Science @ Technology

National Policy for Science and Technology

The thrust of the Scientific Policy Resolution, 1958 was on capacity-building in advancement
of science as the foundation for making a strong nation, which had just freed itself from the
shackles of colonial domination . The focus of the Technology Policy Statement, 1983 was
attainment of technological self-reliance and building of national strength by reducing
vulnerability in strategic areas .

The Science and Technology Policy, 2003 launched a massive programme for attracting our
best talents to the arena of research in basic sciences, so that India continues to earn respect in
a competitive knowledge society.

The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (STIP), 2013 has put our science, technology
an innovation (STI) system as the driver for faster, sustainable and inclusive growth .

The latest policy envisages creation of a new STI ecosystem, which finds solutions to societal
problems and facilitates the entire innovation chain from knowledge to wealth creation, while
at the same time attracting best students to this area, ensuring a premier position for India in
the scientific world.

Investments in Science and Technology

 Global investments in science, technology and innovation are estimated at $1.2

trillion as of 2009. India‘s R&D investment is less than 2.5% of this and is currently
under 1 % of the GDP.
 Increasing Gross Expenditure in Research and Development (GERD) to 2% of the
GDP has been a national goal for some time.
 Achieving this in the next five years is realizable if the private sector raises its R&D
investment to at least match the public sector R&D investment from the current ratio
of around 1 :3. The new paradigm is ―Science technology and innovation for the

people‖.

Position in Research Publications

 The gross budgetary support for the science and technology sector has significantly
increased during the last decade. The impact of such increase is becoming evident.
 India ranks ninth globally in the number of scientific publications and 12th in the
number of patents filed. The Composite Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of Indian
publications is around 12±1% and India‘s global share has increased from 1.8% in
2001 to 3.5% in 2011.
 But the percentage of Indian publications in the top 1 % impact making journals is
only 2.5%.

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 By 2020, the global share of publications must double and the number of papers in the
top 1 % journals must quadruple from the current levels.

Key Elements:

 Promoting the spread of scientific temper amongst all sections of society.

 Enhancing skill for applications of science among the young from all social strata.
 Making careers in science, research and innovation attractive enough for talented and
bright minds.
 Establishing world class infrastructure for R&D for gaining global leadership in some
select frontier areas of science.
 Positioning India among the top five global scientific powers by 2020.
 Linking contributions of science, research and innovation system with the inclusive
economic growth agenda and combining priorities of excellence and relevance.
 Creating an environment for enhanced Private Sector Participation in R&D.
 Enabling conversion of R&D outputs into societal and commercial applications by
replicating hitherto successful models as well as establishing of new PPP structures.
 Seeding S&T-based high-risk innovations through new mechanisms.
 Fostering resource-optimized, cost-effective innovations across size and technology
domains.
 Triggering changes in the mindset and value systems to recognize, respect and reward
performances which create wealth from S& T derived knowledge.
 Creating a robust national innovation system

Focus of the Policy

 Facilitating private sector investment in R&D centres in India and overseas.

 Promoting establishment of large R&D facilities in PPP mode with provisions for
benefits sharing.
 Permitting multi stakeholders participation in the Indian R&D system.
 Treating R&D in the private sector at par with public institutions for availing public
funds. Bench marking of R&D funding mechanisms and patterns globally.
 Modifying IPR policy to provide for marching rights for social good when supported
by public funds and for co-sharing IPRs generated under PPP.
 Launching newer mechanisms for nurturing Technology Business Incubators (TBls)
and science-led entrepreneurship.
 Providing incentives for commercialization of innovations with focus on green
manufacturing Important Observations Policy places greater thrust on innovation,
establishing research institutes and encourage women scientists with an aim to
position itself among the top five scientific powers in the world by 2020.
 It talks about modifying the intellectual property regime to provide for marching
rights for social good when supported by public funds and co-sharing of patents
generated in the public private partnership mode.
 Aims at producing and nurturing talent in science, to stimulate research in
universities, to develop young leaders in the field of science and to reward
performance.

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 Seeks to create a policy environment for greater private sector participation in

research and innovation and to forge international alliances and collaborations to meet
the national agenda.
 Talks of raising gross expenditure in R&D to two per cent of GDP from the current
one per cent in this decade by encouraging enhanced private sector contribution.
 Seeks to trigger an ecosystem for innovative abilities to flourish by leveraging
partnerships among diverse stakeholders and by encouraging and facilitating
enterprises to invest in innovations.

Criticism:

The policy hardly describes any structural or procedural changes which will achieve the
grand goal of integrating science, technology and innovation to create value in an inclusive
manner.

Energy demand of the country

The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.5%
global share in 2016.The electricity generation target of conventional sources for the year
2017-18 has been fixed as 1229.400 Billion Unit (BU). i.e. growth of around 5.97% over
actual conventional generation of 1160.141 BU for the previous year (2016-17). The
conventional generation during 2016-17 was 1160.141 BU as compared to 1107.822 BU
generated during 2015-16, representing a growth of about 4.72 %.

India has become power surplus from chronic power shortage. Record capacity additionof
around one-fifth of current conventional power capacity and solar power capacity addition of
157% in the last two years led to a boost in power generation. The highest-ever increase in
transmission lines and sub-stations improved the transmission scenario resulting in energy
deficit falling to lowest ever of 2.1% in 2015-16.

Energy Crisis can be described as a situation in which a country suffers from frequent
disruptions in energy supplies because of large and increasing gaps between availability and
demand of electricity accompanied by rapidly increasing energy prices that threaten
economic and social development of the nation.

 Our over-dependence on limited and exhaustible sources of energy such as our coal
and oil deposits.
 Increasing gap in the demand and supply of the energy.
 Ever increasing prices of the energy and fuel from other countries.
 Reluctance in using alternative and renewable sources of energy, such as solar,wind,
bio-energy, etc..
 Overuse and misuse of the available sources of energy.

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Conventional and Non-conventional sources of

energy
Conventional and Non Conventional Sources of Energy

Main Sources of Energy:

The sources of energy are of following types:

1. Conventional Sources of Energy:

These sources of energy are also called non renewable sources. These sources of energy are
in limited quantity except hydro-electric power.

(a) Coal and Lignite:

Coal is the major source of energy. Coal deposits in India are 148790 million tonnes. Total
lignite reserves found at Neyveli are 3300 million tonnes. In 1950-51, annual production of
coal was 32 million tonnes. In 2005-06, annual production of coal was 343 million tonnes.

Lignite production was 20.44 million tonnes in 2005-06. According to an estimate, coal
reserves in India would last about 130 years. India is now the fourth largest coal producing
country in the world. Coal deposits are mainly found in Orissa, Bihar, Bengal and Madhya
Pradesh. It provides employment to 7 lakh workers.

(b) Oil and Natural Gas:

In India it is found in upper Assam, Mumbai High and in Gujarat. The resources of oil are
small in India.

In 1950-51, the total production of oil in India was 0.3 million tonnes. It increased to 32.4
million tonnes in 2000-01. Despite tremendous increase in oil production.India still imports
70% of has oil requirements from abroad. In 1951, there was only one oil refinery in Assam.

After independence 13 such refineries were set up in public sector and their refining capacity
was 604 lakh tonnes. After implementation of economic reforms, private refineries are also
engaged in oil refining. As per current rate of consumption, oil reserves in India may last
about 20 to 25 years.

Electricity

There are three main sources of power generation:

1. Thermal Power
2. Hydro-electric power
3. Nuclear Power
4. Thermal Power:

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It is generated in India at various power stations with the help of coal and oil. It has been a
major source of electric power. In 2004-05, its share in total installed capacity was 70
percent.

2. Hydro electric Power:

It is produced by constructing dams over overflowing rivers. For example BhakraNangal

Project, Damodor Valley Project and Hirakund Project etc. In 1950-51, installed capacity of
hydro-electricity was 587.4 MW and in 2004-05, it was 19600 MW.

3. Nuclear Power:

India has also developed nuclear power. Nuclear Power plants use uranium as fuel. This fuel
is cheaper than coal. India has nuclear power plants at Tarapur, Kota (Rajasthan) Kalapakam
(Chennai) Naroura (UP). Its supply accounts for only 3 percent of the total installed capacity.

POWER FROM NON CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

India is one of the fastest growing countries in terms of energy consumption. Currently, it is
the fifth largest consumer of energy in the world, and will be the third largest by 2030. At the
same time; the country is heavily dependent on fossil sources of energy for most of its
demand. This has necessitated the country to start aggressively pursuing alternative energy
sources - solar, wind, biofuels, small hydro and more.

1. Wind Energy

India‗s wind power potential has been assessed at 48500 MW. The current technical potential
is estimated at about 13 000 MW, assuming 20% grid penetration, which would increase with
the augmentation of grid capacity in potential states. The state-wise gross and technical
potentials are given below India is implementing the world's largest wind resource
assessment program comprising wind monitoring, wind mapping and complex terrain
projects.

1. Hydro Energy

Hydro power is the largest renewable energy resource being used for the generation of
electricity. The 50,000 MW hydro initiatives have been already launched and are being
vigorously pursued with DPRs for projects of 33,000 MW capacity already under
preparation. Harnessing hydro potential speedily will also facilitate economic development of
States, particularly North-Eastern States, Sikkim, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and J&K,
since a large proportion of our hydro power potential islocated in these States. In India, hydro
power projects with a station capacity of up to 25 megawatt (MW) each fall under the
category of small hydro power (SHP).

1. Solar Energy

India is a solar rich country. India is a country near the equator – which means that given its
geographical location, it is subject to a large amount of solar radiation throughout the year.
India is also, according to area, the 7th largest country in the world.

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The average solar radiation received by most parts of India range from about 4 to 7 kilowatt
hours per meter square per day, with about 250-300 sunny days in a year. As can be seen
from the solar radiation map above, the highest annual solar radiation is received by
Rajasthan (desert area) and the lowest by the North eastern states of India.

1. Biomass energy

Globally, India is in the fourth position in generating power through biomass and with a huge
potential, is poised to become a world leader in the utilization of biomass. Biomass power
projects with an aggregate capacity of 773.3 MW through over 100 projects have been
installed in the country. For the last 15 years, biomass power has become an industry
attracting annual investment of over Rs. 1,000 billion, generating more than 09 billion unit of
electricity per year. More than 540 million tons of crop and plantation residues are produced
every year in India and a large portion is either wasted, or used inefficiently.

69. E) Energy from Wastes: The rising piles of garbage in urban areas caused by rapid
urbanization and industrialization throughout India represent another source of
nonconventional energy. An estimated 50 million tones of solid waste and
approximately 6,000 million cubic meters of liquid waste are generated annually in
the urban areas of India. Good potential exists for generating approximately 2,600
MW of power from urban and municipal wastes and approximately 1,300 MW from
industrial wastes in India. A total of 48 projects with aggregate capacity of about
69.62 MWeq have been installed in the country thereby utilising only 1.8% of the
potential that exists.
70. F) Biofuels: The GOI recently mandated the blending of 10 percent fuel ethanol in 90
percent gasoline. This mandate as created an approximately 3.6 billionliter demand
for fuel ethanol in blend mandate to the entire country. This significant demand
growth creates a tremendous manufacturing opportunity for the fuel ethanol industry
seeking to expand its investments internationally

Nuclear Energy : its merits and demerits

Nuclear Energy

Introduction

Global energy demand continues to climb as the industrialized world‘s energy use rises,
millions pull themselves out of poverty in developing countries, and the world population
expands. Thus, the debate over the energy supply of the future intensifies. This debate is
complicated by ongoing global climate destabilization as a result of green house gas (GHG)
emissions produced largely from combustion of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for
energy. These scientific findings and economic threats have catalyzed commitments by many
industrialized countries to curb GHG emissions, which in turn have created an enormous
need for large-scale sources of energy alternatives to the polluting and potentially dwindling
economic supplies of fossil fuels. Nuclear technology is often proposed as a solution or as

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part of the solution for a sustainable energy supply. In fact, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) recommended nuclear power as a key mitigation technology that is
currently commercially available. The term sustainability, however, has numerous meanings
that range from the light (pale) green definitions that normally refer to near-term financial
sustainability to dark green long-term multi-faceted descriptions of sustainability. Here the
concept of just sustainability, which includes what has been called the equity deficit of

environmental sustainability, will be used as if

these requirements are met so will those of the other weaker definitions.

This conception of sustainable development focuses equally on four conditions:

 improving our quality of life and well-being

 On meeting the needs of both present and future generations (intra- and
intergenerational equity)
 On justice and equity in terms of recognition, process, procedure and outcome
 On the need for us to live within ecosystem limit.

Advantages

 Nuclear power generation does emit relatively low amounts of CO2. Nowadays global
warming because of the greenhouse gases is a hot topic. The contribution of nuclear
power to global warming is relatively little. This is a great advantage of nuclear power
plants. Otherwise we have to reconsider that the water used in the cooling towers
produces H2O vapors, which is the number 1 greenhouse gas. H2O causes about 2/3
of the greenhouse effect. This is because of a positive feedback mechanism. If the
earth warms up, there will be more H2O vapors in the air, which reinforce the
greenhouse effect.
 Nuclear power plants already exist and are available worldwide. So in comparison to,
for example, nuclear fusion, the technology does not have to be developed first. Also
other new technologies (wind energy, solar energy, …) are still in its infancy.

 Coal-fired power plants, like this one emit pollutants that can contribute to climate
change, decreased air quality and acid rain. Compared to coal, nuclear power
production results in very little atmospheric pollution. In 2010, massive fossil fuel
emissions brought the air quality in Hong Kong dangerously low; residents were
advised to remain indoors for safety. Nuclear power plants won't create smog like
this.

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 While nuclear plants are somewhat expensive to build, a single facility can provide
massive output for years. When this picture was taken in 2000, nuclear power
accounted for almost 20 percent of all the city lights you see within the United States.
 Reliable nuclear technology is already developed. No new innovations are needed to
create nuclear reactors that are relatively safe and efficient. Above, the Australian
Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation opens a new research reactor in 2007.

Disadvantages

 Raw Material

Uranium is used in the process of fission because it's a naturally unstable element.
Unfortunately, this means that while the uranium is being mined, transported and transformed
into the contained pellets used in the fission chamber it is at risk of splitting on its own. This
releases harmful radiation into its surroundings, and can be harmful to those handling the
material. Runoff from the uranium mines poses a dangerous health risk and possible
contamination to water tables.

 Water Pollutant

Nuclear fission chambers are cooled by water. This water is then turned into steam, which is
used to power the turbines. When the water cools enough to change back into liquid form, it
is pumped outside into nearby wetlands. While measures are taken to ensure that no radiation
is being pumped into the environment, other heavy metals and pollutants can make their way
out of the chamber. The immense heat given off by this water can also be damaging to eco
systems located nearby the reactor

 Radioactive Waste

One of the main worries people have about nuclear power is what to do with the radioactive
waste that is generated by the reactors and secondly, what is the safety impact of storing this
waste. However, even though no long-term solution has been found to eliminate the problem
of waste management, the problem is much smaller than is commonly perceived. As can be
seen below, the amount of deaths linked to radioactive waste over the long term are
insignificant, especially when compared to the deaths caused by coal and solar power.

Deaths per 1,000 MW plant per year of operation due to waste:

One of the reasons for this low death rate is that the quantities of radioactive waste generated
by a reactor are not large. In fact, the waste produced by a nuclear reactor is equivalent to the
size of a coin per person, per year (Lauvergon 2003). It has even been calculated that ―if the
United States went completely nuclear for all its electric power for 10,000 years, the amount
of land needed for waste disposal would be about what is needed for the coal ash that is
currently generated every two weeks‖ (Cohen 1990). Worldwide, 40,000 tonnes of waste are

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generated annually, 15,000 tonnes being spent fuel and the 25,000 remaining tonnes, low
level radioactive materials such as protective clothing or shielding (Cohen 1990).

 Reactor Safety

The reputation of nuclear power as an unsafe energy source is grossly unfair and due mainly
to the Chernobyl catastrophe. It is possible to see that of all major electricity sources, nuclear
is by far the source with the lowest number of fatalities, with the possible exception of
renewables (for which figures aren‘t available). Additionally, these figures don‘t take into
account premature deaths caused by pollution. If included, this would place traditional energy
sources even further behind nuclear power in terms of safety.

 Proliferation Risks

The necessary raw material needed to construct a nuclear weapon is highly enriched uranium
or plutonium. Enrichment technology can be used to produce highly enriched uranium.
Reprocessing – certainly when the fuel has only been used in the reactor for a short time –
could be used to separate out plutonium suitable for use in a nuclear weapon. International
agreements have been concluded (the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Additional
Protocol) to make trading in nuclear material and technology and the distribution of the
know-how required to construct nuclear installations subject to international supervision.
This means control of the peaceful use of nuclear energy technology and security of nuclear
fuel. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) pursues initiatives to eventually bring
all enrichment and reprocessing installations under international supervision. At the moment,
the situation is not yet adequate.

 Emissions

While greenhouse gas emissions have a potential worldwide impact through global warming
and climate change, SOx, NOx and particulate matters have regional or local impacts.

 Complexity in Operation

This source of energy has a load factor of 80% and future reactors will be able to produce
electricity 90% of the time. This is second only to fossil fuels. However, nuclear power does
face a problem. It takes 24 hours to get a plant up and running. This means that nuclear plants
cannot easily adjust to fluctuating demand. This is why nuclear plants tend to be turned on
constantly except during maintenance when other sources, usually fossil fuels, tend to be
used to adjust for demand.

Among the risks associated with nuclear energy are the threat of terrorism and proliferation,
and one point of discussion is therefore whether expansion of nuclear energy in the
Netherlands would pose greater security risks than in the current situation, with only a single
nuclear power station.

There are three types of terrorism threat:

 The use of explosives to disperse radioactive material; this is sometimes referred to as

a ―dirty bomb‖. Construction of a dirty bomb does not require any material from the
nuclear fuel cycle. Radioactive material is also present outside the nuclear energy

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sector, for example at hospitals. Security measures for the fuel cycle must therefore be
aimed at preventing material falling into the hands of terrorists.
 Acquisition of a nuclear weapon by a terrorist organisation. The size and complexity
of the necessary equipment means that it is no simple matter for a terrorist
organisation to develop and construct a nuclear weapon. Security for nuclear
installations must be aimed at minimising the risk of terrorist attacks.
 An attack on a nuclear installation, storage site, or transport of radioactive material
with the intention of causing radioactive substances to be released, thus contaminating
the surrounding area. Security systems that close down the reactor automatically in
the event of operator error also restrict the potential threat arising from any terrorist
takeover of the power station. Designers of nuclear installations and transport
containers also take account of the possibility of terrorist attacks. The US Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) has proposed that there should be explicit design
requirements for new nuclear power stations as regards resistance to attack using an
airliner.

Trends in Nuclear Policy, NPT and CTBT.

Nuclear policy of india

 Important points of india‘s nuclear policy are as follows:

 Building and maintaining a credible minimum deterrent.
 nuclear weapons will only be used in retaliation against a nuclear attack on Indian
Territory or on Indian forces elsewhere.
 Nuclear retaliation to a first strike will be massive and designed to inflict
unacceptable damage.
 Nuclear retaliatory attack can be authorized by a certain political leadership only
through NCA ( nuclear command authority) .
 No-use of nuclear weapons against non-nuclear weapon state.
 In the event of a major attack against India or Indian forces anywhere by biological or
chemical weapons. India will retain the option of retaliating with nuclear weapons.
 Continuance of strict control on export of nuclear and missile related materials and
technology, participation in the fissile material cut off treaty negotiations and
continued observance of the moratorium on nuclear tests.
 Continued commitment to the goal of a nuclear-free world through global verifiable
and no discriminatory nuclear disarmament.

India's "minimum credible nuclear deterrence" doctrine and "no first use" policy are based on
the concept of deterrence by denial, rather than deterrence by punishment. Should deterrence
ever break down, India will have to pay an enormous price for a nuclear first strike by an
adversary before launching massive punitive retaliation. Nuclear doctrine has to be ultimately
tested in the crucible of operational reality. Across the entire spectrum of conventional

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conflict, the first use of nuclear weapons by India does not make sound strategic sense. The
real distinguishing feature of India's nuclear doctrine is that it is anchored in India's continued
commitment to global, verifiable and non-discriminating nuclear disarmament.

The concept of deterrence by denial, rather than deterrence by punishment, is central to

Indian strategic thinking. However, by voluntarily renouncing its sovereign right of the first
use of nuclear weapons to defeat nuclear threats and to prevent nuclear blackmail, India has
made an immense strategic sacrifice and imposed a heavy burden upon itself. The
government and key decision-makers recognise that should deterrence ever break down, India
will have to pay an enormous price for a nuclear first strike by an adversary before retaliating
in kind. Hundreds of thousands of Indian lives will be lost and more than one city may be
turned into rubble. Hence, India's no first use doctrine demands a robust, infallible and
potentially insuperable nuclear deterrent capability to ensure that India never has to suffer a
nuclear strike.

The government also affirmed that India's nuclear threat perceptions were not country
specific. On December 15, 1998, Prime Minister Vajpayee spelt out the principal elements of
India's nuclear policy in a statement in Parliament. India's resolve to preserve its nuclear
independence, minimum nuclear deterrence, no first use, non-use of nuclear weapons against
non-nuclear powers, and a firm commitment to the elimination of nuclear weapons. The
Prime Minister also reiterated India's willingness to sign the CTBT and re-stated India's
readiness to work towards the successful conclusion of the Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty
(FMCT). At the Non-Aligned Summit in Durban in 1998, the Movement accepted India's
proposal for an international conference to arrive at an agreement on a phased programme for
the complete elimination of all nuclear weapons. At the Millennium Summit of the United
Nations in September 2000, the Indian Prime Minister asserted that India's policy is based on
"responsibility and restraint" and that India would continue to press for universal, verifiable
nuclear disarmament with undiminished commitment, even while safeguarding "our strategic
space and autonomy in decision-making. International peace cannot be divorced from the
need for equal and legitimate security for all.

New trends in india’s nuclear policy

More than a decade since the nuclear doctrine was unveiled by the government, several
organizations and individuals have commented on it. Some of them have been critical of the
no-first-use doctrine. Experts says no first use is not the least credible, because it requires
India to first absorb a nuclear attack before responding to enemy‘s attack.

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In 2011, BJP leader Jaswant Singh had asked for abandonment of the no first use policy but
the UPA government decided to maintain status quo. Former prime minister Manmohan
Singh, while speaking at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, New Delhi, on April
2, 2014, called for a global ―no-first-use‖ norm. He said, ―States possessing nuclear weapons
must quickly move to the establishment of a global no-first-use norm. This was followed by
the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) promising in its election manifesto to ―study in detail India‘s
nuclear doctrine, and revise and update it, to make it relevant to challenges of current
times…‖ and to ―maintain a credible minimum deterrent that is in tune with changing
geostrategic realities.

Criticism of the nuclear doctrine has mainly been centered on a few key issues: No first use
may result in unacceptably high initial casualties and damage to Indian population, cities, and
infrastructure, massive retaliation is not credible, especially against a tactical nuclear strike
on Indian forces on the adversary‘s own territory; nuclear retaliation for chemical or
biological attack would be illogical, especially as the attack may be by nonstate actors; and it
would be difficult to determine what constitutes a ―major‖ chemical or biological strike.

Most recently, Lt. Gen. B.S. Nagal (Ret.), former commander in chief, Strategic Forces
Command, and later head of the Strategic Planning Staff at the National Security Council
Secretariat, has questioned the efficacy of the NFU doctrine. According to him, ―It is time to
review our policy of no first use. The choices are ambiguity or first use.‖ He gives six main
reasons for seeking a change: no first use implies acceptance of large-scale destruction in a
first strike, the Indian public is not in sync with the government‘s no first use policy and the
nation is not psychologically prepared, it would be morally wrong, the leadership has no right
to place the population in peril. No first use allows the adversary‘s nuclear forces to escape
punishment as retaliatory strikes will have to be counter value in nature, an elaborate and
costly ballistic missile defense system would be required to defend against a first strike; and
escalation control is not possible once nuclear exchanges begin.

Recently india‘s Defence minister Manohar parrikar questioned no first use policy . Speaking
in New Delhi at the launch of Brigadier (retd) Gurmeet Kanwal‘s book The New
Arthashastra, Parrikar said: ―Why a lot of people say that India has No First Use policy. Why
should I bind myself . I should say I am a responsible nuclear power and I will not use it
irresponsibly. This is my thinking. However later he clarified this was his individual thinking.

