the excessive continued exploitation.
Since large volumes of rainfall flows out into the sea or get evaporated, artificial
recharge has been advocated to supplement the natural recharge.

Ground water resources management requires to focus attention on the judicious

utilization of the resources for ensuring their long-term sustainability. Ownership of
ground water, need-based allocation pricing of resources, involvement of stake holders
in various aspects of planning, execution and monitoring of projects and effective
implementation of regulatory measures wherever necessary are the important
considerations with regard to demand side ground water management.

Page 132
 Module (Geography)

Minerals and Energy Resources : Distribution and utility

of [a] metallic minerals (ion ore, copper, bauxite,
manganese)
Mineral is a naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having a
definite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure, color, and
hardness

Minerals are valuable natural resources that are finite and non-renewable. The history
of mineral extraction in India dates back to the days of the Harappan civilization. The
wide availability of minerals in the form of abundant rich reserves and the ecogeological
conditions make it very conducive for the growth and development of the mining sector
in India. India is particularly rich in the metallic minerals of the ferrous group such as
iron ores, manganese, chromite and titanium. It has the world's largest reserves in mica
and bauxite.

Minerals are a valuable natural resource being the vital raw material for infrastructure,
capital goods and basic industries. As a major resource for development the extraction
and management of minerals has to be integrated into the overall strategy of the
country‘s economic development. The exploitation of minerals has to be guided by
longterm national goals and perspectives. Just as these goals and perspectives are
dynamic and responsive to the changing global economic scenario so also the national
mineral policy has to be dynamic taking into consideration the changing needs of
industry in the context of the domestic and global economic environment.

Minerals are broadly divided into two groups metallic and non metallic minerals.
Metallic minerals are further subdivided into ferrous and non ferrous minerals.

Metallic minerals are minerals which contain one or more metallic elements.Metallic
minerals occur in rare, naturally formed concentrations known as mineral deposits.
These deposits can consist of a variety of metallic minerals containing valuable metals
such as nickel (pentlandite), copper (chalcopyrite), zinc (sphalerite), lead (galena) and
gold (occurs as a native element or as a minor constituent within other minerals) that
are used in all aspects of our daily lives.Metallic minerals must be broken apart and
chemically processed to extract the useful metal from the mineral.

Ferrous minerals account for about three-fourth of the total value of the production of
metallic minerals. They constitute the most important mineral group after fuel minerals.
They include iron, manganese, chromite, pyrite etc. These minerals provide a strong
base for the development of metallurgical industries, particularly iron, steel and alloys.

Page 133
 Module (Geography)

Iron ore

The two main types of ore found in our country are haematite and magnetite. It has
great demand in international market due to its superior quality. The iron ore mines
occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the north-eastern plateau region of the
country which adds to their advantage. Major iron ore deposits in India, distributed in
five zones designated as Zone – I to Zone-V, have been identified in the country on
commercial ground.

Most of iron ore found in the country is of three types:- Haematite, magnetite and
limonite.
Haematite ore contains up to 68 percent of iron. It is red in color and is often refered to
as 'red ore*. Next to haematite in quanitity and richness is the magnetite ore. It contains
up to 60 percent of the iron. It is dark brown to blackish in colour, and is often referred
as 'black ores', Limonite is the third type of ore which has iron content of 35-50 percent.

 Zone-I group of iron ore deposits occur on the Bonai Iron Ore Ranges of
Jharkhand and Orissa States and in the adjoining areas in Eastern India,
 Zone-II group comprises iron ore in Karnataka , Maharashtra , Orissa , Manipur
Tamil Nadu , Geology and Mineral Resources of India ore deposits in the 225-
km.-long north-south-trending linear belt in central India comprising the States
of Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra (East).
 Zone – III deposits occur in Bellary-Hospet regions of Karnataka while the
 Zone – IV deposits cover the rich magnetitic deposits of Bababudan-Kudremukh
area of the same State in south India.
 Zone – V deposits cover iron ore deposits of Goa. In addition, in south India,
magnetite-rich banded magnetite quartzites occur in parts of Andhra Pradesh
near the East Coast while in Tamil Nadu good deposits of magnetite occur in
Salem district and in neighbouring areas.

Copper

Page 134
 Module (Geography)

Copper is malleable, ductile and a good conductor, copper and thus is mainly used in
electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.

The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and Singhbhum
district of Jharkhand are leading producers of copper.Largest resources of copper ore to
a tune of 809 million tonnes (53.54%) are in the state of Rajasthan followed by Madhya
Pradesh with 287.67 million tonnes (19%) and Jharkhand with 295.96 million tonnes
(19.59%). Copper resources in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and
West Bengal accounted for remaining 7.87% of the total all India resources.