There has again been speculation recently about India's nuclear doctrine and the value of its
no first-use-posture. The reason for the kerfuffle this time are a couple of sentences in former
national security advisor Shivshankar Menon's book, Choices: Inside the Making of Indian
Foreign Policy. Menon writes ―There is a potential grey area as to when India would use
nuclear weapons first against another NWS (nuclear weapons state). Circumstances are
conceivable in which India might find it useful to strike first, for instance, against an NWS
that had declared it would certainly use its weapons, and if India were certain that adversary‘s
launch was imminent.

??The core principles of the Indian nuclear policy have remained unchanged, as has its
commitment to a world free from nuclear weapons. Gradually, India has been integrating
itself with the non-proliferation regime. Meanwhile, India has joined a number of non-
proliferation mechanisms of which it was skeptical before. India is now formally the
35th member of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) -- an association of
countries that share the goals of non-proliferation of delivery systems for nuclear weapons.

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India is also actively seeking membership of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). The twenty
first century is watching remarkable changes in India's nuclear policy but for now core of
India‘s nuclear policy is still the same.

NPT ( NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY)

The NPT is a landmark international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of
nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of
nuclear energy and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and
complete disarmament. The Treaty represents the only binding commitment in a multilateral
treaty to the goal of disarmament by the nuclear-weapon States. Opened for signature in
1968, the Treaty entered into force in 1970. On 11 May 1995, the Treaty was extended
indefinitely. A total of 191 States have joined the Treaty, including the five nuclear-weapon
States. More countries have ratified the NPT than any other arms limitation and disarmament
agreement, a testament to the Treaty‘s significance.

Silent provisions of non-proliferation treaty are as follows:

Each nuclear weapon state party to this treaty undertakes not to transfer to any recipient
whatsoever, nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or control over such
weapons or explosive devices directly or indirectly; and not in any way to assist, encourage
or induce any non-nuclear weapon state to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons
or other nuclear explosive devices.

Each non-nuclear weapon state party to this treaty undertakes not to receive as transfer from
any power whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of control
over such weapons, explosives, directly or indirectly; not to manufacture or otherwise acquire
nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices; and not to seek or receive any assistance
in the manufacture of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices.

All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the
fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological
information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do
so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international
organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful
purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with
due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world.

This treaty shall enter into force after its ratification by all nuclear-weapons states signatory
to this treaty and by other states signatory to this treaty, after the deposit of their instrument
of ratification. For the purpose of this treaty, a nuclear weapons state is one which has
manufactured and exploded a nuclear weapon or other nuclear explosive device prior to 1st
January, 1967.

Each party shall, in exercising its national sovereignty, have the right to withdraw from the
treaty if it decided that extra-ordinary events, related to the subject-matter of this treaty, have
jeopardized the supreme interests of its country. It shall give notice of such withdrawal to all
other parties to the treaty and the United Nations Security Council three months in advance.
Such a notice shall include a statement of the extraordinary events it regards as having
jeopardized its supreme interests.

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India and criticism of NPT INDIA NOT A PART OF NPT

 India thinks NPT is discriminatory. There are two types of members in the NPT -
Nuclear Weapons State and Non-Nuclear Weapons State. Only five countries
(including China) who had fired a nuclear device before 1970 were given the status of
Nuclear Weapons State. Any other nation who wished to sign the NPT, had to do so
as a Non-Nuclear Weapons State. India exploded its first nuclear device in 1974 - this
implies that the only option by which India could sign the NPT is being a Non-
Nuclear Weapons State.
 India needs a minimum nuclear deterrant. If India signs the NPT as a Non-Nuclear
Weapons State, India cannot even keep a minimal nuclear deterrant. In the light of the
wars waged with neighbours China and Pakistan, this option seems suicidal, given
China and Pakistan themselves have nuclear weapons. Therefore even popular
political support, across the political spectrum, has been towards nuclear weapons
program, rather than signing the NPT.
 NPT unduly tried to legitimize the power gap between nuclear and non-clear nations.
 It did not provide for either disarmament or arms control in international relations.
 It failed to check the N-programmes of France and China which, in violation of the
Moscow Partial Test Ban Treaty, continued the policy of conducting nuclear tests.

On the basis of these arguments, critics asserted that NPT failed to solve the problem of
nuclear weapons in international relations. It failed to provide any scheme or plan for nuclear
disarmament or arms control. Its first review was done in 1975, the second in 1980 and the
third in October 1985, but these three reviews failed to secure or improve the realization of
the provisions of this treaty

India's former External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee said during a visit to Tokyo in
2007: "If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-
proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognize the
need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment."

Comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty ( CTBT )

The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is the Treaty banning all nuclear
explosions - everywhere, by everyone. The Treaty was negotiated at the Conference on
Disarmament in Geneva and adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996. It
opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996, when it was signed by 71 States,
including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. As of October 2016, 166 states
have ratified the CTBT and another 17 states have signed but not ratified it.

The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty
have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT‘s negotiations
between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that
time. As of 2016, eight Annex 2 states have not ratified the
treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the
Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it.

Silent features of CTBT are as follows:

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 The Treaty banned every kind of nuclear weapons test or nuclear explosion.
 An international monitoring system was to be set up for checking violations of CTBT.
 Any underground, atmospheric or underwater explosions more powerful than the
equivalent of 1,000 tones of conventional explosive was to be detected by a network
of 20 stations.
 Further, based on information collected by the international monitoring system or
through surveillance by individual countries (but not through spying activities), any
country could request an inspection to see whether an explosion had been carried out
or not. A request for an inspection was to require 30 votes in the 51-member
Executive Council.

India and criticism of CTBT

In May 1998, India and Pakistan conducted a series of nuclear tests. Not only did this jolt the
nonproliferation regime, the tests also broke a global moratorium on nuclear testing that had
been in existence since July 1996, a moratorium that had been reinforced by the adoption of
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996. For India, the tests were the
culmination of a major turnaround in policy. When the negotiations that led to the CTBT
commenced in 1994, India in fact displayed enthusiasm for the treaty. However, by the time
negotiations concluded in 1996, India had emerged as the treaty‘s strongest opponent. On
June 20, 1996, India declared its unwillingness to sign the CTBT, stating that because the
treaty ―is not conceived as a measure towards universal nuclear disarmament. India cannot
subscribe to it in its present form.‖2 On September 10, 1996, when the CTBT was adopted at
the United Nations, India stated that it would ―never sign this unequal Treaty, not now, nor
later.

India‘s interest in a test ban was first outlined in an April 1954 speech to the Indian
Parliament, when Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru called for an end to nuclear testing as a
stepping stone towards nuclear disarmament. Nehru stated that, ―Pending progress towards
some solution, full or partial, in respect of the prohibition and elimination of these weapons
of mass destruction, the Government of India would consider, some sort of what may be
called a standstill agreement‖ on ending nuclear testing. In the following decades, New Delhi
remained enthusiastic about disarmament. But it simultaneously opposed the NPT and CTBT
for ideological and security reasons. India‘s rationale behind its stand are as follows:

India felt that the CTBT was inadequate in terms of securing disarmament commitments from
the nuclear weapon states under declared deadlines. It saw this as a discriminatory replication
of the imbalance inherent in the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) regime, in which
nuclear weapon states are weakly obligated to disarm and non-nuclear weapon states are
strongly obligated to remain non-nuclear. The lack of commitments by the nuclear weapon
states to eliminate their nuclear weapons under a declared time frame also compelled India to
oppose Article XIV of the NPT, which stipulates the CTBT's entry into force after 44 "Annex
2" countries sign and ratify it.

India‘s argument is that his strategic program needs to be safeguarded until a credible
disarmament process begins. On a sublime note, some in India will contend that the CTBT
remains improvident until the nuclear weapon states commit to a time-bound disarmament
framework. Yet to get the ball rolling on eliminating nuclear weapons, India passes the
responsibility to the permanent five members of the U.N. Security Council (the five nuclear
weapon states recognized under the NPT). India cannot accept any restraints on its capability

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if other countries remain unwilling to accept the obligation to eliminate their nuclear
weapons."

Space Technology-lndian space programmes.

Application of Satellites for different purposes

Despite being a developing economy with its attendant problems, India has effectively
developed space technology and has applied it successfully for its rapid development and
today is offering a variety of space services globally.

Indian Space Program:

During the formative decade of 1960s, space research was conducted by India mainly with
the help of sounding rockets. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was formed in
1969. Space research activities were provided additional fillip with the formation of the
Space Commission and the Department of Space by the government of India in 1972. And,
ISRO was brought under the Department of Space in the same year.

In the history of the Indian space programme, 70s were the era of Experimentation during
which experimental satellite programmes like Aryabhatta, Bhaskara, Rohini and Apple were
conducted. The success of those programmes, led to era of operationalisation in 80s during
which operational satellite programmes like INSAT and IRS came into being.
Today, INSAT and IRS are the major programmes of ISRO.

For launching its spacecraft indigenously, India is having a robust launch vehicle programme,
which has matured to the state of offering launch services to the outside world. Antrix, the
commercial arm of the Department of Space, is marketing India‘s space services globally.
Fruitful co-operation with other space faring nations, international bodies and the developing
world is one of the main characteristics of India's space programme.

The most significant milestone of the Indian Space Programme during the year 2005-2006
was the successful launch of PSLV-C6. On 5 May 2005, the ninth flight of Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C6) from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) SHAR, Sriharikota
successfully placed two satellites - the 1560 kg CARTOSTAR-1 and 42 kg HAMSAT - into a
predetermined polar Sun Synchronous Orbit (SSO). Coming after seven launch successes in a
row, the success of PSLV-C6 further demonstrated the reliability of PSLV and its capability
to place payloads weighing up to 1600 kg satellites into a 600 km high polar SSO.

The successful launch of INSAT-4A, the heaviest and most powerful satellite built by India
so far; on 22 December 2005 was the other major event of the year 2005-06. INSAT-4A is
capable of providing Direct-To-Home (DTH) television broadcasting services.

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Besides, the setting up of the second cluster of nine Village Resource Centres (VRCs) was an
important ongoing initiative of the Department of Space during the year. VRC concept
integrates the capabilities of communications and earth observation satellites to provide a
variety of information emanating from space systems and other IT tools to address the
changing and critical needs of rural communities.

In October 2008, the first lunar mission launched by ISRO. The spacecraft, Chandrayaan took
off from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre and it operated till August 2009. The project was
announced by former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee, as part of his independence day speech in
2003. The greatest achievement of this lunar project was the discovery of a large number of
water molecules in moon. ISRO plans to launch its second lunar mission, Chandrayaan 2 by
2018.

In 2014, Mangalyaan, India‘s first interplanetary mission was launched, making ISRO the
fourth space agency to reach Mars. Mangalyaan gained worldwide repute as being the least
expensive Mars mission till date.

Recently India has launched 104 staellites at one go, which is a world record. The previous
world record is with the Russian space agency with 37 satellites at one go.

India has been launching heavy satellites on its Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle
(GSLV) but so far it has only been used for domestic satellites.In recent months though, there
have been queries from foreign companies for launches on the GSLV.

Application of satellites for different purposes:

Satellites based on application can be categorized as follows:

Earth Observation satellite->

Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing satellites.
Today, India has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in operation.
Currently, *thirteen* operational satellites are in Sun-synchronous orbit – RESOURCESAT-
1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2, OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques,
SARAL and SCATSAT-1, and *four* in Geostationary orbit- INSAT-3D, Kalpana & INSAT
3A, INSAT -3DR. Varieties of instruments have been flown onboard these satellites to
provide necessary data in a diversified spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to cater to
different user requirements in the country and for global usage. The data from these satellites
are used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban planning, rural
development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster
management.

Communication satellite->

The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication
satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites placed
in Geo-stationary orbit. Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a
major revolution in India‘s communications sector and sustained the same later. GSAT-18

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joins the constellation of INSAT System consisting 14 operational satellites, namely -

INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR, 3DR and GSAT-6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15 and 16.

The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C and Ku-bands
provides services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite newsgathering,
societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue
operations.

Navigation satellite->

Satellite Navigation service is an emerging satellite based system with commercial and
strategic applications. ISRO is committed to provide the satellite based Navigation services to
meet the emerging demands of the Civil Aviation requirements and to meet the user
requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing based on the independent satellite
navigation system. To meet the Civil Aviation requirements, ISRO is working jointly with
Airport Authority of India (AAI) in establishing the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
(GAGAN) system. To meet the user requirements of the positioning, navigation and timing
services based on the indigenous system, ISRO is establishing a regional satellite navigation
system called Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS).

(a) GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN):

This is a Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) implemented jointly with Airport
Authority of India (AAI). The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based
Navigation services with accuracy and integrity required for civil aviation applications and to
provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace. The system will be
interoperable with other international SBAS systems and provide seamless navigation across
regional boundaries. The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and
GSAT-10.

(b) Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) : NavIC

This is an independent Indian Satellite based positioning system for critical National
applications. The main objective is to provide Reliable Position, Navigation and Timing
services over India and its neighbourhood, to provide fairly good accuracy to the user. The
IRNSS will provide basically two types of services

Standard Positioning Service (SPS)

Restricted Service (RS)

Space Segment consists of seven satellites, three satellites in GEO stationary orbit (GEO) and
four satellites in Geo Synchronous Orbit (GSO) orbit with inclination of 29° to the equatorial
plane. This constellation of seven satellites was named as "NavIC" (Navigation Indian
Constellation) by the Honourable Prime Minister of India, Mr. Narendra Modi and dedicated
to the Nation on the occasion of successful launch of IRNSS-1G, the seventh and last satellite
of NavIC. All the satellites will be visible at all times in the Indian region. All the seven
Satellites of NavIC, namely, IRNSS-1A, 1B, 1C, ID,1E, 1F and 1G were successfully

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launched on July 02, 2013, Apr 04, 2014, Oct 16, 2014, Mar 28, 2015, Jan 20, 2016, Mar 10,
2016 and Apr 28, 2016 respectively and all are functioning satisfactorily from their
designated orbital positions.

Ground Segment is responsible for the maintenance and operation of the IRNSS
constellation. It provides the monitoring of the constellation status, computation of the orbital
and clock parameters and navigation data uploading. The Ground segment comprises of TTC
& Uplinking Stations, Spacecraft Control Centre, IRNSS Timing Centre, CDMA Ranging
Stations, Navigation Control Centre and Data Communication Links. Space segment is
compatible with single frequency receiver for Standard Positioning Service (SPS), dual
frequency receiver for both SPS & RS service and a multi mode receiver compatible with
other GNSS providers.

Experimental satellite->

ISRO has launched many small satellites mainly for the experimental purposes. This
experiment include Remote Sensing, Atmospheric Studies, Payload Development, Orbit
Controls, recovery technology etc. Example- INS-1A, INS-1B, YOUTHSAT, APPLE

Small satellite->

The small satellite project is envisaged to provide platform for stand-alone payloads for earth
imaging and science missions within a quick turn around time. For making the versatile
platform for different kinds of payloads, two kinds of buses have been configured and
developed.

Indian Mini Satellite -1 (IMS-1): IMS-1 bus has been developed as a versatile bus of 100 kg
class which includes a payload capability of around 30 kg. The bus has been developed using
various miniaturization techniques. The first mission of the IMS-1 series was launched
successfully on April 28th 2008 as a co-passenger along with Cartosat 2A. Youthsat is
second mission in this series and was launched successfully along with Resourcesat 2
on 20th April 2011.

Indian Mini Satellite -2 (IMS-2) Bus: IMS-2 Bus is evolved as a standard bus of 400 kg class
which includes a payload capability of around 200kg. IMS-2 development is an important
milestone as it is envisaged to be a work horse for different types of remote sensing
applications. The first mission of IMS-2 is SARAL. SARAL is a co-operative mission
between ISRO and CNES with payloads from CNES and spacecraft bus from ISRO.

Student/Academic satellite->

ISRO has influenced educational institutions by its activities like making satellites for
communication, remote sensing and astronomy. The launch of Chandrayaan-1 increased the
interest of universities and institutions towards making experimental student satellites.

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Indian missile programme

Introduction

 India's missile programme took a shot from space programme, beginning 1967.
 In 1972, Rohini- a 560 two-stage, solid propulsion sounding rocket was developed
and test fired
 India first launched its small 17-tonne SLV-3 space booster in 1979
 India successfully injected the 35 kg Rohini I satellite into near-earth orbit in 1980.
 In 1987, an augmented booster, the 35-tonne ASLV had begun flight testing.
 In 1983 a decisive shift took place in India‘s missile program with the launch of the
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) The principal aim was
to develop a family of strategic and tactical guided missiles based on local design and
development for three defence services.

Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme

The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was conceived by

renowned scientist DR.A P J Abdul Kalam to enable Indian Attain self-sufficiency in the
filed of Missile Technology.

Prithvi

 The Prithvi missile is a family of tactical surface-to-surface short-range ballistic

missiles(SRBM) and is
 India‘s first indigenously developed ballistic missile.
 it was first test-fired on 25 February 1988 from Sriharikota, SHAR Centre,
 It has a range of up to 150 to 300 km.
 The land variant is called Prithvi while the naval operational variant of Prithvi I and
Prithvi II class missiles are code named Dhanush(meaning Bow).

Agni

Surface to surface intercontinetal ballistic missile.

Agni-I is a single stage, solid fuel, road and rail mobile, medium-range ballistic missiles
(MRBM) This shorter ranger missile is specially designed to strike targets in Pakistan.

Agni II is an operational version of Agni I and is an intermediate range ballistic missile

(IRBM) test-fired in April 1999.

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The range for Agni II is more than 2000 km.

Agni III, an intermediate-range ballistic missile was developed by India as the successor to
Agni II. Intended to be a two-stage ballistic missile capable of nuclear weapons delivery, it is
touted as India‘s nuclear deterrent against China. The missile is likely to support a wide range
of warhead configurations, with a 3,500 km range and a total payload weight of 2490 kg.

Agni V, believed to be an upgraded version of the Agni III The inter-continental ballistic
missile have a range of about 5000-6000 km . Agni V will be able to carry multiple
warheads and would also display countermeasures against anti-ballistic missile systems.

Trishul

Trishul is the name of a short range surface-to-air missile developed by India as a part of the
Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. It has a range of 9 km and is fitted with a
5.5 kg warhead. Designed to be used against low-level (sea skimming) targets at short range,
the system has been developed to defend naval vessels against missiles and also as a short-
range surface-to-air missile on land.

Akash

Akash is a medium range surface-to-air missile developed as part of India‘s Integrated

Guided Missile Development Programme to achieve self-sufficiency in the area of surface-to-
air missiles. It is the most expensive missile project ever undertaken by the Union
government in the 20th century.

Nag

Nag is India‘s third generation ―Fire-and-forget‖ anti-tank missile. It is an all weather, top
attack missile with a range of 3 to 7 km.

Other Missiles

Significant additions also include

PINAKA- the Multi-Barrel Rocket System , an area weapon system to supplement the
existing artillery gun at ranges beyond 30 km, having quick reaction time and high rate of fire
has been accepted by the user after extensive trials.

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BrahMos- being jointly developed with Russia, is a supersonic cruise missile that can be
launched from submarines, ships, aircraft or land.

BrahMos is among the fastest supersonic cruise missiles in the world, at speeds ranging
between Mach 2.5 to 2.8, being about three and a half times faster than the American
subsonic Tomahawk cruise missile. Although BrahMos is primarily an anti-ship missile, it is
also capable of engaging land-based targets.

Nirbhay- cruise missile was announced in 2007—a subsonic missile with a range of 1000
km. Capable of being launched from multiple platforms on land, sea and air. Nirbhay will
supplement BrahMos in the sense that it would enable delivery of warheads farther than the
300 km range of BrahMos.

In 2008, New Delhi announced the end of the IGMDP with the focus now shifting towards
serial production of missiles developed under this programme.

Shaurya- a landbased variant of the K-15 Sagarika which can be stored in underground silos
for longer time and can be launched using gas canisters as booster was successfully test-fired
in November 2008. This nuclear-capable missile aims to enhance India‘s second-strike
Sagarika missile is being integrated with India‘s nuclearpowered Arihant class submarine that
began sea trials in July 2009.

Dhanush- which has been tested several times in recent years believed to be a short-range,
sea-based, liquid-propellant ballistic missile—perhaps a naval variant of the Prithvi series,
with a maximum range of approximately 300 km.

Air-to-air missile Astra- It is an air to air missile Beyond Range (BVR). This is the first
indigenous air-to-air missile developed by India. The range of this missile is 80 km in head-
on chase and 15 km in tail chase.

Ballistic Missile Defence system

Two interceptor missiles, the Prithivi air defence missile and the Advanced Air Defence
(Ashwin) missile are designed to provide a high-low cover against incoming ballistic
missiles. Prithivi is reported to be capable of intercepting missiles at exo-atmospheric
altitudes of 50 – 80km, while the AAD is designed to operate at endo-atmospheric altitudes
of upto 30kms.

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It would be apposite to conclude by stating that India‘s missile programme represents an

iconic image demonstrating sovereignty and self-reliance vis-à-vis its technological
achievements. Resultant of nearly three decades of research, India‘s guided missile
programme has assumed a self-sustaining character and become fundamentally crucial to
New Delhi‘s proposed minimal deterrent.

Remote sensing : GIS and its application In

weather forecasting, disaster warning,
mapping of water, soil, and mineral resources
etc

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without

making physical contact with the object and thus in contrast to on-site observation.

In current usage, the term "remote sensing" generally refers to the use of satellite- or aircraft-
based sensor technologies to detect and classify objects on Earth, including on the surface
and in the atmosphere and oceans, based on propagated signals.

Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geography, land surveying and most
Earth Science disciplines for example, hydrology, ecology, oceanography, glaciology,
geology.It also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian
applications.

GIS

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer based application of technology

involving spatial and attributes information to act as a decision support tool.

It keeps information in different layers and generates various combinations pertaining to the
requirement of the decision-making. In the recent times, GIS has emerged as an effective tool
in management of disasters since, geo-spatial data and socio-economic information need to
be amalgamated for the better decision making in handling a disaster or to plan for tackling a
disaster in a better way.

Applications:

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Disaster Management

The different line departments and agencies who are stakeholders in the disaster management
process could utilize GIS. Some basic hardware like computer system, printer, network
systems, along with GIS software is required to set up the GIS in any organisation.

Objectives:

The prime objectives of developing the GIS database are to help disaster managers at State,
District and Block level for:

1. i) Pre-disaster planning and preparedness

2. ii) Prediction and early warning

iii) Damage assessment and relief management

GIS combines layers of information on various themes to enable the managers to take the
most appropriate decisions under the given circumstances. For disaster management, a GIS
database could be a useful managerial tool for various reasons, some of which are as under:

 Disaster Managers could generate maps both at micro and macro level indicating
vulnerability to different extents under different threat perceptions.
 Locations likely to remain unaffected or remain comparatively safe could be
identified.
 Alternate routes to shelters, camps, and important locations in the event of disruption
of normal surface communication could be worked out.
 Smooth rescue and evacuation operations could be properly planned.
 Rehabilitation and post-disaster reconstruction works could be properly organized.
 Locations suitable for construction of shelters, godowns, housing colonies, etc. can be
scientifically identified.
 Areas where no construction should be taken up or existing habitations require
relocation could be identified.

Hydrology

Remote sensing of hydrologic processes can provide information on locations where in situ
sensors may be unavailable or sparse. It also enables observations over large spatial extents.
Many of the variables constituting the terrestrial water balance, for example surface water
storage, soil moisture, precipitation, evapotranspiration, and snow and ice, are measurable
using remote sensing at various spatial-temporal resolutions and accuracies. Sources of
remote sensing include land-based sensors, airborne sensors and satellite sensors, which can
capture microwave, thermal and near-infrared data or use LIDAR.

Weather forecasting and Ecology

Many ecological research projects would benefit from the creation of a GIS to explore spatial
relationships within and between the data. In particular, while some projects can be done
without using a GIS, many will be greatly enhanced by using it (click here for some examples
of research projects which have used GIS).

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The very act of creating a GIS will make you think about the spatial relationships within your
data, and will help you formulate hypotheses to test or suggest new ones to explore. In
addition, thinking about your data in a spatial manner will help you identify potential spatial
issues and/or biases with your data.

GIS can also be used to make measurements and carry out calculations which would
otherwise be very difficult. For example, a GIS can be used to work out how much of your
study area consists of a specific habitat type, or how much of it is over 1,000m high, or has a
gradient greater than 5º, and so on. Similarly, a GIS can be used to calculate the size of the
home range of an individual or the total area occupied by a specific species or how long your
survey tracks are, or how much survey effort was put into different parts of your study area.

GIS can also be used to link data together in the way that is needed for statistical
analysis. For example, many statistical packages require all your data to be in a single table,
with one line per sample and then information about that sample and the location where it
came from in different columns or fields. A GIS provides you with a way to easily create
such tables and populate it with information, such as the altitude at each location, the gradient
of slope and the direction it faces, from other data sets. This makes preparing your data for
statistical analysis much simpler.

Use of Biotechnology in agriculture, animal

breeding, pharmaceuticals, food technology,
and environmental conservation
Biotechnology and its Applications

Biotechnology is defined as the industrial application of living organisms and their biological
processes such as biochemistry, microbiology, and genetic engineering, in order to make best
use of the microorganisms for the benefit of mankind. Modern biotechnology provides
breakthrough products and technologies to combat debilitating and rare diseases, reduce our
environmental footprint, feed the hungry, use less and cleaner energy, and have safer, cleaner
and more efficient industrial manufacturing processes.

Biotechnology began in the 1970s after the development of genetic engineering that allowed
scientists to modify the genetic material of living cells. Genetic engineering is the
manipulation of DNA molecules to produce modified plants, animals, or other organisms.
DNA is the part of a cell that controls the genetic information of an animal or plant. DNA is a
double-stranded molecule that is present in every cell of an organism. The genetic
information is contained in individual units or sections of DNA called genes. The genes that

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are passed from parent to offspring determine

the traits that the offspring will have.

Applications of Biotechnology

1. Health and medicine

Fighting infectious diseases : Biotechnology is used extensively in the study of infectious

diseases such as SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome), and influenza. As a result
more effective pharmaceuticals have been developed.

Development of vaccines and antibiotics : Using technology, microorganisms are used to

develop antibiotics and vaccines to cure diseases. For example, bacteria Bacillus polymysea
is used to produce polymyxin B (antibiotic used to cure urinary tract infections), fungus
Penicillium notatum is used to produce penicillin (used to cure pneumonia, and many other
bacterial infections.)

Treating genetic disorders : Disease can occur when genes become defective due to
mutations. With advancements in biotechnology, in the near future it will be possible to use
gene therapy to replace an abnormal or faulty gene with a normal copy of the same gene. It
may be used to treat ailments such as heart disease, inherited diseases such as SCID, and
Thalassaemia.

In forensic science : A lot of New techniques have been developed such as DNA
fingerprinting, besides having a number of other applications which have facilitated the
speedy identification of the criminals.

2. Environment

Cleaning up and managing the environment : Cleaning up the environment using living
organisms is called bioremediation. Naturally occurring, as well as genetically modified
microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi and enzymes are used to break down toxic and
hazardous substances present in the environment.

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3. Agriculture

Biotechnology has also made possible the production of crops improved disease resistan;
herbicide-toleran and insecticide-resistan. Plants with improved nutritional value for livestock
have also been obtained through biotechnology.

Control of pests : One application of biotechnology is in the control of insect pests. The
genetic make-up of the pest is changed by causing some mutations. These pests become
sterile and do not reproduce further.

Manufacturing and bio-processing : With the help of new biological techniques it has become
possible to grow, the plants that produce compounds for use in detergents, paints, lubricants
and plastics on large scale.

Food and drinks : Biotechnology, has also made the processing of foods and their products
easier. Preservation and storing of food for consumption later has become easy and cheap
with the help of biotechnology. Seedless grapes and seedless citrus fruits have been
developed using biotechnology.

4. Industry

Biotechnology has been used in the industry to produce new products for human
consumption. Food additives have been developed which help in the preservation of food.
Microorganisms are used in the mass production of items such as cheese, yoghurt, and
alcohol.

Possible adverse effects of biotechnological

interventions
Biotechnology through Genetic engineering has made food crops more resistant to disease,
but the mere act of modification of the naturally selected food crops may actually disturb the
delicate balance of biodiversity which exists in nature causing a disturbance to the natural
balance.

The production of GMOs has negative impacts on the natural ecosystem which are not
apparent now but will be apparent in the future. For example, genetic changes in a particular
plant or animal might render it harmful to another organism higher up in the food chain and
ultimately this effect may build up to destroy the entire food chain in which that plant plays a
role.

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GMOs have been known to retain some of the genetically modified DNA in the final product
made for human consumption. Such remnants of genetic material are harful to human health
and can cause production of previously unknown allergens.

Genetically modified plants and animals have the potential to replace traditional farming or
say poultry and meat-producing practices. This will result in destruction of economies based
on these products.

In the context of applications of genetic engineering in human life, misuse of this technology
in the production of biological warfare or weapons is a very major disadvantage.

Genetic engineering is being used to create human organs but in the long run if it can create
genetically modified, perfect human specimens who are better than the creators than this may
be disastrous.

Nature selection in man and the resulting diversity of the human genetic pool is essential for
the survival of the species. Genetic engineering will interfere with this process too causing
unknown complications.

Information technology: Computers and its

application in data processing
Basics of Computers

Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. Data can be anything
like marks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height,
etc. of all the students in a class.

A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of information
and then ?process‗ that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such as
calculating numbers or organising words.

Computer can also be defined in terms of functions it can perform. A computer can i) accept
data, ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the stored data as and when
required and v) print the result in desired format.

Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that can support
concurrent programs. That means, they can perform different actions or ?processes‗ at the
same time. Mainframe computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users
at the same time. Large organisations may use a mainframe computer to execute large-scale

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processes such as processing the organisation‗s payroll. Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-
processing computers. Again, they can perform several actions at the same time and can
support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously. Workstations are powerful, single-user
computers. They have the capacity to store and process large quantities of data, but they are
only used by one person at a time.

All the components of Computer can be classified as:-

1. Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system
by the user for processing. b. Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data
and instructions before and after processing. c.Output Unit: The output unit is used for
storing the result as output produced by the computer after processing. d.Processing:
The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called
processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and

instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions
given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. CPU includes
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)

Input devices accept data and instructions from the user. For Example 1. Keyboard 2. Mouse
3. Light Pen 4. Optical/magnetic Scanner 5. Touch Screen 6. Microphone for voice as input
7. Track Ball

Output devices return processed data that is information, back to the user. Some of the
commonly used output devices are:

1. Monitor (Visual Display Unit) 2. Printers 3. Plotter 4. Speakers

Software is the computerised instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and
execute particular functions or tasks.

Programming language: An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and syntax used to instruct the
computer to execute certain tasks.

Computer program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry

out a process.

Data processing is the act of handling or manipulating data in some fashion.Regardless of the
activities involved in it, processing tries to assign meaning to data. Thus, the ultimate goal of
processing is to transform data into information.Data processing is the process through which
facts and figures are collected,assigned meaning, communicated to others and retained for
future use. Various steps of Data processing can be categorized as follows:-

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Advantages of using computer in Data Processing:

1. It increases the speed of the computation and data processing.
2. It can handle huge volume of the data, which is normally not possible manually.
3. It facilitates copy, edit, save and retrieve the data at will.
4. It further enables validation, checking and correction of data easily.
5. Computer makes it very easy to perform comparative analysis, whether by drawing maps
or graphs.
6. The type of graph or map (i.e. bar/pie or types of shades), heading, indexing and other
formats can be changed very easily.

Data programmes
A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when
executed by a computer. A computer requires programs to function and typically executes the
program's instructions in a central processing unit.A computer program is usually written by
a computer programmer in a programming language.

Computer language or programming language is a coded syntax used by computer

programmers to communicate with a computer. Computer language establishes a flow of
communication between software programs. The language
enables a computer user to dictate what commands the computer must perform to process
data. These languages
can be classified into following categories :-
1. Machine language
2. Assembly language
3. High level language

Machine language is a computer programming language consisting of binary or hexadecimal

instructions which a computer can respond to directly.

Assembly language is a low-level programming language for a computer, or other

programmable device, in which there is a very strong (but often not one-to-one)
correspondence between the language and the architecture's machine code instructions.

High level language is a programming language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables
a programmer to write programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of
computer. Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to
human languages and further from machine languages.

Open-source software (OSS) is computer software with its source code made available with a
license in which the copyright holder provides the rights to study, change, and distribute the
software to anyone and for any purpose.

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Cyber-crime and cyber laws.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY LAW INCLUDING CYBER LAWS (CONCEPTS,
PURPOSE, PROSPECTS)

In India, cyber laws are contained in the Information Technology Act, 2000 ("IT Act") which
came into force on October 17, 2000. The main purpose of the Act is to provide legal
recognition to electronic commerce and to facilitate filing of electronic records with the
Government.

Cyber Crime is not defined in Information Technology Act 2000 nor in the I.T. Amendment
Act 2008 nor in any other legislation in India.

The Information Technology Act, 2000 essentially deals with the following issues:

? Legal Recognition of Electronic Documents

? Legal Recognition of Digital Signatures

? Offenses and Contraventions

? Justice Dispensation Systems for cyber crimes.

Main Provisions of IT Act 2000

Digital signature and Electronic signature:-Digital Signatures provide a viable solution for
creating legally enforceable electronic records, closing the gap in going fully paperless by
completely eliminating the need to print documents for signing. Digital signatures enable the
replacement of slow and expensive paper-based approval processes with fast, low-cost, and
fully digital ones. The purpose of a digital signature is the same as that of a handwritten
signature. Instead of using pen and paper, a digital signature uses digital keys (public-key
cryptography).Digital signature provides Authentication, Integrity and Non Repudiation.

E-Governance: Chapter III discusses Electronic governance issues and procedures and the
legal recognition to electronic records is dealt with in detail in Section 4 followed by
description of procedures on electronic records, storage and maintenance and according
recognition to the validity of contracts formed through electronic means.

Section 66A :-Sending offensive messages thro communication service, causing annoyance
etc through an electronic communication or sending an email to mislead or deceive the

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recipient about the origin of such messages (commonly known as IP or email spoofing) are
all covered here. Punishment for these acts is imprisonment upto three years or fine.

According to Sec.1(2) of Information Technology Act, 2000, the Act extends to the whole of
India and also applies to any offence or contravention committed outside India by any person.
Further, Sec.75 of the IT Act, 2000 also mentions about the applicability of the Act for any
offence or contravention committed outside India. According to this section, the Act will
apply to an offence or contravention committed outside India by any person, if the act or
conduct constituting the offence or contravention involves a computer, computer system or
computer network located in India.

Common types of Cyber Crimes may be broadly classified in the following groups:- Against
Individuals: -

? Harassment through e-mail

? Cyber-stalking.

? Dissemination of obscene material on the Internet.

? Defamation.

? Hacking/cracking

? Indecent exposure.

? Computer vandalism.

? Transmitting virus.

? Internet intrusion.

? Unauthorized control over computer system.

? Hacking /cracking.

Against Government, Private Firm, Company, Group of Individuals: -

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? Hacking & Cracking.

? Possession of unauthorized information.

? Cyber terrorism against the government organization.

? Distribution of pirated software etc.

National Health Policy : national programmes

for prevention and control of Malaria,
Leprosy,T.B., Cancer, Aids, Blindness etc
The primary aim of the National Health Policy, 2017, is to inform, clarify, strengthen and
prioritize the role of the Government in shaping health systems in all its dimensions-
investments in health, organization of healthcare services, prevention of diseases and
promotion of good health through cross sectoral actions, access to technologies, developing
human resources, encouraging medical pluralism, building knowledge base, developing better
financial protection strategies, strengthening regulation and health assurance.

It advocates a positive and proactive engagement with the private sector for critical gap
filling towards achieving national goals. It envisages private sector collaboration for strategic
purchasing, capacity building, skill development programmes, awareness generation,
developing sustainable networks for community to strengthen mental health services, and
disaster management. The policy also advocates financial and non-incentives for encouraging
the private sector participation.

The policy identifies coordinated action on seven priority areas for improving the
environment for health:
o The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan
o Balanced, healthy diets and regular exercises.
o Addressing tobacco, alcohol and substance abuse
o Yatri Suraksha – preventing deaths due to rail and road traffic accidents
o Nirbhaya Nari –action against gender violence
o Reduced stress and improved safety in the work place
o Reducing indoor and outdoor air pollution

The Mission Indradhanush, depicting seven colours of the rainbow, aims to cover all those
children by 2020 who are either unvaccinated, or are partially vaccinated against seven
vaccine preventable diseases which include diphtheria, whooping cough, tetanus, polio,
tuberculosis, measles and hepatitis B.

Mission Indradhanush has led to vaccination of around 2.1 crore children of which more than
55 lakh children have been fully immunized.

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Different agro-climatic zones of Jharkhand, rain fall pattern and

known abiotic stresses in each zone

ADifferent agro-climatic zones of Jharkhand, rain fall pattern and known abiotic
stresses in each zone.

Three Agro-Climatic zones of Jharkhand are:

1. Western Plateau Zone

2. Central and North Eastern Plateau Zone

 South Eastern Plateau Zone

Agro-Climatic Zone of Jharkhand

Region Name Districts Name

Western Plateau Zone
Bokaro
Latehar
Lohardanga
Gumla
Hazaribagh
Palamau
Ranchi
Simdega
Chatara
Garhwa
Central and North Eastern Plateau
Zone
Jamtara
Koderma
Pakur
Giridih
Godda
Deoghar
Dhanbad
Dumka

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Sahebganj
South Eastern Plateau Zone
East Singhbhum
Saraikela
West Singhbhum

Agro-climatic zones:

1. Central and North Eastern Plateau Zone

Characteristics:

1. Low water relentive capacity of the soil particularly that of uplands.

2. Late arrival and early cessation of monsoon and erratic and uneven
distribution of rainfall.
3. Lack of safe disposal of runoff water during monsoon and water storage and
moisture conservation practices for raising Rabi crops.
4. Drying of tanks and wells by February results in no Rabi crop production.
5. Important Crops: Rice, wheat, maize, ragi, potato, Arhar, Rapeseeds,
Mustards, Gram and Pulses.

Rainfall Pattern:

The region is highly dependent on the monsoonal rainfall. The distribution of rainfall
in not even also.

Abiotic stresses: Abiotic stresses such as drought (water deficit), excessive

watering (water-logging/flooding), extreme temperatures (cold, frost and heat),
salinity (sodicity) and mineral (metal and metalloid) toxicity negatively impact
growth, development, yield and seed quality of crop and other plants.

Uncertainity of rainfall in the major abiotic stress of the region

1. Western Plateau Zone

Characteristics:

1. Late arrival and early cessation of monsoon.

2. Erratic /uneven distribution of rainfall.
3. Low water retentive capacity of soils.
4. Lack of soil and water conservation practices

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5. Important Crops: Rice, Maize, Barley, Lentil, Seasamum, Groundnut, Potato,

Arhar and Gram

Rainfall Pattern:

High rainfall enables rice cultivation but it is totally dependent on monsoon.

Abiotic stresses:

Low fertility of soil is the major abiotic stress in this region

1. South Eastern Plateau Zone

Characteristics:

1. Uneven distribution of rainfall.

2. Low water holdaning capacity.
3. Eroded soils.
4. Poor soil fertility.
5. Important Crops: Rice, Wheat, Marwa, Arhar, Linseed

Rainfall Pattern: Uneven rainfall distribution have some rivers as well whose water is
used in irrigation.

Abiotic stresses: Low fertility and poor soil fertility

Rain fed agriculture: Conventional food and horticultural crops of

the state.Need for diversification of crops for food as well as
nutritional security in the wake of climate change; Rain water

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harvesting and its role in improving agriculture output in

Jharkhand; Fish farming

Rain fed agriculture

Rain fed agriculture indicated rain as source of irrigation for agricultural activities.

In India, almost 60% of total net sown area comes under rainfed lands. Rainfed crops
account for 48 percent area under food crops and 68 percent under non-food crops.

India ranks first among the rainfed agricultural countries of the world in terms of
both extent and value of produce.

Rainfed areas in India are highly diverse, ranging from resource rich areas to
resource-constrained areas. Some of the resource rich areas are highly productive
and have experienced widespread adoption of technology. However, most of the
areas are resource constrained and dry areas.

In the resource constrained and dry areas, the farming is a survival

mechanism rather than a growth oriented activity.

Rainfed agriculture is practiced under a wide variety of soil type, agro-climatic and
rainfall conditions ranging from 400 mm to 1600 mm per annum.

Rainfed Crops are prone to breaks in the monsoon during the crop growth due to
water stress. This water stress may be due to variability of rainfall, delay in sowing,
diversity in crop management practice and variability of the soil type. The prolonged
breaks can result in partial or complete failure of the crops.

Conventional food and horticultural crops of Jharkhand:

Major Crops: i) Rice,

1. ii) Ragi,

iii) Maize,

1. iv) Wheat,
2. v) Redgram

Fruits :

i)Litchi,

1. ii) mango,

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iii) guava,

1. iv) cstrawberry,
2. v) sapota,
3. vi) custard apple,

Need for diversification of crops for food as well as nutritional security

in the wake of climate change

With the rapid change in climate it is very hard to predict impact of crops. Thus if
crops are diverse than there are chances of survival of crops all along the climate
change. Studies has found that climate change will put much stress on some crops
like rice, wheat etc. While some crops like cotton, pulses will survive. Thus the more
diverse the crops there are chances that it will bear the climate change.

Rain water harvesting and its role in improving agriculture output in

Jharkhand

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-
site, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater can be
collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the water collected is redirected to
a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected
from dew or fog with nets or other tools. Its uses include water for
gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, indoor heating for
houses, etc. The harvested water can also be used as drinking water, longer-term
storage, and for other purposes such as groundwater recharge.

Many parts of the state, which fall under the rain shadow zone, have been declared
drought-affected for six successive yearsfrom 2010.

Rainwater harvesting in Jharkhand will reduce dependency on monsoon

rainfall

Since Majority of the areas of Jharkhand uses water intensive crops thus it is
necessary to harvest water.

To reduce soil layoff water harvesting in the farm itself is a good practice.

Water harvesting will improve ground water table which will improve water
availability for well irrigation

Fish Farming in Jharkhand

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Fisheries is an important economic activity in the state for additional employment

and income generation. About 65-70% of people in the state consume fish and
shellfish products. Against the estimated annual demand of 1.15 lakh metric ton of
fish, the annual production of fish in the state is nearly 96,000 tonns. The annual
demand of fish seed is 1200 crore and the state is producing nearly 96 crore.

The aquaculture resources in the state are mainly reservoirs and tanks. The
cumulative area of nearly 252 big and small reservoirs is 1,15,000 ha. The number of
check dams are 1184 having an area of nearly 4570 ha. Main rivers are Swarnrekha,
Damodar, Koyal, Sankh, Ajay, Kanchi and Brahmi . Most of the rivers are seasonal in
nature.

There is one state level federation of fisheries co-operative called Jharkhand State co-
operative Fisheries Federation (JHASCOFISH) at Ranchi. Managing Director is head
of the this federation. About 392 fishermen co-operative societies are working in
Jharkhand.

Soil fertility status of Jharkhand- Application of Vermi compost and

Farm Yard Manure (FYM) for improving soil health. Nitrogen fixing
bacteria; their applications and Concept of Organic farming

Soil Fertility status of Jharkhand

According to GIS based data, Soil fertility can be mapped. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Potassium are the major constituents, whichare considered important for soil
fertility. Presence

Lohardaga and Simdega districts have less presence of Nitrogen in the soil as
compared to other districts.

Palmau, Chatar, Kodarma, Giridh, Dumka, Godda, Sahibganj has less percent of
Phosphorous as compared to other disctricts.

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Kodarma, Lathehar, DevgharSimdega, Dumga has high presence of Potassium and

Dhanbad has lowest presence of potassium content in the soil.

Application of Vermi Compost and Farm Yard Manure

Vermi Compost uses earthworm‟s dung as manure whereas Farm yard manure
indicates to all residual from farm yards including cattle dung, agricultural wastes.

Below are some of the application of Vermi-Compost and Farm Yard Manure

1. It increased quality of soil by increasing the amount of various essential

micro-nutrients
2. Helps crop growing faster and healthier

 It do not worsen the quality of soil even after multiple uses

Nitrogen fixing Bacteria and their application

Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, microorganisms capable of transforming atmospheric

nitrogen into fixed nitrogen (inorganic compounds usable by plants).

Two kinds of nitrogen-fixing bacteria are recognized.

1. the free-living (nonsymbiotic) bacteria, includes the cyanobacteria(or blue-

green algae) Anabaena and Nostoc and genera such
as Azotobacter, Beijerinckia, and Clostridium.
2. mutualistic (symbiotic) bacteria; examples include Rhizobium, associated
with leguminous plants (e.g., various members of the pea family); Frankia,
associated with certain dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants); and
certain Azospirillum species, associated with cereal grasses.

The symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria invade the root hairs of host plants, where
they multiply and stimulate formation of root nodules, enlargements of plant cells
and bacteria in intimate association. Within the nodules the bacteria convert free
nitrogen to ammonia, which the host plant utilizes for its development. To ensure
sufficient nodule formation and optimum growth of legumes (e.g., alfalfa, beans,

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clovers, peas, soybeans), seeds are usually inoculated with commercial cultures of
appropriate Rhizobium species, especially in soils poor or lacking in the required
bacterium.

Application of Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria

1. More than 90 percent of all nitrogen fixation is effected by these organisms,

which thus play an important role in the nitrogen cycle.
2. They increases the soil productivity and fertility

 Helps plants with necessary amount nitrogen compounds hence helping in

growth of plant.

Concept of Organic farming

Organic farming is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating

the land and raising crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health
by use of organic wastes. Example of organic wastes are crop, cow dungs etc.

Other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (bio-fertilizers) to release

nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution
free environment.

As per the definition of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) study
team on organic farming “organic farming is a system which avoids or largely
excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, hormones, feed
additives etc) and to the maximum extent feasible rely upon crop rotations, crop
residues, animal manures, off-farm organic waste, mineral grade rock additives and
biological system of nutrient mobilization and plant protection”.

FAO suggested that “Organic agriculture is a unique production management system

which promotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity,
biological cycles and soil biological activity, and this is accomplished by using on-
farm agronomic, biological and mechanical methods in exclusion of all synthetic off-
farm inputs”.

Need of organic farming

The scientists have realized that the „Green Revolution‟ with high input use has
reached a plateau and is now sustained with diminishing return of falling dividends.
With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only to stabilize
agricultural production but to increase it further in sustainable manner.

Thus, a natural balance needs to be maintained at all cost for existence of life and
property. The obvious choice for that would be more relevant in the present era,
when these agrochemicals which are produced from fossil fuel and are not renewable

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and are diminishing in availability. It may also cost heavily on our foreign exchange
in future.

The key characteristics of organic farming include

 Providing crop nutrients indirectly using relatively insoluble nutrient sources

which are made available to the plant by the action of soil micro-organisms
 Nitrogen self-sufficiency through the use of legumes and biological nitrogen
fixation, as well as effective recycling of organic materials including crop
residues and livestock manures
 Weed, disease and pest control relying primarily on crop rotations, natural
predators, diversity, organic manure , resistant varieties and limited
(preferably minimal) thermal, biological and chemical intervention. The
extensive management of livestock, paying full regard to their evolutionary
adaptations, behavioral needs and animal welfare issues with respect to
nutrition, housing, health, breeding and rearing
 Careful attention to the impact of the farming system on the wider
environment and the conservation of wildlife and natural habitats

Concept of Agro-forestry, Waste lands and means to reclaim them

Agroforestry:

Agroforestry is a land-use system in which trees/shrubs are grown in association

with agricultural crops, pastures or livestock. This integration of trees and shrubs in
the land-use system can be either a spatial arrangement, e.g. trees growing in a field
at the same time as the crop, or in a time sequence, e.g. shrubs grown on a fallow for
restoration of soil fertility.