Bauxite

Bauxite is a non-ferrous metallic mineral. It is the ore from which aluminium metal is
produced. Aluminium extracted from the ore is used in making aeroplanes, electrical
appliances and goods, household fittings, utensils etc. Bauxite is also used for
manufacturing of white colour cement and certain chemicals. India's reserves of bauxite
of all grades have been estimated at 3037 million tonnes.

The deposits in AP and Orissa (Eastern Ghats) with a total reserve of about 1650 Mt
constitute one of the largest bauxite deposits in the world. Orissa continues to be the
leading state accounting for 59% of the total production of the country. is also rich in
deposits. It occurs in the high hilltops of the Chhotanagpur plateau as residual deposits.
Bauxite occurs as segregated sheets, pockets, patches and lenses within laterite cappings
over the traps and gneisses. Extensive deposits of bauxite are found in the western
Chhotanagpur plateau area falling in and districts and adjoining district.

Manganese

Page 135
 Module (Geography)

Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for
manufacturing ferro alloys. Karnataka has the largest recoverable reserves (64.55
million tones) of manganese ore in the country. Managanese ore minerals occur in close
association with haematite and carbonates as stratiform, lenticular, patchy or pockety
deposits of varying dimensions, within various greenstone belts. Andhra Pradesh
contributes about 90% of the manganese ore production in the country. The manganese
ore here is mainly associated with kodurites of the Khondalite Group in Eastern Ghats
and Penganga beds in the Pakhal Basin. Orissa accounts for one third of the country‘s
annual production of manganese and possesses the second largest recoverable
manganese reserve in the country i.e. 50.36 million tonnes of all grades, next to that of
Karnataka. Manganese ores are mined in Singhbhum district in between Noamundi and
Gua and from south of Chaibasa.

Non- metallic and conventional minerals

[coal,petroleum and natural gas), (c) hydro electricity
and non conventional sources of energy (Solar, Wind,
bio-gas),(d) energy sources Their distribution and
conservation.
Petroleum, natural gas, coal, nitrogen, uranium and water power are examples of
conventional sources of energy. They're also called non-renewable sources of energy and
are mainly fossil fuels, except water power.

Page 136
 Module (Geography)

Rising growth of population has created a tremendous pressure on the conventional

resources of energy and thus the concept of sustainable development get prominent
position.

[su_heading size="21"]Coal[/su_heading]

Coal in India occurs in two important types of coal fields. They are the Gondwana coal
fields and Tertiary coal fields. Out of the total coal reserves and production in India,
Gondwana coal fields contribute 98% and the rest 2% is produced by tertiary coal fields.

 The Gondwana coal fields are located in the sedimentary rock systems of lower
Gondwana Age. They are distributed chiefly in the valleys of the Damodar (Bihar
- West Bengal); the Son (Madhya Pradesh); the Mahanadi (Orissa), the Godavari
(Andhra Pradesh) and the Wardha (Maharashtra).
 Tetiary coalfields occur in the extra-peninsular areas which include Assam,
Meghalaya, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Sikkim

[su_heading size="21"]Oil and Natural Gas [/su_heading]

Most of the petroleum occurrences in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps
in the rock formations of the tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it
occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of the upfold. The oil bearing layer is a porous
limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from rising or
sinking by intervening non-porous layers.

Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being
lighter usually occurs above the oil. About 63 per cent of India‘s petroleum production is
from Mumbai High, 18 per cent from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.

[su_heading size="21"]Nuclear Resources [/su_heading]

Page 137
 Module (Geography)

 In India, uranium is embedded in the igneous and metamorphic rocks in Bihar,

Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Himalayas. It occurs in igneous
rocks of Bihar, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. A substantial source of uranium
deposits is also found in the monazite sands along the Kerala coasts.
 In Jaduguda, Jharkhand uranium occurs associated with hard compact and
somewhat mylonitised chlorite-sericite schist and granular metasedimentaries.
Indicated ore reserves at Jaduguda have been estimated at 2.8 Mt with an
average grade of about 0.08% uranium oxide. Uranium is found associated with
copper mineralisation in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand and Lalitpur district,
Uttar Pradesh.

Mazor Atomic Minerals are:

1. Uranium

2. Monazite

3. Ilmenite

4. Rutile

5. Zircon

Thorium is principally obtained from monazite. The beach sands of Kerala in Palghat
and Quilon district contain the world‘s richest monazite deposits. It also occurs on the
sands of Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh.

Development of non-conventional sources of energy is of prime importance for the

sustainable and inclusive growth in the state. Conventional energy resources are
depleting at an accelerated rate and non-conventional resources could play a leading
role in energy security in the state.