It combines shrubs and trees in agricultural and forestry technologies to create more

diverse, productive, profitable, healthy,

ecologically sound, and sustainable land-use systems

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Real life applications of the agroforestry:

Below are some of the applications of the agroforestry:

 Strip cropping
 Fauna-based systems
 Boundary systems
 Taungyas
 Physical support systems
 Agroforests
 Wind break and shelterbelt
 Parklands
 Shade systems
 Crop-over-tree systems
 Alley cropping

Challenges in agroforestry:

 Unfamiliarity with technologies

 Lack of awareness of successful agroforestry examples
 Lack of knowledge about where to market products
 Lack of technical assistance
 Cannot afford adoption or start up costs, including costs of time
 Unavailability of information about agroforestry
 Apparent inconvenience
 Lack of equipment
 Insufficient land
 Lack of seed/seedling sources
 Lack of scientific research
 Lack of developed markets for products

Wasteland and Means to Reclaim them:

According to Integrated Wasteland Development Program, Wasteland is a degraded

land which can be brought under vegetative cover, with reasonable effort, and which
is currently under utilized and land which is deteriorating for lack of appropriate
water and soil management or because of natural causes.

Categories of wasteland for Identification

Culturable Wasteland- The land that is has potential for the development of
vegetative cover and is not being used due to different constraints of varying degrees,
such as erosion, water logging, salinity etc.

Unculturable Wasteland– The land that cannot be developed for vegetative cover, for
instance the barren rocky areas and snow covered glacier areas.

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Various practices to reclaim any wastelands are listed below:

Mulching: à protective cover of organic matter and plants like stalks, cotton stalks,
tobacco stalks etc. are used which reduce evaporation, help in retaining soil moisture
and reduce soil erosion.

Providing Surface a cover à The easiest way to protect the land surface from soil
erosion is of leave crop residue on the land after harvesting.

Reforestation/Afforestaion à Grow Trees

Terracing à the land is shaped in the form of levelled terraces to hold soil and water.
The terrace edges are planted with such plant species which anchor the soil.

Strip Farming à different kinds of crops are planted in alternate strip along the
contour

Changing agriculture practices à mixed cropping, crop rotation and cropping of

plants

Government schemes for the benefit of the farmers of

the Jharkhand

Some of the government schemes for the benefits of the farmers in Jharkhand are:

Single Window Platform->

Jharkhand has become the first state in India to launch a single-window facility for
farmers.

Kisan Suvidha App->

It is a free mobile application that provides weather forecasts for the next five days,
besides information on prices of agricultural products at 50 nearby mandis , diseases
likely to affect crops, advice from agricultural experts and dealers in agricultural
equipment.

eNAM(electronic national agriculture marketing) ->

There is a plan to create a nationwide online market for farm products by linking all
mandis and agricultural market trading committees in the country.

Jharkhand has agreed to be linked with this network. To start with, it is being used to
trade in 25 products – including rice, wheat, potato, onion, apple, turmeric, mustard
oil, pulses, soybeans, groundnuts, and red chilly.

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ARYA scheme ->

Attracting Rural Youth in Agriculture.

Prime objective of the scheme ->

Under the ARYA scheme, the state government will attract rural youth in agriculture
by making them skilled and make the state self-dependent in agriculture. Agriculture
Technology Management and Training (ATMA) will provide the training to the rural
youth. From each village, 2 youths will be selected and trained on how to make the
proper use of barren and uncultivated land and inspired to grow pulses.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojna->

This scheme basically aims to provide insurance of crops for farmers.Main aim of
this scheme is in easing the burden of loan on farmers who takes loan for their
cultivatives.

Objective of the PMFBY:

Provide insurance coverage/ financial support to farmers in the event of failure of

any of the notified crop as a result of natural calamities, pests & diseases.

Encourage farmers to adopt innovative and modern agricultural practices.

Stabilize the income of farmers to ensure their continuance in farming.

Premium under PMFBY:

Kharif crops----->2 percent

Rabi crops-------->1.5 percent

The premium for commercial or horticultural crops (including cotton) is pegged at 5

percent for one year.

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Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sincahi Yojna(PMKSY)->

This scheme is for the benefit of the farmers in the development of their agriculture
practices.

The major objective of PMKSY is:

1. Achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level,

2. Expand cultivable area under assured irrigation,
3. Improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage of water,
4. Enhance the adoption of precision-irrigation and other water saving
technologies(More crop per drop),
5. Enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation
practices by exploring the feasibility of reusing treated municipal waste water
for peri-urban agriculture and attract greater private investment in precision
irrigation system.

Major components of the schemes are:

Accelerated Irrigation benefits Program -> Under the ministry of Water resources,
River development and Ganga Rejuvenation

Integrated Watershed development program-> Under the Rural development

On farm water management -> Ministry of Agriculture

Program architecture of PMKSY will be to adopt a „decentralized State level planning

and projected execution‟ structure that will allow States to draw up their own
irrigation development plans based on District Irrigation Plan (DIP) and State
Irrigation Plan (SIP).

It will be operative as convergence platform for all water sector activities including
drinking water & sanitation, MGNREGA, application of science etc. through
comprehensive plan. State Level Sanctioning Committee (SLSC) chaired by the Chief
Secretary of the State will be vested with the authority to oversee its implementation
and sanction projects.

Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojna->

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This scheme motivates farmers to use their cattle dung to dump into fields as a
fertilizer and reduce dependencies on other external fertilizers.

Soil Health Card->

It have data regarding soil conditions of the farm. Thus, it helps farmers to take
timely action. If soil is acidic, base content needs to be added. If soil is basic, acidic
contents needs to be added.

Soil health card have all data about the nutrients of the soil, which is present in the
soil.

The living world, Cell-Structure and its functions

The living world

Objects having characteristics of cellular organization, growth, reproduction, ability to sense

environment and give response are living organisms.

There are some important features of living organisms:

 It should grow, which means its structure changes as time goes by in an advantageous
manner.
 It should show adaptation to the environment.
 It should maintain some balanced conditions in its inner structure. This is called
Homeostasis.
 Its structure is highly organized.
 It should be able to break down or build up nutrients to release or store energy based
on need. This is called Metabolism.
 It should be able to reproduce itself.

Classification of living world

The practice of classifying organisms is called taxonomy. Linneaeus developed a hierarchy of

groups for taxonomy. To distinguish different levels of similarity, each classifying group,
called taxon (pl. taxa) is subdivided into other groups. To remember the order, it is helpful to
use a mnemonic device. The taxa in hierarchical order:

Domain - Archea, Eubacteria, Eukaryote

Archea (Archeabacteria) consists of archeabacteria, bacteria which live in extreme

environments. The kingdom Archaea belongs to this domain.

Eubacteria consists of more typical bacteria found in everyday life. The kingdom Eubacteria
belongs to this domain.

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Eukaryote encompasses most of the world's visible living things. The kingdoms Protists,
Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia fall under this category.

Kingdom - Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protists, Eubacteria (Monera), Archaebacteria

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species : smallest classification

Cell structure and its functions

Cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, which is typically
microscopic and consists of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane.

Structure of cell

The cell is a basic unit for life forms. As well as enabling sophisticated control of
biochemical processes by providing compartments and regulating chemical fluxes between
them, cells also have structural integrity and can exert forces. In the case of multicellular
organisms (animals and plants), each cell contributes some mechanical property to the tissue
it forms together with other cells. Furthermore, many cells are eliminated during the life of a
complex organism (e.g. skin layers in animals), which entails cell division and restructuring
of the organisation with neighbours. Some types of cell are actually very motile, moving
through tissues (e.g. various immune system cells and some cancer cells). This dynamic
aspect is even more obvious during the development of multicellular organisms, when many
stages of cell division and migration take place.

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A first division of organisms is between those whose cells have within them a nucleus, the
structure containing most of the genetic material in the form of DNA, and those whose cells
don‘t. The nucleated cells are called eukaryotic and are found in animals, plants, fungi,
protozoa and algae. In contrast, bacteria (and the less common archaea) do not have a nucleus
and their DNA is spread throughout the cell. These cells are called prokaryotic. Eukaryotic
organisms can be unicellular or multicellular while all prokaryotes are unicellular.

Some of the important cell oragenells are as follows:

The Nucleus

A cell nucleus is the part of the cell which contains the genetic code, the DNA. The nucleus is
small and round, and it works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which
house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus.
All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-
celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of quite a
different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.

The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many
proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are
put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm
where they translate mRNA into proteins. When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the
chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes
are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a collection of interconnected tubes and flattened sacs that
begin at the nucleus and ramble through the cytoplasm. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum distinguished by the presence or absence of ribosomes.

Rough ER consists of stacked, flattened sacs with many ribosomes attached; oligosaccharide
groups are attached to polypeptides as they pass through on their way to other organelles or to
secretory vesicles.

Smooth ER has no ribosomes; it is the area from which vesicles carrying proteins and lipids
are budded; it also inactivates harmful chemicals.

Golgi bodies

The Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is found in most cells. It is another packaging
organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It was named after Camillo Golgi, an Italian
biologist. It is pronounced GOL-JI in the same way you would say squee-gie, as soft a "G"
sound. While layers of membranes may look like the rough ER, they have a very different
function.

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The Golgi apparatus gathers simple molecules and combines them to make molecules that are
more complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages them in vesicles, and either stores
them for later use or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle that builds lysosomes
(cell digestion machines). Golgi complexes in the plant may also create complex sugars and
send them off in secretory vesicles. The vesicles are created in the same way the ER does it.
The vesicles are pinched off the membranes and float through the cell.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles that can be considered the power generators of the
cell, converting oxygen and nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the chemical
energy "currency" of the cell that powers the cell's metabolic activities. This process is called
aerobic respiration and is the reason animals breathe oxygen. Without mitochondria (singular,
mitochondrion), higher animals would likely not exist because their cells would only be able
to obtain energy from anaerobic respiration (in the absence of oxygen), a process much less
efficient than aerobic respiration. In fact, mitochondria enable cells to produce 15 times more
ATP than they could otherwise, and complex animals, like humans, need large amounts of
energy in order to survive.

The number of mitochondria present in a cell depends upon the metabolic requirements of
that cell, and may range from a single large mitochondrion to thousands of the organelles.
Mitochondria, which are found in nearly all eukaryotes, including plants, animals, fungi, and
protists, are large enough to be observed with a light microscope and were first discovered in
the 1800s. The name of the organelles was coined to reflect the way they looked to the first
scientists to observe them, stemming from the Greek words for "thread" and "granule." For
many years after their discovery, mitochondria were commonly believed to transmit
hereditary information. It was not until the mid-1950s when a method for isolating the
organelles intact was developed that the modern understanding of mitochondrial function was
worked out.

Vesicles: There are two types of vesicles: lysosomes and Peroxisomes

Lysosomes: Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array of enzymes

capable of breaking down all types of biological polymers—proteins, nucleic acids,
carbohydrates, and lipids. Lysosomes function as the digestive system of the cell, serving
both to degrade material taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of
the cell itself. In their simplest form, lysosomes are visualized as dense spherical vacuoles,
but they can display considerable variation in size and shape as a result of differences in the
materials that have been taken up for digestion . Lysosomes thus represent morphologically
diverse organelles defined by the common function of degrading intracellular material.

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes are small, membrane-enclosed organelles that contain enzymes involved in a

variety of metabolic reactions, including several aspects of energy metabolism. Although
peroxisomes are morphologically similar to lysosomes, they are assembled, like mitochondria
and chloroplasts, from proteins that are synthesized on free ribosomes and then imported into
peroxisomes as completed polypeptide chains. Although peroxisomes do not contain their
own genomes, they are similar to mitochondria and chloroplasts in that they replicate by
division.

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Some specialized Plant Organelles

Plastids: There are three types of plastids: Chloroplasts, Chromoplasts, Amyloplasts

Chloroplasts are oval or disk shaped, bounded by a double membrane, and critical to the
process of photosynthesis.Chromoplasts have carotenoids, which impart red-to-yellow colors
to plant parts, but no chlorophyll. Amyloplasts have no pigments; they store starch grains in
plant parts such as potato tubers.

Central Vacuole

Vacuoles are essentially membrane-bound sacs found in the cytoplasm. In animal cells,
vacuoles are relatively small, and are used as temporary storage areas for materials and for
transport purposes. In plant cells, however, there is generally a large single central vacuole.
Comprising approximately 90% of an mature plant cell, the central vacuole provides structure
and support to the cell by maintaining turgor pressure, which is essentially fluid pressure that
keeps the cells rigid. They are necessary to cell functions in many different ways such as
maintaining cell structure and storing nutrients, waste products, and many other substances.
Below is a picture of a central vacuole in a cell.

Functions of cell

Structure and support: Like a classroom is made of bricks, every organism is made of cells.
While some cells such as the collenchyma and sclerenchyma are specifically meant for
structural support, all cells generally provide the structural basis of all organisms. For
instance, skin is made up of a number of skin cells. Vascular plants have evolved a special
tissue called xylem, which is made of cells that provide structural support.

Growth: In complex organisms, tissues grow by simple multiplication of cells. This takes
place through the process of mitosis in which the parent cell breaks down to form two
daughter cells identical to it. Mitosis is also the process through which simpler organisms
reproduce and give rise to new organisms.

Transport: Cells import nutrients to use in the various chemical processes that go on inside
them. These processes produce waste a cell needs to get rid of. Small molecules such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide and ethanol get across the cell membrane through the process of
simple diffusion, which is regulated with a concentration gradient across the cell membrane.
This is known as passive transport. However, larger molecules, such as proteins and
polysaccharides, go in and out of a cell through the process of active transport in which the
cell uses vesicles to excrete or absorb larger molecules.

Energy production: An organism's survival depends upon the thousands of chemical

reactions that cells carry out relentlessly. For these reactions, cells require energy. Most
plants get this energy through the process of photosynthesis whereas respiration is the
mechanism that provides energy to animal cells.

Metabolism: Metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that take place inside an
organism to keep it alive. These reactions can be catabolic or anabolic. The process of energy

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production by breaking down molecules (glucose) is known as catabolism. Anabolic

reactions, on the other hand, use energy to make bigger substances from simpler ones.

Reproduction: Reproduction is vital for the survival of a species. A cell helps in

reproduction through the processes of mitosis (in more evolved organisms) and meiosis. In
mitosis cells simply divide to form new cells. This is termed as asexual
reproduction. Meiosis takes place in gametes or reproductive cells in which there is a mixing
of genetic information. This causes daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent
cells. Meiosis is a part of sexual reproduction.

Diversity of organism

Each organism is different from other organisms. The total number of species living on the
planet is imprecisely known and published estimates vary from 12 million to over 100
million. This is because there are large numbers of species yet undiscovered and undescribed,
and there is not always agreement on whether certain organisms should be regarded as
separate species. The total number of known species including all animals, plants and micro-
organisms is about 1.4 million, and over half of these are insects! Taxonomists have fairly
complete records for the best known groups (e.g. birds with 9, 881 species world-wide). It is
now also reasonably clear where the main gaps in our knowledge are, and intensive sampling
of species-rich groups (e.g. insects) and species-rich areas (e.g. moist tropical forests) is now
taking place to provide a more reliable picture of global and regional species richness, and a
stronger basis for estimating the number of species.

Origin of species: The diversity in our planet is attributed to diversity within a species. As
the world changed in climate and in geography as time passed, the characteristics of species
diverged so much that new species were formed. This process, by which new species evolve,
was first described by British naturalist Charles Darwin as natural selection. For an organism
to change, genetic mutations must occur. At times, genetic mutations are accidental, as in the
case of prokaryotes when they undergo asexual reproduction. For most eukaryotes, genetic
mutations occur through sexual reproduction, where meiosis produces haploid gametes from
the original parent cells. The fusion of these haploid gametes into a diploid zygote results in
genetic variation in each generation. Over time, with enough arrangement of genes and traits,
new species are produced. Sexual reproduction creates an immense potential of genetic
variety

In order to study the enormous diversity of organisms they need to be organised into
manageable groups. This grouping of organisms is known as classification and the study of
biological classification is called taxonomy. Ancient Greek thinker Aristotle classified living
beings on the basis of their habitat. He classified them into two groups, i.e. those living in
water and those living on land. But his classification was too simple to justify inclusion of a
particular organism into a particular group.

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But most scientific and complete classification of organisms proposed by the Swedish
naturalist Carl Linnaeus who gave each organism a two-part scientific name - a genus name
and the species name .

Linneaeus developed a hierarchy of groups for taxonomy. To distinguish different levels of

similarity, each classifying group, called taxon is subdivided into other groups. To remember
the order, it is helpful to use a mnemonic device. The taxa in hierarchical order is as follows:

Domain - Archea, Eubacteria, Eukaryote

Kingdom - Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, Protists, Eubacteria (Monera), Archaebacteria

Phylum: In biology, a phylum is a level of classification or taxonomic rank below Kingdom

and above Class. Traditionally, in botany the term division has been used instead of phylum,
although the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants accepts the
terms as equivalent.

Class: The class as a distinct rank of biological classification having its own distinctive name
(and not just called a top-level genus (genus summum) was first introduced by the French
botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort in his classification of plants that appeared in his
Eléments de botanique, 1694.

Order: In biological classification, the order is. a taxonomic rank used in the classification of
organisms and recognized by the nomenclature codes. Other well-known ranks are life,
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, family, genus, and species, with order fitting in between
class and family.

Family: In taxonomy, a family is more precise than orders but less precise than genera.
Organisms belonging to the same family would have evolved from the same ancestors and
share relatively common characteristics

Genus: A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil
organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species
and below family.

Species: A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging

genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit, ranking below a
genus and denoted by a Latin binomial, e.g. Homo sapiens.

The Three Domains

The three domains are organized based on the difference between eukaryotes and
prokaryotes.

Archea (Archeabacteria): Archeabacteria consists of archeabacteria, bacteria which live in

extreme environments. The kingdom Archaea belongs to this domain.

Eubacteria : Eubacteria consists of more typical bacteria found in everyday life. The
kingdom Eubacteria belongs to this domain.

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Eukaryote: Eukaryotes encompasses most of the world's visible living things. The
kingdoms Protists, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia fall under this category.

Kingdoms

There are six kingdoms in the taxonomy:

Plantae: Any of various photosynthetic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms of the kingdom

Plantae characteristically containing chloroplasts, having cell walls made of cellulose,
producing embryos, and lacking the power of locomotion. Plants include trees, bushes, herbs,
ferns, mosses, and certain green algae.

Animalia: The major group of animals are classified under the Kingdom Animalia, also
known as Metazoa. This kingdom does not contain prokaryotes. All the members of this
kingdom are multicellular, eukaryotes. They are heterotrophs, they depend on other
organisms directly or indirectly for food. Most of the animals ingest food and digest in the
internal cavity. Most of the organisms are motile which means they can move independently
and spontaneously. There are around 9 to 10 million species of animals, and about 800,000
species are identified. Fossil records of animals were found in the era of the Cambrian
explosion, about 540 million years ago. Animals are divided into various sub-groups,
biologists have identified about 36 phyla within the animal kingdom including birds,
mammals, reptiles, fish, amphibians etc.

Protists: the third kingdom, was introduced by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866
to classify micro-organisms which are neither animals nor plants. Since protists are quite
irregular, this kingdom is the least understood and the genetic similarities between organisms
in this kingdom are largely unknown. For example, some protists can exhibit properties of
both animals and plants.

Fungi: fungi are any of about 99,000 known species of organisms of the kingdom Fungi,
which includes the yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms. There are also
many funguslike organisms, including slime molds and oomycetes (water molds), that do not
belong to kingdom Fungi but are often called fungi. Many of these funguslike organisms are
included in the kingdom Chromista. Fungi are among the most widely distributed organisms
on Earth and are of great environmental and medical importance. Many fungi are free-living
in soil or water; others form parasitic or symbiotic relationships with plants or animals.

Eubacteria: eubacteria are prokaryotic (lacking nucleus) cells that are very common in
human daily life, encounter many more times than the archaebacteria. Eubacteria can be
found almost everywhere and kill thousands upon thousands of people each year, but also
serve as antibiotics producers and food digesters in our stomachs. We use Eubacteria to
produce drugs, wine, and cheese. Eubacteria are also known as true bacteria.

Archae (or Archaebacteria): Archaebacteria are bacteria which live in extreme

environments, such as salt lakes or hot, acidic springs. These bacteria are in their own
category as detailed studies have shown that they have unique properties and features (ex.
unusual lipids that are not found in any other organism)which differ them from other bacteria
and which allow them to live where they live. Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

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Phylum

The living world is very diverse. There are millions of different organisms that have been
discovered, and it is estimated there are millions more yet to be found. If science did not have
some kind of organized way of keeping track of all these critters, it would be very difficult to
conduct any research, and information about particular creatures would never pass around the
scientific community.

Different animal phyla are as follows:

Protozoa: Unicellular Animals like Amoeba, Paramoecium, Monogystis and Malaria

parasite. Protozoa are microscopic in size. Each individual consists of only one cell which has
to carry on all the vital activities. They are abundantly found in water containing decaying
organic matter. Some, such as the dysentery amoeba and the malaria parasite, live within
other animals. Still others live in damp soil, or in fresh water, or in the sea.

Porifera: These are pore-bearing sedentary animals found mostly in the sea. A few species
occur in the fresh water but none on the land. The sponges, like plants, are attached to a
substratum. The outer surface of the sponge is perforated by numerous pores and the body
wall is supported by a framework which is composed of lime, or of silica or of an organic
substance called sponging.

Cnidaria: Most of the cnidaria are marine but Hydra is found in fresh water. Some, such as
the corals and sea-anemones, are attached to a substratum; others are slow moving or adapted
for drifting in the water. All are radially symmetrical. This means that the animal is the same
all round, and has no right or left side. It is symmetrical around a median vertical axis, and
can be divided into similar halves by a number of vertical planes.

Ctenophora: Ctenophores are all marine. They have bi-radially symmetrical bodies. They
possess eight meridionally placed ciliated plates. They resemble the cnidarians on many
counts but differ from them in not having the nematocysts. Their ectomesoderm is gelatinous
and bear mesenchymal muscle cells. They possess a specialised aboral sense organ and the
tentacles bear adhesive cells. All are planktonic.

Platyhelminthes : These are flat, un-segmented, worm-like creatures with soft and bilaterally
symmetrical body. In a bilaterally symmetrical animal there is a right side and a left side, a
fore end and a hind end, a dorsal or back surface and a ventral or front surface. There is only
one plane of symmetry by which the body can be divided into two equal halves.

Nemathelmlnthes : These are cylindrical, un-segmented, worm-like animals with soft,

bilaterally symmetrical body, tapering at both the ends. Digestive canal is complete, with two
openings, a mouth in front and an anus behind; it is a straight tube running through the body
from end to end. Most of the group are aquatic. A few inhabits damp soil. Others, such as
hook-worms, thread-worms and filaria worms are parasites of man and cattle.

Annelida: These are true worms with soft, elongated, bilaterally symmetrical body, divided
into a series of ring-like segments or meta- meres. The annelids are, therefore, known as the
segmented worms. The annelidan body is built on the tube-within-a-tube plan.

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Arthropoda: Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical, segmented animals with soft parts of
the body protected by a hard chitinous external skeleton. Each segment of the body bears
paired legs or appendages which are jointed. This phylum is the largest of the animal phyla
and includes nearly three-fourths of all the known species of animals.

Mollusca: Molluscs are un-segmented and without appendages. The soft parts of the body
are enclosed in a Hard calcareous shell, as in snails and oysters. A fleshy muscular foot for
locomotion is often present. Many of the molluscs are marine, some are fresh-water, and a
few like the garden snails are terrestrial.

Echinodermata: Echinoderms are characterised by spiny skin. All are marine, inhabiting the
shore and bottom of the sea. A few such as the sea-lilies are attached; but the majority are
free to move about. Locomotion is very sluggish and effected by peculiar structures called
tube-feet. This is the only phylum possessing a water- vascular system. The body is radially
symmetrical and star-like as in starfishes, brittle-stars and basket-stars.

Chordata: The chordates possess a stiff supporting rod, called notochord. Leaving aside a
few lower forms, such as balanoglossus, ascidians and amphioxus, all chordates are
vertebrates. Vertebrates possess the backbone which forms the supporting skeleton for the
long axis of the body.

Plant kingdoms

The plant kingdom has been divided into five subgroups. They are as follows:

Thallophyta: All the plants that lack a well-differentiated body structure belong to the
subgroup Thallophyta. Thallophytes are commonly known as algae. The majority of them are
aquatic. Some examples are Spirogyra, Chara, Ulothrix, etc.

Bryophyta: Bryophytes have differentiated plant body like stem, leaf structures. But they
lack a vascular system for the transportation of substances across the plant body. Bryophytes
are found in both land and aquatic habitats, hence are known as amphibians of the plant
kingdom. Mosses and Marchantia belong to this subgroup.

Pteridophyta: Pteridophytes have well-differentiated structures such as stem, root, leaves as

well as the vascular system. Ferns, horse-tails, Marsilea are some common examples of
Pteridophytes.

Gymnosperms: Gymnosperms are plants that have well-differentiated plant body, vascular
system and they bear seeds. The term is derived from Greek words, gymno: naked and
sperma: seed. The seeds of gymnosperms are naked which means they are not enclosed
within a fruit. The perennial, evergreen woody trees belong to this group. Pines, deodar,
redwood, etc. are few examples.

Angiosperms: Angiosperms are also seed-bearing plants with well-differentiated plant body.
The word is derived from Greek words: angio: covered and sperma: seed. Unlike

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gymnosperms, seeds of angiosperms are

enclosed inside the fruits. Angiosperms are commonly known as flowering plants. Examples:
Mango tree, pomegranate plant, etc. Seeds germinate from embryonic leaves called
cotyledons. Depending on the number of cotyledons present in seeds, angiosperms are
divided into two: monocotyledons/monocots and dicotyledons/dicots.

Classification of plant families: plants are divided into families. Some important families
and their characteristics are follows:

Brassicaceae:

 Leaves are often deeply lobed and pinnatifid.

 Flowers are actinomorphic and without subtending bracts (ebracteate).
 Perianth is of 4 sepals and 4 petals in a cruciform (cross-like) arrangement.
 Petals are often clawed.

Oxalidaceae:

 Oxalis or Wood-Sorrel Family Perennial or annual herbs, often with acrid juice.
 Leaves are often palmately compound; mostly trifoliate.
 Androecium of 10 stamens, often in 2 whorls, the outer whorl shorter than the inner
whorl (sometimes reduced to staminodes).

Malvaceae:

 Mallow Family Plant body with stellate hairs (star-shaped).

 Flowers often are subtended by an epicalyx of distinct or connate bracts.
 Androecium has numerous stamens with its filaments grouped into a staminal column,
called a monodelphous condition.

Geraniaceae (Geranium Family):

 Flowers are actinomorphic with elongated receptacle.

 All plants are annuals in the Mojave Desert.
 Perianth of 5 sepals and petals. Fruit is a capsule splitting into 5 segments with a style
attached to each.

Zygophyllaceae:

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 Caltrop Family Leaves mostly opposite, pinnately compound with 2 or 3 or more

leaflets.
 Stipules present, sometimes spiny. Compound pistil composed of 5 carpels.

Plantaginaceae:

 Plantain Family Leaves are basal with parallel venation.

 Flowers are small, in a tight cluster at the tip of a leafless stalk (scapose).
 Corolla is papery-like, with 4 fused petals, lobes flaring.
 Fruit is a pyxis, a capsule that opens by a lid to release seeds.

Hydrophyllaceae (Waterleaf Family):

 Plant generally with erect, bristly hairs, sometimes with glandular hairs.
 The gynoecium has either 2 styles, or 1 forked or bifid style.
 Fruit is a capsule.
 Major genera in southern Nevada includes Phacelia, Nama, and Eriodictyon (yerba
santa). Inflorescence a coiled cyme, resembling a scorpion.

Bio molecules - structure and function of

carbohydrates, proteins and fats
BIOMOLECULES

There is vast diversity of living organisms. The chemical compositon and metabolic reactions
of the organisms appear to be similar. The composition of living tissues and non-living matter
also appear to be similar in qualitative analysis.Closer analysis reveals that the relative
abundance of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen is higher in living system. All forms of life are
composed of biomolecules only. Biomolecules are organic molecules especially
macromolecules like carbohydrates, proteins in living organisms. All living forms bacteria,
algae, plant and animals are made of similar macromolecules that are responsible for life. All
the carbon compounds we get from living tissues can be called biomolecules.Importaant
characteristics of biomolecules are as follows:

 Most of them are organic compounds.

 They have specific shapes and dimension.
 Functional group determines their chemical properties.
 Many of them arc asymmetric.
 Macromolecules are large molecules and are constructed from small building block
molecules.
 Building block molecules have simple structure.
 Biomolecules first gorse by chemical evolution.

Some important biomolecules of life

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Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are good source of energy. Carbohydrates (polysaccharides)

are long chains of sugars.

Proteins: Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body.
They do most of the work in cells and are required for the structure, function, and regulation
of the body‘s tissues and organs.

Fats: Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats,
also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol. The
terms "oil", "fat", and "lipid" are often confused. "Oil" normally refers to a fat with short or
unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, while "fat" may specifically
refer to fats that are solids at room temperature. "Lipid" is the general term, though a lipid is
not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like other lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are
soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water.

Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential to all known
forms of life. They are composed of monomers, which are nucleotides made of three
components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

Structure of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecular compounds made from just three elements: carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) and disaccharides (e.g. sucrose) are relatively
small molecules. They are often called sugars. Other carbohydrate molecules are very large
(polysaccharides such as starch and cellulose).

There are mainly three types of carbohydrates :

Monosaccharides: Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and are often called
single sugars. They are the building blocks from which all bigger carbohydrates are
made. Monosaccharides have the general molecular formula (CH2O)n, where n can be 3, 5
or 6. They can be classified according to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule.

Disaccharides: Disaccharide, also called double sugar , any substance that is composed of
two molecules of simple sugars (monosaccharides) linked to each other. Disaccharides are
crystalline water-soluble compounds. The monosaccharides within them are linked by a
glycosidic bond (or glycosidic linkage), the position of which may be designated ?- or ?- or a
combination of the two (?-,?-). Glycosidic bonds are cleaved by enzymes known as
glycosidases. The three major disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Polysaccharides: Monosaccharides can undergo a series of condensation reactions, adding

one unit after another to the chain until very large molecules (polysaccharides) are formed.
This is called condensation polymerisation, and the building blocks are called monomers.

Functions of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates has some major functions within the body.

Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose: Glucose is the only sugar used by the
body to provide energy for its tissues. Therefore, all digestible polysaccharides,

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disaccharides, and monosaccharides must eventually be converted into glucose or a

metabolite of glucose by various liver enzymes. Because of its significant importance to
proper cellular function, blood glucose levels must be kept relatively constant.

Flavor and Sweeteners: A less important function of carbohydrates is to provide sweetness

to foods. Receptors located at the tip of the tongue bind to tiny bits of carbohydrates and send
what humans perceive as a "sweet" signal to the brain. However, different sugars vary in
sweetness. For example, fructose is almost twice as sweet as sucrose and sucrose is
approximately 30% sweeter than glucose.

Dietary Fiber: Dietary fibers such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, gum and mucilage are
important carbohydrates for several reasons. Soluble dietary fibers like pectin, gum and
mucilage pass undigested through the small intestine and are degraded into fatty acids and
gases by the large intestine. The fatty acids produced in this way can either be used as a fuel
for the large intestine or be absorbed into the bloodstream. Therefore, dietary fiber is essential
for proper intestinal health.

Biological Recognition Processes: Carbohydrates not only serve nutritional functions, but
are also thought to play important roles in cellular recognition processes. For example, many
immunoglobulins (antibodies) and peptide hormones contain glycoprotein sequences. These
sequences are composed of amino acids linked to carbohydrates. During the course of many
hours or days, the carbohydrate polymer linked to the rest of the protein may be cleaved by
circulating enzymes or be degraded spontaneously. The liver can recognize differences in
length and may internalize the protein in order to begin its own degradation. In this way,
carbohydrates may mark the passage of time for proteins.

Structure of proteins

Proteins are biological polymers composed of amino acids. Amino acids, linked together by
peptide bonds, form a polypeptide chain. One or more polypeptide chains twisted into a 3-D
shape form a protein. Proteins have complex shapes that include various folds, loops, and
curves. Folding in proteins happens spontaneously. Chemical bonding between portions of
the polypeptide chain aid in holding the protein together and giving it its shape.

There are four distinct levels of protein structure:

Primary structure: It describes the unique order in which amino acids are linked together to
form a protein. Proteins are constructed from a set of 20 amino acids.

All amino acids have the alpha carbon bonded to a hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, and
amino group. The "R" group varies among amino acids and determines the differences
between these protein monomers. The amino acid sequence of a protein is determined by the
information found in the cellular genetic code. The order of amino acids in a polypeptide
chain is unique and specific to a particular protein. Altering a single amino acid causes a gene
mutation, which most often results in a non-functioning protein.

Secondary Structure: It refers to the coiling or folding of a polypeptide chain that gives the
protein its 3-D shape. There are two types of secondary structures observed in proteins. One

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type is the alpha (?) helix structure. This structure resembles a coiled spring and is secured by
hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain. The second type of secondary structure in
proteins is the beta (?) pleated sheet. This structure appears to be folded or pleated and is held
together by hydrogen bonding between polypeptide units of the folded chain that lie adjacent
to one another.

Tertiary Structure: It refers to the comprehensive 3-D structure of the polypeptide chain of
a protein. There are several types of bonds and forces that hold a protein in its tertiary
structure. Hydrophobic interactions greatly contribute to the folding and shaping of a protein.
The "R" group of the amino acid is either hydrophobic or hydrophilic. The amino acids with
hydrophilic "R" groups will seek contact with their aqueous environment, while amino acids
with hydrophobic "R" groups will seek to avoid water and position themselves towards the
center of the protein. Hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain and between amino acid
"R" groups helps to stabilize protein structure by holding the protein in the shape established
by the hydrophobic interactions. Due to protein folding, ionic bonding can occur between the
positively and negatively charged "R" groups that come in close contact with one another.
Folding can also result in covalent bonding between the "R" groups of cysteine amino acids.
This type of bonding forms what is called a disulfide bridge. Interactions called van der
Waals forces also assist in the stabilization of protein structure. These interactions pertain to
the attractive and repulsive forces that occur between molecules that become polarized. These
forces contribute to the bonding that occurs between molecules.

Quaternary Structure: It refers to the structure of a protein macromolecule formed by

interactions between multiple polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide chain is referred to as a
subunit. Proteins with quaternary structure may consist of more than one of the same type of
protein subunit. They may also be composed of different subunits. Hemoglobin is an example
of a protein with quaternary structure. Hemoglobin, found in the blood, is an iron-containing
protein that binds oxygen molecules. It contains four subunits: two alpha subunits and two
beta subunits.

Functions of Protein

Repair and Maintenance: Protein is termed the building block of the body. It is called this
because protein is vital in the maintenance of body tissue, including development and repair.
Hair, skin, eyes, muscles and organs are all made from protein. This is why children need
more protein per pound of body weight than adults; they are growing and developing new
protein tissue.

Energy: Protein is a major source of energy. If you consume more protein than you need for
body tissue maintenance and other necessary functions, your body will use it for energy. If it
is not needed due to sufficient intake of other energy sources such as carbohydrates, the
protein will be used to create fat and becomes part of fat cells.

Hormones: Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones. These substances help
control body functions that involve the interaction of several organs. Insulin, a small protein,
is an example of a hormone that regulates blood sugar. It involves the interaction of organs
such as the pancreas and the liver. Secretin, is another example of a protein hormone. This
substance assists in the digestive process by stimulating the pancreas and the intestine to
create necessary digestive juices.

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Enzymes: The creation of DNA could not happen without the action of protein enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins that increase the rate of chemical reactions in the body. In fact, most of
the necessary chemical reactions in the body would not efficiently proceed without enzymes.
For example, one type of enzyme functions as an aid in digesting large protein, carbohydrate
and fat molecules into smaller molecules, while another assists the creation of DNA.

Transportation and Storage of Molecules: Protein is a major element in transportation of

certain molecules. For example, hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen throughout
the body. Protein is also sometimes used to store certain molecules. Ferritin is an example of
a protein that combines with iron for storage in the liver.

Antibodies: Antibodies formed by protein help prevent many illnesses and infections.
Protein forms antibodies that help prevent infection, illness and disease. These proteins
identify and assist in destroying antigens such as bacteria and viruses. They often work in
conjunction with the other immune system cells. For example, these antibodies identify and
then surround antigens in order to keep them contained until they can be destroyed by white
blood cells.

Fats: structure and functions

Fats(Lipids) are important constituent of of the diet because they are a source of high energy
value. Lipids are also important because of the fat-soluble vitamins, and essential fatty acids
found in the fat of the natural food stuffs. Body fat serves as a very good source of energy, it
is stored in adipose tissues. They also act as insulating material in the subcutaneous tissues
and are also seen around certain organs. Lipids combined with proteins are important
constituents of the cell membranes and mitochondria of the cell. Lipids are not generally
macromolecules.

On the basis of chemical structure and constitution, lipids are broadly classified into two
categories:

Simple Lipids: Simple lipids contain a trihydric alcohol, glycerol and long chain fatty acids.
The carboxyl groups of the fatty acids are ester-linked to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol.
The fatty acids present in simple lipids have generally 16 or 18 carbon atoms and they may
be saturated or unsaturated. The unsaturated fatty acids, usually have one or two double

bonds. Such lipids having three molecules of

fatty acids esterified to glycerol are called triglycerides.

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Complex Lipids: In contrast to simple lipids, the complex lipids contain elements like
phosphorus, sulfur, nitrogen etc., besides carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which are present in
all lipids. Among the complex lipids, phospholipids resemble the simple lipids most closely
in their structure.

Phospholipids are a major constituent of the cell membranes of most of the organisms. In a
phospholipid molecule, two hydroxyl groups of glycerol are esterified with carboxyl groups
of long chain fatty acids as in case simple lipids, while the third hydroxyl group of glycerol is
esterified with phosphoric acid. Such a lipid is called a phosphatide. In most of the
phospholipids, phosphoric acid is further linked to an organic group.

Functions of lipids

Chemical messengers: All multicellular organisms use chemical messengers to send

information between organelles and to other cells. Since lipids are small molecules insoluble
in water, they are excellent candidates for signalling. The signalling molecules further attach
to the receptors on the cell surface and bring about a change that leads to an action. The
signalling lipids, in their esterified form can infiltrate membranes and are transported to carry
signals to other cells. These may bind to certain proteins as well and are inactive until they
reach the site of action and encounter the appropriate receptor.

Storage and provision of energy: Storage lipids are triacylglycerols. These are inert and
made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol. Fatty acids in non esterified form, i.e. as free
(unesterified) fatty acids are released from triacylglycerols during fasting to provide a source
of energy and to form the structural components for cells. Dietary fatty acids of short and
medium chain size are not esterified but are oxidized rapidly in tissues as a source of
‗fuel‖. Longer chain fatty acids are esterified first to triacylglycerols or structural lipids.

Maintenance of temperature: Layers of subcutaneous fat under the skin also help in
insulation and protection from cold. Maintenance of body temperature is mainly done by
brown fat as opposed to white fat. Babies have a higher concentration of brown fat.

Membrane lipid layer formation: Linoleic and linolenic acids are essential fatty acids.
These form arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. These for membrane
lipids. Membrane lipids are made of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
are important as constituents of the phospholipids, where they appear to confer several
important properties to the membranes. One of the most important properties are fluidity and
flexibility of the membrane.

Cholesterol formation: Much of the cholesterol is located in cell membranes. It also occurs
in blood in free form as plasma lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are complex aggregates of lipids
and proteins that make travel of lipids in a watery or aqueous solution possible and enable
their transport throughout the body. The main groups are classified as chylomicrons (CM),
very low density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high density
lipoproteins (HDL), based on the relative densities Cholesterol maintains the fluidity of
membranes by interacting with their complex lipid components, specifically the
phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin. Cholesterol also is the
precursor of bile acids, vitamin D and steroidal hormones.

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Prostaglandin formation and role in inflammation: The essential fatty acids, linoleic and
linolenic acids are precursors of many different types of eicosanoids, including the
hydroxyeicosatetraenes, prostanoids (prostaglandins, thromboxanes and prostacyclins),
leukotrienes (and lipoxins) and resolvins etc. these play an important role in pain, fever,
inflammation and blood clotting.

Vitamins and deficiency diseases

VITAMINS

Vitamins are organic compounds which are needed in small quantities to sustain life. We
need to take vitamins from food because the human body either does not produce enough of
them or none at all.

There are two types of vitamins:

Fat-soluble vitamins: Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fatty tissues of the body and the
liver. Fat-soluble vitamins are easier to store than water-soluble ones and can stay in the body
as reserves for days, some of them for months. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the
intestinal tract with the help of fats (lipids). Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble.

Water-soluble vitamins: Water-soluble vitamins do not get stored in the body for long - they
soon get excreted in urine. Because of this, water-soluble vitamins need to be replaced more
often than fat-soluble ones. Vitamins C and all the B vitamins are water-soluble.

Vitamin A

Chemical names - retinol, retinal, and four carotenoids (including beta carotene)

Good sources include: liver, cod liver oil, carrots, broccoli, sweet potato, butter, kale,
spinach, pumpkin, collard greens, some cheeses, egg, apricot, cantaloupe melon, and milk.

Deficiency may cause night-blindness and keratomalacia (an eye disorder that results in a dry
cornea).

Vitamin B1

Chemical name - thiamine Water soluble

Good sources include: yeast, pork, cereal grains, sunflower seeds, brown rice, whole-grain
rye, asparagus, kale, cauliflower, potatoes, oranges, liver, and eggs.

Deficiency may cause beriberi and Wernicke-Korsakoffsyndrome.

Vitamin B2

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Chemical name – riboflavin

Good sources include: asparagus, bananas, persimmons, okra, chard, cottage cheese, milk,
yogurt, meat, eggs, fish, and green beans.

Deficiency may cause Ariboflavinosis, glossitis, angular stomatitis

Vitamin B3

Chemical names - niacin, niacinamide

Good sources include: liver, heart, kidney, chicken, beef, fish (tuna, salmon), milk, eggs,
avocados, dates, tomatoes, leafy vegetables, broccoli, carrots, sweet potatoes, asparagus, nuts,
whole-grains, legumes, mushrooms, and brewer's yeast.

Deficiency may cause pellagra (characterized by diarrhea, dermatitis, and mental disturbance)

Vitamin B5

Chemical name - pantothenic acid

Good sources include: meats, whole-grains (milling may remove it), broccoli, avocados,
royal jelly, and fish ovaries.

Deficiency causes paresthesia (Paresthesia refers to a burning or prickling sensation that is

usually felt in the hands, arms, legs, or feet, but can also occur in other parts of the body. The
sensation, which happens without warning, is usually painless and described as tingling or
numbness, skin crawling, or itching)

Vitamin B6

Chemical names - pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal.

Sources of vitamin B6 : meats, bananas, whole-grains, vegetables, and nuts. When milk is
dried, it loses about half of its B6. Freezing and canning can also reduce content.

Deficiency causes anemia, peripheral neuropathy (damage to parts of the nervous system
other than the brain and spinal cord)

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Vitamin B7

Chemical name - biotin

Deficiency of vitamin B7 can cause dermatitis or enteritis (inflammation of the intestine)

Sources of vitamin B7 include: egg yolk, liver, some vegetables.

Vitamin B9

Chemical names - folic acid, folinic acid.

Sources include: leafy vegetables, legumes, liver, baker's yeast, some fortified grain products,
and sunflower seeds. Several fruits have moderate amounts, as does beer.

Deficiency during pregnancy is linked to birth defects. Pregnant women are encouraged to
supplement folic acid for the entire year before they get pregnant.

Vitamin B12

Chemical names - cyanocobalamin, hydroxocobalamin, methylcobalamin

Deficiency may cause megaloblastic anemia (a condition where bone marrow produces
unusually large, abnormal, immature red blood cells)

Sources include: fish, shellfish, meat, poultry, eggs, milk and dairy products, some fortified
cereals and soy products, as well as fortified nutritional yeast Vegans are advised to take B12
supplements.

Vitamin C

Chemical names - ascorbic acid.

Deficiency may cause megaloblastic anemia.

Sources include: fruit and vegetables. The Kakadu plum and the camu camu fruit have the
highest vitamin C contents of all foods. Liver also has high levels. Cooking destroys vitamin
C.

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Vitamin D

Known as the sunshine vitamin, vitamin D is produced by the body in response to skin being
exposed to sunlight. It is also occurs naturally in a few foods -- including some fish, fish liver
oils, and egg yolks and in fortified dairy and grain products. The Chemical name of vitamin
D is ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol.

Vitamin D is essential for strong bones, because it helps the body use calcium from the diet.
Traditionally, vitamin D deficiency has been associated with rickets, a disease in which the
bone tissue doesn't properly mineralize, leading to soft bones and skeletal deformities. But
increasingly, research is revealing the importance of vitamin D in protecting against a host of
health problems.

Vitamin E

Chemical name of vitamin E is tocopherols or tocotrienols.

Sources include: kiwi fruit, almonds, avocado, eggs, milk, nuts, leafy green vegetables,
unheated vegetable oils, wheat germ, and whole-grains.

Deficiency of vitamin E is uncommon. Deficiency may cause hemolytic anemia in newborns

(a condition where blood cells are destroyed and removed from the blood too early).

Vitamin K

Chemical names - phylloquinone, menaquinones. Fat soluble.

Deficiency may cause bleeding diathesis (an unusual susceptibility to bleeding).

Sources include: leafy green vegetables, avocado, kiwi fruit. Parsley contains a lot of vitamin
K.

Enzymes
ENZYMES

Enzyme, a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which
chemical reactions proceed without itself being altered in the process.

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The biological processes that occur within all living organisms are chemical reactions, and
most are regulated by enzymes. Without enzymes, many of these reactions would not take
place at a perceptible rate. Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism.

Chemical nature of enzymes

All enzymes were once thought to be proteins, but since the 1980s the catalytic ability of
certain nucleic acids, called ribozymes (or catalytic RNAs), has been demonstrated, refuting
this axiom. Because so little is yet known about the enzymatic functioning of RNA, this
discussion will focus primarily on protein enzymes.

A large protein enzyme molecule is composed of one or more amino acid chains called
polypeptide chains. The amino acid sequence determines the characteristic folding patterns of
the protein‘s structure, which is essential to enzyme specificity. If the enzyme is subjected to
changes, such as fluctuations in temperature or pH, the protein structure may lose its integrity
(denature) and its enzymatic ability. Denaturation is sometimes, but not always, reversible.

Bound to some enzymes is an additional chemical component called a cofactor, which is a

direct participant in the catalytic event and thus is required for enzymatic activity. A cofactor
may be either a coenzyme—an organic molecule, such as a vitamin—or an inorganic metal
ion; some enzymes require both. A cofactor may be either tightly or loosely bound to the
enzyme. If tightly connected, the cofactor is referred to as a prosthetic group.

Impact of temperature on Enzymes

As the temperature increases, so does the rate of reaction. But very high temperatures
denature enzymes. The graph shows the typical change in an enzyme's activity with
increasing temperature. The enzyme activity gradually increases with temperature until
around 37ºC, or body temperature. Then, as the temperature continues to rise, the rate of
reaction falls rapidly, as heat energy denatures the enzyme.

Industrial applications of Enzymes

Enzymes are used in the chemical industry and other industrial applications when extremely
specific catalysts are required. However, enzymes in general are limited in the number of
reactions they have evolved to catalyze, and by their lack of stability in organic solvents and
at high temperatures. As a consequence, protein engineering is an active area of research and
involves attempts to create new enzymes with novel properties, either through rational design
or in vitro evolution. These efforts have begun to be successful, and a few enzymes have now
been designed "from scratch" to catalyze reactions that do not occur in nature.

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In food processing, the enzymes used include amylases from fungi and plants. These
enzymes are used in the production of sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose
corn syrup. In baking, they catalyze the breakdown of starch in the flour to sugar. Yeast
fermentation of sugar produces the carbon dioxide that raises the dough. Proteases are used
by biscuit manufacturers to lower the protein level of flour. Trypsin is used to predigest baby
foods. For the processing of fruit juices, cellulases and pectinases are used to clarify fruit
juices. Papain is used to tenderize meat for cooking.

In the dairy industry, rennin, derived from the stomachs of young ruminant animals (like
calves and lambs) is used to manufacture of cheese, used to hydrolyze protein. Lipases are
implemented during the production of Roquefort cheese to enhance the ripening of the blue-
mold cheese. Lactases are used to break down lactose to glucose and galactose.