Non-Conventional energy resources could minimise the transmission cost and energy
divide between the remote locations

[su_heading size="21"]Solar[/su_heading]

Page 138
 Module (Geography)

 Indian has a unique geographical location in the tropical climate which enables it
with high solar radiation intensity throughout the year.
 Solar radiation which we receive as heat and light can be converted to useful
thermal energy or for production of electricity either through solar photovoltaic
route or through solar thermal route.
 Sky is clear with abundant sunlight for about 300 days a year
 Solar insulation is greater than 4-7 kwh per square per metre per day for the
nation.
 solar energy could be used as heat energy or could be converted into electricity
through photovoltic cells
 National Solar Mission

[su_heading size="21"]Wind[/su_heading]

 Wind can be used as a source of energy in those regions where strong and
constant winds blow throughout the year. Wind energy can be used for pumping
water for irrigation and also for generating electricity. India has about

Page 139
 Module (Geography)

45,000MW estimated wind power potential. Prospective sites for generating

electricity wind have been located in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Kerala. The potential that can be tapped at present is limited to
around 13,000 MW. But at present 2,483MW is generated through wind which
places India in the fifth position globally after Germany, USA, Denmark and
Spain.

[su_heading size="21"]Hydro Electricity[/su_heading]

Hydroelectricity is electricity that is made by the movement of water. It is usually made

with dams that block a river to make a reservoir or collect water that is pumped there.
When the water is released, the huge pressure behind the dam forces the water down
pipes that lead to a turbine.

The rivers originating from the northern mountainous region are the most important
source of the generation of Hydroelectricity . They have their sources in glaciers and
snowfields, therefore, they are perennial and their flow of water is regular throughout
the year. Velocity of flow is high because of dissected terrain and the competition for use
of water for other purposes is low.

The northeastern part of this mountainous region, constituting the Brahmaputra basin,
has the largest power generating potential. The Indus basin in the northwest is at second
place. The Himalayan tributaries of the Ganga have a potential of 11,000 MW. Thus,
three-fourths of the total potential is confined in the river basins originating from the
northern mountainous region.

The rivers of peninsular India are comparatively poor in this respect. They depend
entirely on the rainfall for their flow, and therefore, their flow is very erratic
exceptionally high flow during the monsoon period fol1owed by a long period of lean
flow

Development of Industries : Types of Industries;factors

of industrial location, distribution and changing pattern
of selected industries [iron and steel, cotton textile,
sugar and petro- chemicals); Weber's theory of
industrial location-lts relevance in the modern world.
[su_heading size="21"]Types of Industries[/su_heading]

Page 140
 Module (Geography)

Based on the value addition and tangibility broadly we can have three types of industries
- primary industries,secondary industries and tertiary industries.

 Primary industries are usually very simple industries involving processing of raw
materials to give input goods for secondary industries.
Here value addition is usually minimal and they are
usually material oriented.Scale of operation may be small or may be very
large.Examples are: coal mining and washing, oil-refining,flour milling, metal
smelting, stone crushing, etc.
 Secondary industries are very complex and diversified which took input from
primary industries and add significant value to it in different processing stages.
The value additions are so significant that they may have a locational preference
in favour of market.Secondary industries may again divided into heavy
industries, light industries, footloose industries, etc.

a) Heavy industries are identified by nature of their bulkyproduct or very high capital
inputs or units which mayhave high capacity to influence environment
adversely.Examples are: heavy chemical, heavy machinery,locomotive, shipbuilding,
heavy electrical, etc.

b) Light industries are less capital intensive and moreinclined to consumer products.
Products are usually lighter in weight, require lesspower, less polluting and can be
established in small areas.

c) Footloose industries are those industries which nearly remain indifferent with
locational aspects of plant.Their products are having very high value addition and
smaller in size and so transportation cost is only a small fraction of total cost.These
industries usually requires a very small production space, are usually less polluting and
butrequires highly skilled workers.Examples are: watch, camera, diamond
cutting,precision electronics, etc.

Tertiary industries are not related to production process.They are basically trade and
services providing industries.The scale of operation is so large that it is regarded as an
industry.Examples are: banking industry, insurance industry, consultancy industry, etc.

[su_heading size="21"]Factors of industrial location[/su_heading]

The factors affecting the location of industries are :-

 the availability of raw material,

 the availability of land,
 the availability of water,
 the availability of labour,
 the availability and consistency of power supply,

Page 141
 Module (Geography)

 the availability of capital,

 the availability of transport network and market.
 Sometimes, the government provides incentives like subsidised power, lower
transport cost and other infrastructure so that industries may be located in
backward areas.