In the brewing industry, enzymes from barley are released during the mashing stage of beer
production. They degrade starch and proteins to produce simple sugar, amino acids, and
peptides that are used by yeast for fermentation. Industrially-produced barley enzymes are
widely used in the brewing process to substitute for the natural enzymes found in barley.
Amylase, glucanases, and proteases are used to split polysaccharides and proteins in the malt.
Betaglucanases and arabinoxylanases are used to improve the wort and beer filtration
characteristics. Amyloglucosidase and pullulanases are used for low-calorie beer and
adjustment of fermentability. Proteases are used to remove cloudiness produced during
storage of beers.

In the starch industry, amylases, amyloglucosideases, and glucoamylases convert starch into
glucose and various syrups. Glucose isomerase converts glucose into fructose in production
of high-fructose syrups from starchy materials. In the paper industry, amylases, xylanases,
cellulases, and ligninases are used to degrade starch to lower viscosity, aiding sizing and
coating paper. In the biofuel industry, cellulases used to break down cellulose into sugars
that can be fermented.

In the production of biological detergents, proteases, produced in an extracellular form from

bacteria, are used in pre-soak conditions and direct liquid applications, helping with the
removal of protein stains from clothes. In molecular biology, restriction enzymes, DNA
ligase, and polymerases are used to manipulate DNA in genetic engineering, important in
pharmacology, agriculture and medicine, and are essential for restriction digestion and the
polymerase chain reaction. Molecular biology is also important in forensic science.

Hormones - Plant hormones and growth

regulation.Animal hormones and their functions
HORMONES

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Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries
them to organs and tissues of the body to exert their functions. There are many types of
hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and processes. Some of these
include:

 Development and growth

 Metabolism of food items
 Sexual function and reproductive growth and health
 Cognitive function
 Mood Maintenance of body temperature and thirst

Animal hormones

Endocrine system is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances
called as hormones. Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the blood.

Endocrine glands Different types of endocrine glands present in our body are the pituitary
gland, the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the thymus, the
adrenal gland, the pancreas, the testes and the ovary.

The pituitary gland

 It is a pea-shaped gland located at the base of the brain.

 It is considered to be master gland as it secretes many hormones to regulate the organs
as well as the other glands.
 Different hormones secreted by this gland include Growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH,
ACTH, MSH, Vasopressin and Oxytocin.

The hypothalamus

 It is a neuro-endocrine part of the brain.

 It links the nervous system and the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.
 Different hormones secreted by this gland include TRH, GnRH, GHRH, CRH,
Stomatostatin, Dopamine.

The thyroid gland

 It is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx.

 It is the one of the largest endocrine glands.
 The principal hormones produced by this gland are triiodothyronine and thyroxine.

Thyroxine is a hormone that regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in
the body. Hyposecretion of thyroxine leads to cretinin in children, and myxoedema in
adults. Hypersecretion of thyroxine leads to exopthalmic goitre in adults. Goitre is caused
due to deficiency of iodine in food. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine.

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Parathyroid glands

 These are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands embedded on the dorsal surface of
the thyroid gland present in the neck.
 They secrete parathormone.
 Parathormone helps in regulation of calcium and phosphate ions in the bones and
blood.
 Hyposecretion leads to parathyroid tetany and hypersecretion causes osteoporosis.

The adrenal glands

 These are located above the kidneys and hence are called as suprarenal glands.
 Two regions of the adrenal gland are adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
 Adrenal cortex secretes the hormones like cortisol, aldosterone and androgens.
 Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones like adrenaline and noradrenaline.
 Adrenaline is also called the ―hormone of fight or flight,‖ or the emergency hormone.
 It prepares the body to face an emergency condition of physical stress, like danger,
anger and excitement.

The pancreas

 It is located just below the stomach within the curve of the duodenum.
 It is both exocrine and endocrine in function.
 It secretes hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic
polypeptide.
 Insulin regulates the sugar level in our blood. Insulin secreted in small amounts
increases the sugar level in our blood which in turn causes a disease called diabetes
mellitus.

Gonads

 Two types of gonads present in human beings are female gonads and male gonads.
Female gonads
 A pair of ovaries forms the gonads in female.
 Ovaries are the female sex organs that lie one on either side of the abdominal cavity.
Ovaries produce two hormones, namely, oestrogen and progesterone.
 Oestrogen controls the changes that occur during puberty, like feminine voice, soft
skin and development in mammary glands.

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 Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle, and helps in the
maintenance of pregnancy.

Male gonads

 A pair of testes forms the gonads in males.

 A pair of testes is the male sex organ located in the scrotum, which is outside the
abdomen.
 Testes produce the hormone testosterone.
 Testosterone controls the changes, which occur during puberty, like deeper voice,
development of penis, facial and body hair.

The pineal gland

 It is located near the centre of the brain, dorsal to the diencephalon.

 It produces the hormone melatonin.
 Melatonin affects reproductive development, modulation of wake and sleep patterns,
and seasonal functions.

The thymus gland

 It is located in front of the heart, in the upper part of the sternum.

 It produces the hormone thymosine.
 It helps in the maturation of T-lymphocytes.

Plant hormones

Plant hormones are signal molecules produced within the plant, and occur in extremely low
concentrations. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and, moved to
other locations, in other functional parts of the plant. Hormones also determine the formation
of flowers, stems, leaves, the shedding of leaves, and the development and ripening of fruit.

There are five major types of plant hormones: auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, and
abscisic acid.

Auxins

Auxins are a powerful growth hormone produced naturally by plants. They are found in shoot
and root tips and promote cell division, stem and root growth. They can also drastically affect
plant orientation by promoting cell division to one side of the plant in response to sunlight
and gravity.

Auxins have four key effects on plant growth:

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 Stimulating shoot elongation: Auxins positively influence gibberlins that promote cell
elongation. This increases plant length. Essentially, gibberlins and thereby auxins,
increase the distance between nodes, spacing the branch points further apart.
 Controlling seedling orientation: It was the infamous Charles Darwin and his son
Francis who first noticed that seedlings bend toward the light. However, whether a
new shoot grows into the soil or towards light, depends on where auxins are located
and how they influence cells within the plant. Auxins will move downward due to
gravity and laterally, away from light. Cells grow more in areas of the plant where
auxins are highly concentrated.
 Stimulating root branching : When an auxin is applied to a cut stem, the stem will
initiate roots at the cut.
 Promoting fruit development: Auxins in the flower promote maturation of the ovary
wall and promote steps in the full development of the fruit.

Auxins can be produced naturally (by the plant) or synthetically (in a lab). When produced
synthetically, they can be used in high concentrations as a pesticide, causing drastic growth.
The herbicide, 2-4-D, is an example of an auxin-based pesticide, specifically engineered to
cause dicots (plants like dandelions) to grow quickly and uncontrollably, ultimately killing
the plant.

Gibberellin: Gibberellin causes some similar effects in plants as auxin, but it is a very
different hormone. Gibberellins were discovered originally in Japan. A fungus called
Gibberella fujikuroi infected rice plants and caused them to grow too tall and fall over. The
infectious fungus produced a chemical that stimulated the growth in rice plants. The chemical
was isolated and named Gibberellin after the fungus. It was later found that plants naturally
produce variations of these chemicals! Gibberellins play an important role in several
developmental stages in plants, but their claim to fame is making stems longer. Gibberellins
promote stem elongation between nodes on the stem. A node is a place on a stem where a leaf
attaches, so gibberellins elongate the internodes. It is easiest to see the absence of gibberellin
in dwarf plants and rosette plants – there is very little space between nodes on a stem and the
leaves are clustered toward the base of the plant. What‘s the big deal about knowing how to
control stem elongation in plants? Well, when would it be beneficial to know how to make a
plant stem shorter or longer? Biologists can prevent plants in a greenhouse from making
gibberellins to keep them a manageable size. That‘s handy. Or what if you‘re a farmer and
your business is something that comes from the stem of a plant? Longer stems would mean
more profit for you, right? Gibberellins sprayed on sugar cane in Hawaii elongate the stem
between the nodes. Longer stems mean more stored sugar. More sugar to sell means more
coin! Knowing about plant hormones just makes cents.

Cytokinins: Cytokinins are a group of hormones that promote cell division in plant roots and
shoots and the growth of buds. These hormones have been found in all complex plants as
well as mosses, fungi, and bacteria. There are about 200 different natural and
synthetic cytokinins known to botanists today. Most cytokinins are produced in the
meristem of the roots. Meristem is the name for a region of tissue within the plant that
actively promotes cell division. In other words, the meristem is any place that's still growing
(like the tip of the roots or the top of the stem). Once the cytokinin has been produced in the
roots, it travels up the xylem, or vascular tissue, to other parts of the plant where continued
growth takes place (such as young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds).

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Cytokinins increase cell division by stimulating the production of proteins needed for mitosis.
Mitosis is non-sexual cell division that occurs in all living things producing additional cells
for body growth. In your body, mitosis is occurring every day, replacing dead and damaged
cells and allowing for growth. If you skin your knee, it's mitosis that grows back the cells you
lost. In plants, mitosis creates additional cells that make the plants grow. If you have ever
played with building blocks that snap together, you can think of them like plant cells. Every
time the process of mitosis occurs, a new cell is formed and moved to the end of the plant
making it longer or taller (just like adding a building block to your structure).

Ethylene: Ethylene serves as a hormone in plants. It acts at trace levels throughout the life of
the plant by stimulating or regulating the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the
abscission (or shedding) of leaves. Commercial ripening rooms use "catalytic generators" to
make ethylene gas from a liquid supply of ethanol. Typically, a gassing level of 500 to 2,000
ppm is used, for 24 to 48 hours. Care must be taken to control carbon dioxide levels in
ripening rooms when gassing, as high temperature ripening (20 °C; 68 °F) has been seen to
produce CO2 levels of 10% in 24 hours.

Ethylene is produced from essentially all parts of higher plants, including leaves, stems,
roots, flowers, fruits, tubers, and seeds. Ethylene production is regulated by a variety of
developmental and environmental factors. During the life of the plant, ethylene production is
induced during certain stages of growth such as germination, ripening of fruits, abscission of
leaves, and senescence of flowers. Ethylene production can also be induced by a variety of
external aspects such as mechanical wounding, environmental stresses, and certain chemicals
including auxin and other regulators. The pathway for ethylene biosynthesis is named the
Yang cycle after the scientist Shang Fa Yang who made key contributions to elucidating this
pathway.

Abscisic acid: Abscisic acid, is involved in many developmental plant processes, including
leaf abscission, responding to environmental stress, and inhibiting fruit ripening. Abscisic
acid is produced in the roots of the plant as well as the terminal buds at the top of the plant.

Functions of Abscisic Acid: The following are some of the physiological responses known
to be associated with abscisic acid:

 Stimulates the closure of stomata (water stress brings about an increase in ABA
synthesis).
 Inhibits shoot growth but will not have as much affect on roots or may even promote
growth of roots. Induces seeds to synthesize storage proteins.
 Inhibits the affect of gibberellins on stimulating de novo synthesis of a-amylase.
 It Has some effect on induction and maintanance of dormancy.
 It Induces gene transcription especially for proteinase inhibitors in response to
wounding which may explain an apparent role in pathogen defense.

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Cell reproduction - Cell cycle Mitosis and Meiosis

CELL REPRODUCTION

Cell reproduction is the process by which cells divide to form new cells. Each time a cell
divides, it makes a copy of all of its chromosomes, which are tightly coiled strands of DNA,
the genetic material that holds the instructions for all life, and sends an identical copy to the
new cell that is created.

Cell cycle

The cell cycle or cell-division cycle is the series of events that take place in a cell leading to
its division and duplication of its DNA (DNA replication) to produce two daughter cells.The
cell cycle has 5 phases:

G 1 Phase: During the G1 Phase, the cell grows and stores up energy that it will use during
cell division. Nutrients are taken in and all the usual cell processes take place. Once cells are
fully grown, they proceed on to the S Phase.

S Phase: During the S Phase, the DNA in the cell's nucleus is copied. This means that the
cell then attains two copies of all the necessary DNA for normal cell activity, leaving a full
set to be transferred into the new cell that will be created after the cell divides.

G 2 Phase: During this phase, the cell prepares for cell division. This phase represents a
time gap between the time when the cell copies its DNA and when it divides.

M Phase: During this phase, cell division takes place through Mitosis.

Cytokinesis: During Cytokinesis, the cytoplasm in the cell divides and the cell's membrane
pinches inward and the cell begins to divide. Also, when plant cells divide, a cell plate forms
between the two new cells to divide them. After this step, the new cell and sometimes the
original cell also restart the cell cycle by beginning G1 Phase again. However, sometimes
cells enter G0 phase, which is a phase where cells exit the cell cycle after they are fully
grown and continue to serve their purpose in an organism.

MITOSIS

Mitosis, a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives rise to two
genetically identical daughter cells. Strictly applied, the term mitosis is used to describe the
duplication and distribution of chromosomes, the structures that carry the genetic
information.

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Phases of mitosis

Interphase

Before a cell can reproduce, it has to perform a variety of activities to get ready. The stage of
the cell cycle when a cell is preparing itself to duplicate is called interphase. Since so many
things are happening in the cell at this time, most of the cell's life is spent in this stage. While
preparing to reproduce, the cell makes more cytoplasm (the gel-like substance found inside
the cell membrane that bathes the organelles) and increases its supply of proteins. When it's
ready, it goes through three sub-phases of interphase: G1, S, and G2.

Preprophase

This phase takes place in plant cells only. The preprophase band is a microtubule array found
in plant cells that are about to undergo cell division and enter the preprophase stage of the
plant cell cycle. Besides the phragmosome, it is the first microscopically visible sign that a
plant cell is about to enter mitosis.

Just before mitosis starts, the preprophase band forms as a dense band of microtubules around
the phragmosome and the future division plane just below the plasma membrane. It encircles
the nucleus at the equatorial plane of the future mitotic spindle when dividing cells enter the
G2 phase of the cell cycle after DNA replication is complete. The preprophase band consists
mainly of microtubules and microfilaments (actin) and is generally 2-3 µm wide. When
stained with fluorescent markers, it can be seen as two bright spots close to the cell wall on
either side of the nucleus.

Prophase

The process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent
cell into two identical daughter cells. During prophase, the complex of DNA and proteins
contained in the nucleus, known as chromatin, condenses. The chromatin coils and becomes
increasingly compact, resulting in the formation of visible chromosomes. Chromosomes are
made of a single piece of DNA that is highly organized. The replicated chromosomes have an
X shape and are called sister chromatids. The sister chromatids are pairs of identical copies of
DNA joined at a point called the centromere. Then, a structure called the mitotic spindle
begins to form. The mitotic spindle is made of long proteins called microtubules that begin
forming at opposite ends of the cell. The spindle will be responsible for separating the sister
chromatids into two cells.

Premetaphase

In this phase, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus
of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. During prometaphase, the physical barrier
that encloses the nucleus, called the nuclear envelope, breaks down. The breakdown of the
nuclear envelope frees the sister chromatids from the nucleus, which is necessary for
separating the nuclear material into two cells. Another important event during prometaphase
is the development of a protein formation called a kinetochore around the centromere, the
central point joining the sister chromatids. Long protein filaments called kinetochore
microtubules extend from poles on either end of the cell and attach to the kinetochores.

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Metaphase

In this nuclear envelope has entirely vanished and the chromosomes have condensed , which
means that they have become tightly coiled and are now clearly visible even under an
ordinary light microscope. In addition, the microtubules of the spindle apparatus have
attached to the centromeres at their kinetochores. The centrosomes are now at opposite ends
("poles") of the cells.

Anaphase

During anaphase A, the cohesins that bind sister chromatids together are cleaved, forming
two identical daughter chromosomes. Shortening of the kinetochore microtubules pulls the
newly formed daughter chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell. During anaphase B, polar
microtubules push against each other, causing the cell to elongate. In late anaphase,
chromosomes also reach their overall maximal condensation level, to help chromosome
segregation and the re-formation of the nucleus. In most animal cells, anaphase A precedes
anaphase B, but some vertebrate egg cells demonstrate the opposite order of events.

Telophase

Telophase is the fifth and final phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated
genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells.
Telophase begins once the replicated, paired chromosomes have been separated and pulled to
opposite sides, or poles, of the cell. During telophase, a nuclear membrane forms around each
set of chromosomes to separate the nuclear DNA from the cytoplasm. The chromosomes
begin to uncoil, which makes them diffuse and less compact. Along with telophase, the cell
undergoes a process called cytokinesis that divides the cytoplasm of the parental cell into two
daughter cells.

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental
cell into two daughter cells. It occurs concurrently with two types of nuclear division called
mitosis and meiosis, which occur in animal cells. Mitosis and each of the two meiotic
divisions result in two separate nuclei contained within a single cell. Cytokinesis performs an
essential process to separate the cell in half and ensure that one nucleus ends up in each
daughter cell. Cytokinesis starts during the nuclear division phase called anaphase and
continues through telophase. A ring of protein filaments called the contractile ring forms
around the equator of the cell just beneath the plasma membrane. The contractile ring shrinks
at the equator of the cell, pinching the plasma membrane inward, and forming what is called a
cleavage furrow. Eventually, the contractile ring shrinks to the point that there are two
separate cells each bound by its own plasma membrane.

MEIOSIS

Meiosis The form of cell division that creates gametes, or sex cells (eggs or sperm) is called
meiosis. It is a special form of reproduction that results in four next-generation cells, rather
than just two, from each cell.

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Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed
homologs. First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two
identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange
DNA by homologous recombination leading to physical connections (crossovers) between
the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter
cells by the spindle apparatus. The cells then proceed to a second division without an
intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate
daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight
variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and two small polar bodies. Because of
recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and
paternal DNA, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent.
Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and
recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction
contributes to the variation in traits upon which natural selection can act.

Phases of meiosis

There are two main phases of meiosis: meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

Meiosis 1 has following phases:

Prophase 1

Prophase I is typically the longest phase of meiosis. During prophase I, homologous

chromosomes pair and exchange DNA (homologous recombination). This often results in
chromosomal crossover. This process is critical for pairing between homologous
chromosomes and hence for accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiosis
division. The new combinations of DNA created during crossover are a significant source of
genetic variation, and result in new combinations of alleles, which may be beneficial. The
paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two
chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. The
process of pairing the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. At this stage, non-sister
chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma). Prophase I
has historically been divided into a series of substages which are named according to the
appearance of chromosomes. Prophase 1 involves Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene
and Diakinesis.

Metaphase 1

 The centrioles are at opposite poles of the cell.

 The pairs of homologous chromosomes (the bivalents), now as tightly coiled and
condensed as they will be in meiosis, become arranged on a plane equidistant from
the poles called the metaphase plate.
 Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one chromosome of each pair (seen
as sister chromatids), and spindle fibers from the opposite pole attach to the
homologous chromosome (again, seen as sister chromatids).

Anaphase I

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 Anaphase 1 begins when the two chromosomes of each bivalent (tetrad) separate and
start moving toward opposite poles of the cell as a result of the action of the spindle.
 Notice that in anaphase I the sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres
and move together toward the poles. A key difference between mitosis and meiosis is
that sister chromatids remain joined after metaphase in meiosis I, whereas in mitosis
they separate.

Telophase I

The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each
daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a
pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new
nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin.
Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell
wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids
remain attached during telophase I. Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or
interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage.

Meiosis 2

Prophase 2

 While chromosome duplication took place prior to meiosis I, no new chromosome

replication occurs before meiosis II.
 The centrioles duplicate. This occurs by separation of the two members of the pair,
and then the formation of a daughter centriole perpendicular to each original centriole.
The two pairs of centrioles separate into two centrosomes.
 The nuclear envelope breaks down, and the spindle apparatus forms.

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Metaphase 2

 Each of the daughter cells completes the formation of a spindle apparatus.

 Single chromosomes align on the metaphase plate, much as chromosomes do in mitosis.
This is in contrast to metaphase I, in which homologous pairs of chromosomes align on
the metaphase plate.
 For each chromosome, the kinetochores of the sister chromatids face the opposite poles,
and each is attached to a kinetochore microtubule coming from that pole.

Anaphase 2

The centromeres separate, and the two chromatids of each chromosome move to opposite poles
on the spindle. The separated chromatids are now called chromosomes in their own right.

Telophase 2
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 A nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes.

 Cytokinesis takes place, producing four daughter cells (gametes, in animals), each with a
haploid set of chromosomes.
 Because of crossing-over, some chromosomes are seen to have recombined segments of
the original parental chromosomes.

plants, he obtained a purple flower to white

flower ratio in the F2 generation of 3 to 1.
The results of this cross are tabulated in the
Punnett square to the right.

Medallion Inheritance - Law of Segregation of genes: The Law of

Segregation states that every individual
Monohybrid and Dihybrid organism contains two alleles for each trait,
and that these alleles segregate (separate)
cross during meiosis such that each gamete
contains only one of the alleles. An
offspring thus receives a pair of alleles for a
MENDELIAN INHERITENCE trait by inheriting homologous chromosomes
from the parent organisms: one allele for
Mendelian inheritance is a type of biological each trait from each parent.[6] Molecular
inheritance that follows the laws originally proof of this principle was subsequently
proposed by Gregor Mendel in 1865 and found through observation of meiosis by two
1866 and re-discovered in 1900. These laws scientists independently, the German
were initially very controversial. When botanist Oscar Hertwig in 1876, and the
Mendel's theories were integrated with the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden in
Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory of 1883. Paternal and maternal chromosomes
inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in get separated in meiosis and the alleles with
1915, they became the core of classical the traits of a character are segregated into
genetics. Ronald Fisher later combined these two different gametes. Each parent
ideas with the theory of natural selection in contributes a single gamete, and thus a
his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of single, randomly successful allele copy to
Natural Selection, putting evolution onto a their offspring and fertilization.
mathematical footing and forming the basis
for population genetics and the modern Law of Independent Assortment
evolutionary synthesis.
Mendel's law of independent assortment,
Mendel's laws states that allele pairs separate
independently during the formation of
Mendel discovered that, when he crossed gametes. This means that traits are
purebred white flower and purple flower pea transmitted to offspring independently of
plants (the parental or P generation), the one another. Mendel formulated this
result was not a blend. Rather than being a principle after performing dihybrid crosses
mix of the two, the offspring (known as the between plants that differed in two traits,
F1 generation) was purple-flowered. When such as seed color and pod color. After
Mendel self-fertilized the F1 generation pea these plants were allowed to self pollinate,

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he noticed that the same ratio of 9:3:3:1 Monohybrid cross

appeared among the offspring. Mendel
concluded that traits are transmitted to A monohybrid cross is a breeding
offspring independently. experiment between P generation (parental
generation) organisms that differ in a single
Law of Dominance given trait. The P generation organisms are
homozygous for the given trait, however
Mendel's Law of Dominance states that each parent possesses different alleles for
recessive alleles will always be masked by that particular trait. A Punnett square may be
dominant alleles. Therefore, a cross between used to predict the possible genetic
a homozygous dominant and a homozygous outcomes of a monohybrid cross based on
recessive will always express the dominant probability. This type of genetic analysis can
phenotype, while still having a heterozygous also be performed in a dihybrid cross, a
genotype. Law of Dominance can be genetic cross between parental generations
explained easily with the help of a mono that differ in two traits. Traits are
hybrid cross experiment:- In a cross between characteristics that are determined by
two organisms pure for any pair (or pairs) of discrete segments of DNA called genes.
contrasting traits (characters), the character Individuals typically inherit two alleles for
that appears in the F1 generation is called each gene. An allele is an alternate version
"dominant" and the one which is suppressed of a gene that is inherited (one from each
(not expressed) is called "recessive." Each parent) during sexual reproduction. Male
character is controlled by a pair of dissimilar and female gametes, produced by meiosis,
factors. Only one of the characters have a single allele for each trait. These
expresses. The one which expresses in the alleles are randomly united at
F1 generation is called Dominant. It is fertilization. Example: In the image above,
important to note however, that the law of the single trait being observed is pod color.
dominance is significant and true but is not The organisms in this monohybrid cross are
universally applicable. According to the true-breeding for pod color. True-breeding
latest revisions, only two of these rules are organisms have homozygous alleles for
considered to be laws. The third one is specific traits. In this cross, the allele for
considered as a basic principle but not a green pod color (G) is completely dominant
genetic law of Mendel. over the recessive allele for yellow pod
color (g). The genotype for the green pod
plant is (GG) and the genotype for the
yellow pod plant is (gg). Cross-pollination
between the true-breeding homozygous
dominant green pod plant and the true-
breeding homozygous recessive yellow pod
plant results in offspring with phenotypes of
green pod color. All genotypes are (Gg).
The offspring or F1 generation are all green
because the dominant green pod color
obscures the recessive yellow pod color in
the heterozygous genotype.

Monohybrid cross: F2 generation

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The F2 generation would have genotypes of The chromosomes present in the diploid
(GG, Gg, and gg) and a genotypic ratio of cells of the majority of the sexually
1:2:1. One-fourth of the F2 generation reproducing animals are of two types:
would be homozygous dominant (GG), one- autosomes bearing genes for somatic
half would be heterozygous (Gg), and one- characters and sex chromosomes bearing
fourth would be homozygous recessive (gg). genes for sex. Sex chromosomes also carry
The phenotypic ratio would be 3:1, with some genes for non-sexual characters such
three-fourths having green pod color (GG as colour blindness and haemophilia. Such
and Gg) and one-fourth having yellow pod genes which are always associated with sex
color (gg). chromosomes are called sex-linked genes. In
man and Drosophila the sex chromosomes
Dihybrid cross (X and Y) are unequal in size and shape, X
being larger and rod shaped whereas Y is
A dihybrid cross is a breeding experiment small and slightly curved. In birds and
between P generation (parental generation) butterflies the sex chromosomes (Z and W)
organisms that differ in two traits. The are also unequal in shape and size, Z being
individuals in this type of cross are larger than W. In Mendelian pattern of
homozygous for a specific trait. Traits are inheritance, the genes for contrasting
characteristics that are determined by characters were located on autosomes but
segments of DNA called genes. Diploid not on the sex chromosomes. Secondly, the
organisms inherit two alleles for each gene. result of reciprocal cross is same as normal
An allele is an alternate version of a gene cross which is not the case with sex linked
that is inherited (one from each parent) inheritance. There are three types of sex-
during sexual reproduction. In a dihybrid linked genes depending upon their
cross, the parent organisms have different association with particular chromosome.
pairs of alleles for each trait being studied.
One parent possesses homozygous dominant Some important points of sex linked
alleles and the other possesses homozygous inheritance are as follows:
recessive alleles. The offspring, or F1
generation, produced from the genetic cross  It is a criss-cross inheritance as the
of such individuals are all heterozygous for father passes its sex-linked character
the specific traits. This means that all of the to his daughter who in turn passes it
F1 individuals possess a hybrid genotype to the grandson.
and express the dominant phenotypes for  Daughter does not express the
each trait. recessive trait but act as carrier in the
heterozygous condition.
 Female homozygous for recessive
trait expresses the trait.
 Any recessive gene borne by the X
chromosome of male is immediately
expressed as Y chromosome has no
Sex linked Inheritance allele to counteract.

Sex linked inheritance : examples in men

Colour Blindness

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Colour blindness is an example of sex linked

character. Those who suffer from red green
colour blindness cannot distinguish between
red and green colour. The gene for this
defect is located on X chromosome.

When a normal woman is married to a Sex Determination

colour blind man, their children (daughters
and sons) have normal colour vision. But
when their daughters were married to
normal man, 50% of their sons are colour
Whether an animal will become a male, a
blind and the remaining 50% are normal,
female, or a hermaphrodite is determined
while the daughters were all normal.
very early in development. Scientists have
worked for hundreds of years to understand
the sex-determination system.

The first major breakthrough in

understanding sex determination was the
discovery of sex chromosomes in the early
1900s. From meticulous analyses of male
and female insect chromosomes, scientists
discovered that, although most
chromosomes were present in equal
numbers in both males and females, there
If a colour blind woman marries a normal were one or two additional chromosomes
man, their daughters are normal but all their that were unequally represented in the two
sons are colour-blind. When these F1 sexes. Analyses of additional species over
daughters are married to colour blind men, the years has revealed that chromosomal
colour blind sons and daughters are born in differences are primarily responsible for sex
equal number. determination in most animals.

Haemophilia The XY sex-determination system is the

sex-determination system found in humans,
Haemophila is another popular example of most other mammals, some insects
sex linked inheritance in human beings. It is (Drosophila), some snakes, and some plants
caused by a mutant gene (h) present in X (Ginkgo). In this system, the sex of an
chromosome and recessive to normal gene individual is determined by a pair of sex
and is, therefore, suppressed in heterozygous chromosomes (gonosomes). Females
condition. Individuals suffering from this typically have two of the same kind of sex
disease lack a factor responsible for clotting chromosome (XX), and are called the
of blood. So in the absence of blood clotting homogametic sex. Males typically have two
substance, a minor cut or injury may cause distinct sex chromosomes (XY), and are
prolonged bleeding leading to death. This called the heterogametic sex. Exceptions to
disease in man is generally restricted to male these generalisations happen in the cases of
members. XX males or XY females, or other
syndromes. The XY system contrasts in

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several ways with the ZW sex-determination their phenotypic sex; for example, XX males
system found in birds, some insects, many or XY females (see androgen insensitivity
reptiles, and various other animals, in which syndrome). Additionally, an abnormal
the heterogametic sex is female. It had been number of sex chromosomes (aneuploidy)
thought for several decades that in all snakes may be present, such as Turner's syndrome,
gender was determined by the ZW system, in which a single X chromosome is present,
but there had been observations of and Klinefelter's syndrome, in which two X
unexpected effects in the genetics of species chromosomes and a Y chromosome are
in the families Boidae and Pythonidae; for present, XYY syndrome and XXYY
example, parthenogenic reproduction syndrome.Other less common chromosomal
produced only females rather than males, arrangements include: triple X syndrome,
which is the opposite of what is to be 48, XXXX, and 49, XXXXX.
expected in the ZW system. In the early
years of the 21st century such observations
prompted research that demonstrated that all
pythons and boas so far investigated
definitely have the XY system of sex
determination.
DNA Structure &
Function, DNAReplication
DNA: STRUCTURE

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the

hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms. Nearly every cell in a
person‘s body has the same DNA. Most
DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where it
is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount
In humans, half of spermatozoons carry X of DNA can also be found in the
chromosome and the other half Y mitochondria (where it is called
chromosome. A single gene (SRY) present mitochondrial DNA or mtDNA).
on the Y chromosome acts as a signal to set
the developmental pathway towards
maleness. Presence of this gene starts off the
process of virilization. This and other factors
result in the sex differences in humans. The
cells in females, with two X chromosomes,
undergo X-inactivation, in which one of the
two X chromosomes is inactivated. The
inactivated X chromosome remains within a
cell as a Barr body. Humans, as well as
some other organisms, can have a
chromosomal arrangement that is contrary to

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DNA is made up of molecules called chromosomes. The information carried by

nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of
phosphate group, a sugar group and a DNA called genes. Transmission of genetic
nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen information in genes is achieved via
bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine complementary base pairing. For example,
(G) and cytosine (C). The order of these in transcription, when a cell uses the
bases is what determines DNA's information in a gene, the DNA sequence is
instructions, or genetic code. Similar to the copied into a complementary RNA sequence
way the order of letters in the alphabet can through the attraction between the DNA and
be used to form a word, the order of nitrogen the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this
bases in a DNA sequence forms genes, RNA copy is then used to make a matching
which in the language of the cell, tells cells protein sequence in a process called
how to make proteins. Another type of translation, which depends on the same
nucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or RNA, interaction between RNA nucleotides. In
translates genetic information from DNA alternative fashion, a cell may simply copy
into proteins. The entire human genome its genetic information in a process called
contains about3 billion bases and about DNA replication. The details of these
20,000 genes. functions are covered in other articles; here
the focus is on the interactions between
Nucleotides are attached together to form DNA and other molecules that mediate the
two long strands that spiral to create a function of the genome.
structure called a double helix. If you think
of the double helix structure as a ladder, the DNA REPLICATION
phosphate and sugar molecules would be the
sides, while the bases would be the rungs. Process of DNA replication takes place in
The bases on one strand pair with the bases following steps:
on another strand: adenine pairs with
thymine, and guanine pairs with Fork Formation
cytosine. DNA molecules are long — so
long, in fact, that they can't fit into cells Before DNA can be replicated, the double
without the right packaging. To fit inside stranded molecule must be ―unzipped‖ into
cells, DNA is coiled tightly to form two single strands. DNA has four bases
structures we call chromosomes. Each called adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine
chromosome contains a single DNA (C) and guanine (G) that form pairs between
molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of the two strands. Adenine only pairs with
chromosomes, which are found inside the thymine and cytosine only binds with
cell's nucleus. guanine. In order to unwind DNA, these
interactions between base pairs must be
Functions of DNA broken. This is performed by an enzyme
known as DNA helicase. DNA helicase
DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes disrupts the hydrogen bonding between base
in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in pairs to separate the strands into a Y shape
prokaryotes. The set of chromosomes in a known as the replication fork. This area will
cell makes up its genome; the human be the template for replication to
genome has approximately 3 billion base begin. DNA is directional in both strands,
pairs of DNA arranged into 46 signified by a 5' and 3' end. This notation

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signifies which side group is attached the adds pieces of DNA, called Okazaki
DNA backbone. The 5' end has a phosphate fragments, to the strand between primers.
(P) group attached, while the 3' end has a This process of replication is discontinuous
hydroxyl (OH) group attached. This as the newly created fragments are
directionality is important for replication as disjointed.
it only progresses in the 5' to 3' direction.
However, the replication fork is bi- Termination
directional; one strand is oriented in the 3' to
5' direction (leading strand) while the other Once both the continuous and
is oriented 5' to 3' (lagging strand). The two discontinuous strands are formed, an
sides are therefore replicated with two enzyme called exonuclease removes all
different processes to accommodate the RNA primers from the original strands.
directional difference. These primers are then replaced with
appropriate bases. Another exonuclease
Primer Binding ―proofreads‖ the newly formed DNA to
check, remove and replace any errors.
The leading strand is the simplest to Another enzyme called DNA ligase joins
replicate. Once the DNA strands have been Okazaki fragments together forming a single
separated, a short piece of RNA called a unified strand. The ends of the linear DNA
primer binds to the 3' end of the strand. The present a problem as DNA polymerase can
primer always binds as the starting point for only add nucleotides in the 5? to 3?
replication. Primers are generated by the direction. The ends of the parent strands
enzyme DNA primase. consist of repeated DNA sequences called
telomeres. Telomeres act as protective caps
Elongation at the end of chromosomes to prevent
nearby chromosomes from fusing. A special
Enzymes known as DNA polymerases are type of DNA polymerase enzyme called
responsible creating the new strand by a telomerase catalyzes the synthesis of
process called elongation. There are five telomere sequences at the ends of the DNA.
different known types of DNA polymerases Once completed, the parent strand and its
in bacteria and human cells. In bacteria such complementary DNA strand coils into the
as E. coli, polymerase III is the main familiar double helix shape. In the end,
replication enzyme, while polymerase I, II, replication produces two DNA molecules,
IV and V are responsible for error checking each with one strand from the parent
and repair. DNA polymerase III binds to the molecule and one new strand.
strand at the site of the primer and begins
adding new base pairs complementary to the Enzymes involved in the process of DNA
strand during replication. In eukaryotic cells, replication
polymerases alpha, delta, and epsilon are the
primary polymerases involved in DNA DNA replication would not occur without
replication. Because replication proceeds in enzymes that catalyze various steps in the
the 5' to 3' direction on the leading strand, process. Enzymes that participate in the
the newly formed strand is continuous. The eukaryotic DNA replication process include:
lagging strand begins replication by binding
with multiple primers. Each primer is only DNA helicase: unwinds and separates
several bases apart. DNA polymerase then double stranded DNA as it moves along the

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DNA. It forms the replication fork by 70 ribosomal proteins; 20 or more enzymes

breaking hydrogen bonds between to activate amino acid precursors, etc. And
nucleotide pairs in DNA. about 100 additional enzymes for the final
processing of different kinds of proteins and
DNA primase: a type of RNA polymerase 40 or more types of transfer and ribosomal
that generates RNA primers. Primers are RNAs. In total, 300 different
short RNA molecules that act as templates macromolecules are required to synthesize
for the starting point of DNA replication. polypeptides or proteins.Many of these
macromolecules are organized into the
DNA polymerases: synthesize new DNA complex 3D structure of the ribosomes to
molecules by adding nucleotides to leading carry out stepwise trans location of the
and lagging DNA strands. mRNA as the polypeptide is assembled.

Topoisomerase or DNA Gyrase: unwinds Steps in protein synthesis

and rewinds DNA strands to prevent the
DNA from becoming tangled or supercoiled. Transcription

Exonucleases: group of enzymes that Transcription The first step in transcription

remove nucleotide bases from the end of a is the partial unwinding of the DNA
DNA chain. molecule so that the portion of DNA that
codes for the needed protein can be
DNA ligase: joins DNA fragments together transcribed. Once the DNA molecule is
by forming phosphodiester bonds between unwound at the correct location, an enzyme
nucleotides. called RNA polymerase helps line up
nucleotides to create a complementary
strand of mRNA. Since mRNA is a single-
stranded molecule, only one of the two
strands of DNA is used as a template for the
Protein Synthesis new RNA strand.

After transcription, the new RNA strand is

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS released and the two unzipped DNA strands
bind together again to form the double helix.
Proteins are the end product of many Because the DNA template remains
metabolic processes. A typical cell requires unchanged after transcription, it is possible
thousands of different protein molecules at to transcribe another identical molecule of
any given moment. So, the protein RNA immediately after the first one is
requirements of a particular cell has to be complete. A single gene on a DNA strand
satisfied by synthesizing them at site or has can produce enough RNA to make
to be transferred from where it is being thousands of copies of the same protein in a
synthesized.

This is in accordance with the central dogma

of molecular genetics, which postulates that
the genetic information flows from nucleic
acid to proteins. In Eucaryotic cells, protein
synthesis requires the participation of over
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very short time. codon fills the A site. The tRNA molecule
whose anticodon is complementary to the
mRNA forms a temporary base pair with the
mRNA in the A site. A peptide bond is
formed between the amino acid attached to
the tRNA in the A site and the methionine in
the P site.

The ribosome now slides down the mRNA,

so that the tRNA in the A site moves over to
the P site, and a new codon fills the A site.
(One way to remember this is that the A site
brings new amino acids to the growing
Translation polypeptide at the P site.) The appropriate
tRNA carrying the appropriate amino acid
In translation, mRNA is sent to the pairs bases with this new codon in the A
cytoplasm, where it bonds with ribosomes, site. A peptide bond is formed between the
the sites of protein synthesis. Ribosomes two adjacent amino acids held by tRNA
have three important binding sites: one for molecules, forming the first two links of a
mRNA and two for tRNA. The two tRNA chain.
sites are labeled the A site and P site.
The ribosome slides again. The tRNA that
Once the mRNA is in place, tRNA was in the P site is let go into the cytoplasm,
molecules, each associated with specific where it will eventually bind with another
amino acids, bind to the ribosome in a amino acid. Another tRNA comes to bind
sequence defined by the mRNA code. tRNA with the new codon in the A site, and a
molecules can perform this function because peptide bond is formed between the new
of their special structure. tRNA is made up amino acid to the growing peptide chain.
of many nucleotides that bend into the shape
of a cloverleaf. At its tail end, tRNA has an
acceptor stem that attaches to a specific
amino acid. At its head, tRNA has three
nucleotides that make up an anticodon.

An anticodon pairs complementary

nitrogenous bases with mRNA. For example
if mRNA has a codon AUC, it will pair with
tRNA‘s anticodon sequence UAG. tRNA Gene Regulation
molecules with the same anticodon sequence
will always carry the same amino acids,
ensuring the consistency of the proteins GENE REGULATION
coded for in DNA.
Gene regulation is the informal term used to
Translation begins with the binding of the describe any mechanism used by a cell to
mRNA chain to the ribosome. The first increase or decrease the production of
codon, which is always the start codon specific gene products (protein or RNA).
methionine, fills the P site and the second Cells can modify their gene expression

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patterns to trigger developmental pathways, transcription, RNA processing and transport,

respond to environmental stimuli, or adapt translation and post-translational
to new food sources. All points of gene modification of a protein, and mRNA
expression can be regulated. This includes degradation.

Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotic cell

Chromatin Structure: Eukaryotic DNA is compacted into chromatin structures which can be
altered by histone modifications. Such modifications can result in the up- or down-regulation of
a gene.

Initiation of Transcription: This is a key point of regulation of eukaryotic gene expression.

Here, several factors such as promoters and enhancers alter the ability of RNA polymerase to
transcribe the mRNA, thus modulating the expression of the gene.

Post-Transcriptional Processing: Modifications such as polyadenylation, splicing, and capping

of the pre-mRNA transcript in eukaryotes can lead to different levels and patterns of gene

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expression. For example, different splicing patterns for the same gene will generate biologically
different proteins following translation.

RNA Transport: After post-transcriptional processing, the mature mRNA must be transported
from the nucleus to the cytosol so that it can be translated into a protein. This step is a key point
of regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes.

Stability of mRNAs: Eukaryotic mRNAs differ in their stability and some unstable transcripts
usually have sequences that bind to microRNAs and reduce the stability of mRNAs, resulting in
down-regulation of the corresponding proteins.

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Initiation of Translation: At this stage, the ability of ribosomes in recognizing the start
codon can be modulated, thus affecting the expression of the gene. Several examples of
translation initiation at non-AUG codons in eukaryotes are available.

Post-Translational Processing: Common modifications in polypeptide chains include

glycosylation, fatty acylation, and acetylation - these can help in regulating expression of the
gene and offering vast functional diversity.

Protein Transport and Stability: Following translation and processing, proteins must be
carried to their site of action in order to be biologically active. Also, by controlling the
stability of proteins, the gene expression can be controlled. Stability varies greatly depending
on specific amino acid sequences present in the proteins.

Regulation of Gene Expression in Prokaryotic cell

In prokaryotes, transcription initiation is the main point of control of gene expression. It is

chiefly controlled by 2 DNA sequence elements of size 35 bases and 10 bases, respectively.
These elements are called promoter sequences as they help RNA polymerase recognize the
start sites of transcription. RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to these promoter
sequences. The interaction of RNA polymerase with promoter sequences is in turn controlled
by regulatory proteins called activators or repressors based on whether they positively or
negatively affect the recognition of promoter sequence by RNA pol.

Catabolite-Regulated: In this system, control is exerted upon operons that produce genes
necessary for the energy utilization. The lac operon is an example of this in E. coli. In E.
coli, glucose has a positive effect on the expression of genes that encode enzymes involved in
the catabolism of alternative sources of carbon and energy such as lactose. Due to the
preference for glucose, in its presence enzymes involved in the catabolism of other energy
sources are not expressed. In this way, glucose represses the lac operon even if an inducer
(lactose) is present.

Transcriptional Attenuation: This modulates operons necessary for biomolecule synthesis.

This is called attenuated operon as the operons are attenuated by specific sequences present in
the transcribed RNA – gene expression is therefore dependent on the ability of RNA
Polymerase to continue elongation past specific sequences. An example of an attenuated
operon is the trp operon which encodes five enzymes necessary for tryptophan biosynthesis
in E.coli. These genes are expressed only when tryptophan synthesis is necessary i.e. when
tryptophan is not environmentally present. This is partly controlled when a repressor binds to
tryptophan and prevents transcription for unnecessary tryptophan biosynthesis.

Molecular basis of differentiation

MOLECULAR BASIS OF DIFFERENTIATION

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Whenever growth occurs, increase in mass, weight etc. takes place. Number of cells increases
due to cell division. Sometimes, cells grow in size and they do not divide and lead to growth.
The simple multiplication of cells would produce masses of cells but not an
organism. Knowledge of developmental processes as growth and differentiation is essential
for understanding the events that lead to the formation of an embryo or foetus. When the
zygote divides, the embryonic cells generally remain totipotent. In other words, every
embryonic cell is capable of giving rise to embryo and forming a new adult organism.
However, gradually the cells lose this capability and no longer remain totipotent. By
watching and observing, we can get a reasonable idea of how one cell produces an entire
individual.

It is the dogma of modem biology and genetics that nucleus of most somatic cells of higher
organisms, no matter how differentiated the cell, contains copies of all nuclear genes of an
individual. Differentiating cells start new sets of proteins or lose the ability to form a set of
proteins.

It is considered that differentiation of cells in different types during development of an

organism involves regulation of the expression of genes, rather than some other mechanism
such as mutation.

Few of late embryonic change are observed under microscope. But changes at molecular
level start are very earlier stage- Such changes occur much before appearance of
morphological changes. Differentiation involves processes like mitosis, cell fusion, cell
migration or intercellular interactions. These all processes work independently of each other.
A proper coordination and approach is required to know about definite pattern of
development.

It can be concluded that:

 Differentiation and development does not require massive permanent changes in

nuclear DNA.
 Process involves self reinforcing changes in cytoplasm and selective gene
transcription.

Plants as opposed to animals are usually capable of forming a new plant from a vegetative
part. However, now it is a established fact that partially differentiated animal somatic cells
are like plant somatic cells in this regard. Robert Briggs and Thomas King have shown that
nuclei from the cells of blastula and gastrula stages of frog (Rana pipiens) embryos when
transplanted into enucleated eggs can produce a complete embryo. The story of nuclear
transplantation is useful in determining when the nucleus of a tissue loses its capacity for
generating a complete development for the formation of an adult.

Briggs and King used grass frog, Rana pipiens and African frog Xenopus for sophisticated
experiments. They removed/destroyed the nuclei of frog or toad cells and transplanted fresh
nuclei from embryonic and tadpole cell into enucleated eggs. Many embryos with freshly
planted nuclei develop into normal tadpoles . But if nuclei were from differentiated intestinal
cells, tadpoles did not develop. It was found that nuclei from the early cleavage stages (upto
64 cells) could readily be transplanted into enucleated eggs and they would normally develop
into tadpoles and frogs.

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But nuclei from latter stages usually cause the embryos to abort. No fully differentiated adult
frog tissue can be used for making clonal frogs. It clearly shows that nuclei undergo some
changes during differentiation. Process of differentiation is reversible in early embryonic
stages. However, in plants, even mature cells can undergo differentiation to form callus to
raise the whole plant successfully. Main process of differentiation is due to altered gene
activity. This change in gene activity is mainly brought about by its interaction with
environment. The immediate environment can be cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is further affected
by many parameters like temperature, humidity, light, cell-cell interaction etc. Modulation of
gene and its cytoplasm is independent.

Theories of Evolution of Life on earth

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION

Evolution, simply put, is descent with modification. This definition encompasses small-scale
evolution (changes in gene frequency in a population from one generation to the next) and
large-scale evolution (the descent of different species from a common ancestor over many
generations). Evolution helps us to understand the history of life.

Evolution is not simply a matter of change over time. Lots of things change over time: trees
lose their leaves, mountain ranges rise and erode, but they aren't examples of biological
evolution because they don't involve descent through genetic inheritance. The central idea of
biological evolution is that all life on Earth shares a common ancestor, just as you and your
cousins share a common grandmother. Through the process of descent with modification, the
common ancestor of life on Earth gave rise to the fantastic diversity that we see documented
in the fossil record and around us today. Evolution means that we're all distant cousins:
humans and oak trees, hummingbirds and whale.

There are four main theories of evolution:

 Lamarckism or theory of inheritance of acquired characters

 Darwinism or theory of natural selection
 Mutation theory of De Vries
 Neo-Darwinism or Modern concept of evolution.

Lamarckism

This theory was proposed by a great French naturalist, Jean Baptiste de Lamarck. This theory
is based on the comparison between the contemporary species of his time to fossil records.
Lamarckism is based on following principles:

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New needs: Every living organism is found in some kind of environment. The changes in the
environmental factors like light, temperature, medium, food, air etc. or migration of animal
lead to the origin of new needs in the living organisms, especially animals. To fulfill these
new needs, the living organisms have to exert special efforts like the changes in habits or
behavior.