[su_heading size="21"]Distribution and changing pattern of iron and steel

industry[/su_heading]

Although iron and steel manufacturing activity in India is very old, modern iron and
steel industry started with the establishment of ‗Bengal Iron and Steel Works‘ at Kulti in
West Bengal in 1817. Tata Iron and Steel company was established at Jamshedpur in
1907. This was followed by ‗Indian Iron and Steel plant‘ at Burnpur in 1919. All the three
plants were established in the private sector. The first public sector iron and steel plant,
which is now known as ‗Visvesvarayya Iron and Steel works‘, was established at
Bhadrawati in 1923.

After independence a great focus was given for self dependence and investments were
made in heavy industries. Three new integrated steel plants were established at
Rourkela, Bhilai and Durgapur. Bokaro steel plant was established under public sector
in 1964. Bokaro and Bhilai plants were set up with the collaboration of the former Soviet
Union. Durgapur steel plant was set up in Collaboration with United Kingdom while
Rourkela plant was established with the help of Germany.

The change in the spatial pattern of this industry is linked to the change in patterns of
consumption, production and exchange of goods and services. This is dependent on the
spatial organization and location of economic, transportation and communication
systems that produce and facilitate the trade of the concerned commodities.

[su_heading size="21"]Distribution and changing pattern of Cotton textile

industry[/su_heading]

The industrial development in India began with the establishment of first successful
modern cotton textile mill at Mumbai in 1854.Traditional cotton textile industry could
not face the competition from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap
and good quality fabrics through mechanized industrial units. Majority of cotton textile
mills are still located in the cotton growing areas of the great plains and peninsular
India.

The Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought

cotton of Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and
design. But the production of hand woven cotton textile was expensive and time
consuming. Hence, traditional cotton textile industry could not face the competition

Page 142
 Module (Geography)

from the new textile mills of the West, which produced cheap and good quality fabrics
through mechanized industrial units.

[su_heading size="21"]Distribution and changing pattern of Sugar

industry[/su_heading]

India is the second largest producer of sugar in the world after Brazil and is also the
largest consumer. Today Indian sugar industry‘s annual output is worth approximately
Rs.80,000 crores.Most of the sugar mills are concentrated in six states, namely Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Over the period, sugarcane industry is gradually shifting from north Indian states to
states in Peninsular India. Some of the important reasons are as follows:

1) The production of sugarcane per hectare is higher is Peninsular India. In fact,

sugarcane crop grows well in the tropical climate of south India.

2) The sucrose contents is higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane grown in the south.

3) The crushing season in south India is longer than in north India.

4) In south India most of the mills have modern machinery.

5) Most of the mills in Peninsular India are in cooperative sector, where profit
maximization is not the sole objective

[su_heading size="21"]Distribution and changing pattern of Petro- chemicals

industry[/su_heading]

Petro-chemicals are derived from petroleum or natural gas.Products such as

Toothbrushes, toothpaste, combs, hairpins, soap cases, plastic mugs, garments,
radiocaes, ball point pens, detergents, electric switches, lipstick, insecticides, bags, bed
covers, and foam are some of the goods made from petro-chemicals. The share of
offshore crude oil production was about 50.2%. The remaining crude oil production was
from 6 States viz., Andhra Pradesh (0.7%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.2%), Assam (12.1%),
Gujarat (12.5%), Rajasthan (23.7%) and Tamil Nadu (0.6%).

Besides Vadodara, Gandhar, and Hazira in Gujarat and Nagathone in Maharashtra are
other important centres of petro-chemical industry. India is self sufficient in the
production of petrochemicals.

[su_heading size="21"]Weber's theory of industrial location-its relevance in the modern

world.[/su_heading]

Page 143
 Module (Geography)

Weber's main point was that the cost of transport (another theory on this) determined
the location of industry. Therefore, he uses Von Thunen's idea (that the cost of transport
determines crop selection) and applies it to industry. Similar to Von Thunen, the weight
of the raw materials and the weight of the end product (this difference is known as the
material index) will determine the site of production depending upon how much the
industry is willing to pay to get its product to the market (connecting to Christaller's
ideas of market area). Weber's theory rest primarily on four such sites, what he calls
industrial orientations

 Material orientation
 Labor orientation
 Transport orientation
 Market orientation

He analyzed the factors that determine the location of industry and classified these
factors into two divisions. These are:

(i) Primary causes of regional distribution of industry (regional factors)

(ii) Secondary causes (agglomerative and deglomerative factors) that are responsible for
redistribution of industry.

The three locational factors explained by weber in his theory of industrial location are:-

 Transport cost
 labour cost
 agglomeration economies

Weber uses the location triangle within which the optimal is located based on the three
locational factors.

Page 144