Use and disuse of organs: The new habits involve the greater use of certain organs to meet
new needs, and the disuse or lesser use of certain other organs which are of no use in new
conditions. This use and disuse of organs greatly affect the form, structure and functioning of
the organs. Continuous and extra use of organs make them more efficient while the
continued disuse of some other organs lead to their degeneration and ultimate

disappearance. So, Lamarckism is also called

―Theory of use and disuse of organs.‖ So the organism acquires certain new characters due
to direct or indirect environmental effects during its own life span and are called Acquired or
adaptive characters.

Inheritance of acquired characters: Lamarck believed that acquired characters are

inheritable and are transmitted to the offsprings so that these are born fit to face the changed
environmental conditions and the chances of their survival are increased.

Speciation: Lamarck believed that in every generation, new characters are acquired and
transmitted to next generation, so that new characters accumulate generation after generation.
After a number of generations, a new species is formed. So according to Lamarck, an
existing individual is the sum total of the characters acquired by a number of previous
generations and the speciation is a gradual process.

In order to prove his theory Lamarck gave examples of evolution. Some of them are as
follows:

Aquatic birds: Development of aquatic birds like ducks, geese etc. from their terrestrial
ancestors by the acquired characters like reduction of wings due to their continued disuse,
development of webs between their toes for wading purposes. These changes were induced
due to deficiency of food on land and severe competition. It is an example of both extra use
(skin between the toes) and disuse (wings) of organs.

Flightless birds: Development of flightless birds like ostrich from flying ancestors due to
continued disuse of wings as these were found in well protected areas with plenty of food.

Snakes: Development of present day limbless snakes with long slender body from the
limbed ancestors due to continued disuse of limbs and stretching of their body to suit their

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creeping mode of locomotion and fossorial mode of living out of fear of larger and more
powerful mammals. It is an example of disuse and degeneration of certain organs.

Criticism of Lamarckism

hard blow to Lamarckism came from a German biologist, August Weismann who proposed
the ―Theory of continuity of germplasm‖ in 1892 A.D. This theory states that environmental
factors do affect only somatic cells and not the germ cells.

Weismann mutilated the tails of mice for about 22 generations and allowed them to breed, but
tailless mice were never born. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, trained mice to come for food
on hearing a bell. He reported that this training is not inherited and was necessary in every
generation. Mendel‘s laws of inheritance also object the postulate of inheritance of acquired
characters of Lamarckism.

Darwinism or theory of natural selection

Charles Darwin, was the most dominant figure among the biologists of the 19th century. He
made an extensive study of nature. He went on a voyage on the famous ship ―H.M.S. Beagle‖
and explored South America, the Galapagos Islands and other islands.

He collected the observations on animal distribution and the relationship between living and
extinct animals. He found that existing living forms share similarities to varying degrees not
only among themselves but also with the life forms that existed millions of years ago, some
of which have become extinct.

He stated that every population has built in variations in their characters. From the analysis of
his data of collection and from Malthus‘s Essay on Population, he got the idea of struggle for
existence within all the populations due to continued reproductive pressure and limited
resources and that all organisms, including humans, are modified descendents of previously
existing forms of life.

Main points of Darwinism are as follows:

Geometric increase: According to Darwinism, the populations tend to multiply

geometrically and the reproductive powers of living organisms (biotic potential) are much
more than required to maintain their number e.g., Paramecium divides three times by binary
fission in 24 hours during favourable conditions. At this rate, a Paramecium can produce a
clone of about 280 million Paramecia in just one month and in five years, can produce
Paramecia having mass equal to 10,000 times than the size of the earth.

Limited food and space: Darwinism states that though a population tends to increase
geometrically, the food increases only arithmetically. So two main limiting factors on the
tremendous increase of a population are: limited food and space which together form the
major part of carrying capacity of environment. These do not allow a population to grow
indefinitely which are nearly stable in size except for seasonal fluctuation

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Struggle for existence: Due to rapid multiplication of populations but limited food and
space, there starts an everlasting competition between individuals having similar
requirements. In this competition, every living organism desires to have an upper hand over
others.

Variations: According to this law of nature, no two individuals except identical

(monozygotic) twins are identical. This everlasting competition among the organisms has
compelled them to change according to the conditions to utilize the natural resources and can
survive successfully. Darwin stated that the variations are generally of two types—
continuous variations or fluctuations and discontinuous variations. On the basis of their effect
on the survival chances of living organisms, the variations may be neutral, harmful and
useful. Darwin proposed that living organisms tend to adapt to changing environment due to
useful continuous variations {e.g., increased speed in the prey; increased water conservation
in plants; etc.), as these will have a competitive advantage.

Natural selection or Survival of the fittest: Darwin stated that as many selects the
individuals with desired characters in artificial selection; nature selects only those individuals
out of the population which are with useful continuous variations and are best adapted to the
environment while the less fit or unfit individuals are rejected by it. Darwin stated that if the
man can produce such a large number of new species/varieties with limited resources and in
short period of time by artificial selection, then natural selection could account for this large
biodiversity by considerable modifications of species with the help of unlimited resources
available over long span of time. Darwin stated that discontinuous variations appear
suddenly and will mostly be harmful, so are not selected by nature. He called them ―sports‖.
So the natural selection is an automatic and self going process and keeps a check on the
animal population. This sorting out of the individuals with useful variations from a
heterogeneous population by the nature was called Natural selection by Darwin and Survival
of the fittest by Wallace. So natural selection acts as a restrictive force and not a creative
force

Inheritance of useful variations: Darwin believed that the selected individuals pass their
useful continuous variations to their offsprings so that they are born fit to the changed
environment.

Speciation: according to Darwinism, useful variations appear in every generation and are
inherited from one generation to another. So the useful variations go on accumulating and
after a number of generations, the variations become so prominent that the individual turns
into a new species. So according to Darwinism, evolution is a gradual process and speciation
occurs by gradual changes in the existing species.

Criticism of Darwinism

 Darwinism is not able to explain the inheritance of vestigial organs.

 The inheritance of small variations in those organs which can be of use only when
fully formed e.g. wing of a bird. Such organs will be of no use in incipient or
underdeveloped stage.

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 It was also refuted by Mendel‘s laws of inheritance which state that inheritance is
particulate.
 It did not explain the Presence of neuter flowers and sterility of hybrids.

Mutation Theory of Evolution

The mutation theory of evolution was proposed by a Dutch botanist, Hugo de Vries. Some of
the Important conclusions of experiments of Hugo de Vries were as follows:

 The evolution is a discontinuous process and occurs by mutations (L. mutate = to

change; sudden and inheritable large differences from the normal and are not
connected to normal by intermediate forms). Individuals with mutations are called
mutants.
 Mutability is fundamentally different from fluctuations
 Mutations are recurring so that the same mutants appear again and again. This
increases the chances of their selection by nature.
 Mutations occur in all directions so may cause gain or loss of any character.
 Mutations are recurring so that the same mutants appear again and again. This
increases the chances of their selection by nature.

So according to mutation theory, evolution is a discontinuous and jerky process in which

there is a jump from one species to another so that new species arises from pre-existing
species in a single generation (macrogenesis or saltation) and not a gradual process as
proposed by Lamarck and Darwin.

Modern Concept Theory of Evolution(Neo-Darwinism)

Theories of Lamarckism, Darwinism and Mutation theory of evolution showed that no single
theory is fully satisfactory. Neo-Darwinism is a modified version of theory of Natural
Selection and is a sort of reconciliation between Darwin‘s and de Vries theories. Modern or
synthetic theory of evolution was designated by Huxley (1942). It emphasises the importance
of populations as the units of evolution and the central role of natural selection as the most
important mechanism of evolution. The scientists who contributed to the outcome of Neo-
Darwinism were: J.S. Huxley, R.A. Fischer and J.B.S. Haldane of England; and S. Wright,
Ford, H.J. Muller and T. Dobzhansky of America.

Some important observations and conclusions of modern concept of evolution are as follows:

 Variability is an opposing force to heredity and is essential for evolution as the

variations form the raw material for evolution. The studies showed that the units of
both heredity and mutations are genes which are located in a linear manner on the
chromosomes.
 Natural selection of Neo- Darwinism differs from that of Darwinism that it does not
operate through ―survival of the fittest‖ but operates through differential reproduction
and comparative reproductive success. Differential reproduction states that those

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members, which are best adapted to the environment, reproduce at a higher rate and
produce more offsprings than those which are less adapted. So these contribute
proportionately greater percentage of genes to the gene pool of next generation while
less adapted individuals produce fewer offsprings. If the differential reproduction
continues for a number of generations, then the genes of those individuals which
produce more offsprings will become predominant in the gene pool of the population.
 Any factor which reduces the chances of interbreeding between the related groups of
living organisms is called an isolating mechanism. Reproductive isolation is must so
as to allow the accumulation of variations leading to speciation by preventing
hybridization. In the absence of reproductive isolation, these variants freely interbreed
which lead to intermixing of their genotypes, dilution of their peculiarities and
disappearance of differences between them. So, reproductive isolation helps in
evolutionary divergence.

Human Evolution
HUMAN EVOLUTION

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike
ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all
people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six
million years. One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on
two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as
a large and complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language --
developed more recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression,
art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

Human evolution from its first separation from the last common ancestor of humans and
chimpanzees is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological,
and behavioral changes. The most significant of these adaptations are bipedalism, increased
brain size, lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy), and decreased sexual dimorphism.
The relationship between these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. Other significant
morphological changes included the evolution of a power and precision grip, a change first
occurring in H. erectus.

Bipedalism

There are many theories that attempt to explain why humans are bipedal. Twentieth-century
theories proposed a wide array of other factors that might have driven the evolution of
hominin bipedalism: carrying objects, wading to forage aquatic foods and to avoid shoreline
predators, vigilantly standing in tall grass, presenting phallic or other sexual display,
following migrant herds on the savanna, and conserving energy (bipedalism expends less
energy than quadrupedism). Furthermore, if the early bipeds were regularly exposed to direct
midday tropical sunlight, they would benefit from standing upright in two ways: less body
surface would be exposed to damaging solar rays, and they would find relief in the cooler air
above the ground.

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Some scientists assume that the pre-bipedal primates were terrestrial quadrupeds, perhaps
even knuckle-walkers like modern-day chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas. Conversely, it is
also possible that the first habitual walkers were already well prepared for terrestrial
bipedality, having adaptations for running bipedally among branches and boughs, standing
upright to forage overhead, and climbing vertical tree trunks and vines. This scenario is
suggested by studies of gibbons, which routinely engage in these arboreal activities and
virtually never elect to move on the forest floor but, if forced to the ground, run bipedally.

Gibbons have relatively long, powerful lower limbs, the same number of lumbar vertebrae
that humans have (great apes have fewer), and chests of humanoid configuration. When
walking on the ground, gibbons stand up straighter than chimpanzees, which are occasionally
bipedal. Moreover, they exert less energy running on the ground than when running bipedally
along branches or climbing vertically. Adopting a bipedal stance with full extension of the
lower limbs thus would not have been a major challenge, since all apes have this capacity,
though there would have been some alteration of the lower limb bones, joints, and ligaments.
The foot would probably have gone through the most dramatic change, from a prehensile
organ to a heel-supported, propellent one. Increased size and frequent, sustained erect
standing on extended lower limbs in order to forage overhanging branches in woodland,
thicket, forest edge, and other relatively open habitats would favour the evolution of
humanoid hip, knee, and foot structure. While consuming their harvests, bipedal foragers may
have squatted often, thereby further selecting for robust heels and for weight distribution
between the heel and forefoot and between closely placed feet. Frequent squatting and rising
would enhance development of the hamstring, buttock, and anterior thigh muscles (as hip and
knee extensors), which are vital for athletic bipedalism. Stretching upward would select for
shorter toes and an arched foot. Refinement of the terrestrial bipedal complex probably did
not occur until hominins became less dependent upon trees for daytime refuge and other
activities and began to forage widely afoot and perhaps to trek seasonally over long distances.

Encephalization

The theory of encephalization is developed from elementary dimensional requirements for

the construction of a brain of given size. The basic assumption in the theory is that most of
the brain in vertebrates is constructed as a series of mappings repeated at various levels.
Encephalization is seen as a composite of an amplification factor for the repeated mappings
(identical with the encephalization quotient EQ) and a factor associated with "added" tissue.
The latter may be viewed as tissue that corresponds to new functions. The relation of the
theory to allometric analysis is a relationship of theory to empirical estimation of "expected"
brain size at a given body size. But body size is not fundamental to the theory. It is merely
one of several possible sources of a measure of the area of a basic mapping, as it were, which
is then subject to the amplification factor. Issues in the use of encephalization to assess
behavioral capacities are reviewed briefly, as are the neurobiological correlates of
encephalization and brain size.

Sexual dimorphism

Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex
in the same species. .The phenomenon of sexual dimorphism is a direct product of evolution
by natural selection, in that the struggle for reproductive success drives many male and
female organisms down different evolutionary paths. This can produce forms of dimorphism

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which, on the face of it, would actually seem to disadvantage organisms. For instance, the
bright coloration of male game birds makes them highly visible targets for predators, while
the drab females are far better equipped to camouflage themselves. Likewise, the antlers of
deer and other forms of natural weaponry are very expensive to grow and carry in terms of
the energy consumed by the animal in the process.

The answer to this apparent paradox is that, at a biological level, the reproductive success of
an organism is often more important than its long-term survival. This is particularly apparent
in the case of game birds: a male Common Pheasant in the wild often lives no more than 10
months, with females living twice as long. However, a male pheasant's ability to reproduce
depends not on how long he lives but whether females will select him to be their mate. His
bright coloration demonstrates to the female that he is fit, healthy and a good choice to father
her chicks. In the case of herd animals such as deer, a male deer's reproductive success is
directly proportional to the number of sexually receptive females with which he can mate.
The males' antlers are an example of a sexually dimorphic weapon with which the males fight
each other to establish breeding rights. Again, although they are expensive in terms of
personal survival, they ensure that the largest and strongest males will be the most successful
in reproducing and thereby ensure that those characteristics are passed on to the next
generation.

Study of historical evolution of human

Pre Darwin era

The word homo, the name of the biological genus to which humans belong, is Latin for
"human". It was chosen originally by Carl Linnaeus in his classification system. The word
"human" is from the Latin humanus, the adjectival form of homo. The Latin "homo" derives
from the Indo-European root "earth". Linnaeus and other scientists of his time also
considered the great apes to be the closest relatives of humans based on morphological and
anatomical similarities.

Darwin’s theory

The theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On the Origin
of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms change over time as a result of
changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better
adapt to its environment will help it survive and have more offspring. Evolution by natural
selection is one of the best substantiated theories in the history of science, supported by
evidence from a wide variety of scientific disciplines, including paleontology, geology,
genetics and developmental biology.

The theory has two main points, said Brian Richmond, curator of human origins at the
American Museum of Natural History in New York City. "All life on Earth is connected and
related to each other," and this diversity of life is a product of "modifications of populations
by natural selection, where some traits were favored in and environment over others," he
said. More simply put, the theory can be described as "descent with modification," said
Briana Pobiner, an anthropologist and educator at the Smithsonian Institution National

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Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C., who specializes in the study of human
origins. The theory is sometimes described as "survival of the fittest," but that can be
misleading, Pobiner said. Here, "fitness" refers not to an organism's strength or athletic
ability, but rather the ability to survive and reproduce. he theory has two main points, said
Brian Richmond, curator of human origins at the American Museum of Natural History in
New York City. "All life on Earth is connected and related to each other," and this diversity
of life is a product of "modifications of populations by natural selection, where some traits
were favored in and environment over others," he said. More simply put, the theory can be
described as "descent with modification," said Briana Pobiner, an anthropologist and
educator at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington,
D.C., who specializes in the study of human origins. The theory is sometimes described as
"survival of the fittest," but that can be misleading, Pobiner said. Here, "fitness" refers not to
an organism's strength or athletic ability, but rather the ability to survive and reproduce.

System of Units: MKS, CGS and SI

Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic,
arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit. The result
of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical
measure) accompanied by a unit.

A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity, defined and adopted by

convention or by law, that is used as a standard for measurement of the same
quantity. Any other value of that quantity can be expressed as a simple multiple of
the unit of measurement. For example, length is a physical quantity.

Four different systems of units are commonly used in science and engineering. The
difference among them arises from the difference in the units used to represent the
three fundamental quantities, namely length (l), mass (m) and time (t).
The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows :
• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.
• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.
• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively

SI Units

SI Base Units

Base quantity Name Symbol

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length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd

SI Derived Units:-

area square meter m2

volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
wave number reciprocal meter m-1
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg
current density ampere per square meter A/m2
magnetic field strength ampere per meter A/m
amount-of-substance concentration mole per cubic meter mol/m3
luminance candela per square meter cd/m2

MKS System

MKS unit of measurement is meter-kilogram-second. SI unit was derived from MKS

system. In MKS system length is in meter (m), area is in square meter (m2 ), volume
is in cubic meter (m3 ), time in second (s), mass is in kilogram (kg), weight (force) is
in kilogram-meter per second square (kg-m/s2 ), density is in kilogram per
centimeter square (kg/cm2 ), acceleration is in kilogram-meter per second square
(kgm/s2 ), force(pressure) is in kilogram-force per square centimeter (kgf/cm2 ).

CGS System

The CGS system was introduced formally by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science in 1874. It found almost immediate favor with working
scientists, and it was the system most commonly used in scientific work for many
years. Meanwhile, the further development of the metric system was based on meter
and kilogram standards created and distributed in 1889 by the International Bureau
of Weights and Measures (BIPM). During the 20th century, metric units based on the
meter and kilogram--the MKS units--were used more and more in commercial
transactions, engineering, and other practical areas.

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Speed

An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with time, with respect to
its surroundings.Speed is defined as the distance moved per unit time,

i.e Speed =Distance /Time

When we say that an object is at rest or in motion,then this statement is incomplete

and meaningless. Basically, rest & motion are relative terms.
An object which is at rest can also be in motion simultaneously. This can be
illustrated as follows.
The passengers sitting in a moving bus are at rest with respect to each other but they
are also in motion at the same time with respect to the objects like trees, buildings on
the road side. So the motion and rest are relative terms.

Velocity

Velocity indicates the rate of change of the object‟s position (r ); i.e., velocity tells
you how fast the object‟s position is changing. The magnitude of the velocity (|| v || )
indicates the object‟s speed. The direction of the velocity (dir v ) indicates the
object‟s direction of motion. The velocity at any point is always tangent to the object‟s
path at that point. Thus, the velocity tells you how the object is moving. In particular,
the velocity tells you which way and how fast the object is moving.

Gravity

Gravitation is the force by which every mass or particle of matter, including photons,
attracts and is attracted by every other mass or particle of matter.The gravitational
field at any point P in space is defined as the gravitational force felt by a tiny unit
mass placed at P.

Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that
is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Mathematically, this law, and the magnitude of the force due to the gravitational
interaction between two particles, is expressed with :-

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Properties of Gravitational Force.

It is always attractive in nature while electric and magnetic force can be attractive or
repulsive.
It is independent of the medium between the particles while electric and magnetic
force depend on the nature of the medium between the particles.
It holds good over a wide range of distances. It is found true for interplanetary to
inter atomic distances.
It is a central force i.e. acts along the line joining the centres of two interacting
bodies.
It is a two body interaction i.e. gravitational force between two particles is
independent of the presence or absence of other particles.
It is the weakest force in nature : As Fnuclear > F electromagnetic > F gravitational .
It is a conservative force i.e. work done by it is path independent or work done in
moving a particle round a closed path under the action of gravitational force is zero.
It is an action reaction pair i.e. the force with which one body (say earth) attracts the
second body (say moon) is equal to the force with which moon attracts the earth.

Mass

It is the measure of the quantity of matter in an object and its unit is kilogram (kg) in
SI units. It depends on the number of molecules in the matter and their masses and
does not depend on gravity. Therefore an object would have same mass on Earth and
on the Moon but different weight because of the change of gravity. Gravity on the
moon is 1/6th of the gravity on earth. Mass of an object can be measured by using
spring balance (newton-meter), top pan balance or lever balance. The international
definition of mass is It is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the
kilogram made up of platinum-iridium alloy kept at international bureau of weights
and measurements in Paris.

Mass is the amount of matter in an object. It can also be defined as the property of a
body that causes it to have weight in a gravitational field. It is important to

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understand that the mass of an object is not dependent on gravity. Bodies with
greater mass are accelerated less by the same force.

Weight

The weight of an object is defined as the force of gravity on the object and may be
calculated as the mass times the acceleration of gravity, w = mg. Since the weight is a
force, its SI unit is the newton.

For an object in free fall, so that gravity is the only force acting on it, then the
expression for weight follows from Newton's second law.

Force

Force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A
force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin
moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate.

Impact

Impact is a high force or shock applied over a short time period when two or more
bodies collide. Such a force or acceleration usually has a greater effect than a lower
force applied over a proportionally longer period.

Work

Work is said to be done when a force applied on the body displaces the body through
a certain distance in the direction of force.Mathematically, work is the force-
displacement product

W = F x s cos a

or the force-displacement path integral

dW = F · ds

Positive work means that force (or its component) is parallel to displacement.
Negative work means that force (or its component)is opposite to displacement i.e. In
conservative field work done by the force over a closed loop is zero.

Power

Power is defined as the rate at which work is done. Its unit is watt Power is said to be
one watt, when one joule of work is said to be done in one second.

If work is being done by a machine moving at speed v against a constant force, or

resistance, F, then since work done is force times distance, work done per second is
Fv, which is the same as power.
Power = Fv

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Energy

Energy is the capacity for doing work. Energy can manifest itself in many forms like
mechanical energy, thermal energy, electric energy, chemical
energy, light energy, nuclear energy, etc.
The energy possessed by a body due to its position or due to its motion is called
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy of a body consists of potential energy and
kinetic energy.
Potential energy is the energy of a body or a system with respect to the position of the
body or the arrangement of the particles of the system.For example, gravitational
potential energy is associated with the gravitational force acting on object's mass;
elastic potential energy with the elastic force (ultimately electromagnetic force)
acting on the elasticity of a deformed object; electrical potential energy with the
coulombic force; strong nuclear force or weak nuclear force acting on the electric
charge on the object; chemical potential energy, with the chemical potential of a
particular atomic or molecular configuration acting on the atomic/molecular
structure of the chemical substance that constitutes the object; thermal potential
energy with the electromagnetic force in conjunction with the temperature of the
object.

Kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. It is
defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated
velocity.

Solar system, relative position of Earth with respect to Sun

and other planets, movement of earth and moon in solar
system, lunar and solar eclipses
The solar system consists of the Sun and its eight main planets, their satellites,
asteroids, comets, meteors and other dwarf planets. The Sun is at the one of the two
“centers” of the Solar system and the planets revolving around it in elliptical orbits.

The sun is in the centre of the solar system. It is huge and made up of extremely hot
gases. It provides the pulling force that binds the solar system. The sun is the
ultimate source of heat and light for the solar system. The sun is about 150 million
km away from the earth.The Sun is made up of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium. It
also has trace amounts of oxygen, carbon, iron and other elements. It is about 4.6
billion years old and will continue to shine for another 5 billion years. After that it
will grow into a Red Giant and then finally end its life as a white dwarf.

Earth and the moon, sun, and planets have predictable patterns of movement. These
patterns, which are explainable by gravitational forces and conservation laws, in turn
explain many large-scale phenomena observed on Earth. Planetary motions around
the sun can be predicted using Kepler‟s three empirical laws, which can be explained
based on Newton‟s theory of gravity. These orbits may also change somewhat due to
the gravitational effects from, or collisions with, other bodies. Gradual changes in the
shape of Earth‟s orbit around the sun (over hundreds of thousands of years), together

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with the tilt of the planet‟s spin axis (or axis of rotation), have altered the intensity
and distribution of sunlight falling on Earth. These phenomena cause cycles of
climate change, including the relatively recent cycles of ice ages.

The orbits of planets and of their moons, of asteroids and of comets are governed by
the gravitational force and described by the three Kepler‟s laws.Kepler formulated
three laws which govern the motion of planets. These are:

1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the foci

2. The area swept by the line joining the planet to the sun in unit time is constant
through out the orbit

3. The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is proportional to
the cube of its average distance from the Sun. If we denote the period by T and the
average distance from the Sun as r, T2 ? r3 .

The Earth orbits around the Sun and Moon around the earth, so when the Earth
comes between Moon and the Sun then Moon passes through the Earth's shadow, it
is called a Lunar Eclipse. As most of us know that Moon is not self illuminated but it
reflects Sunlight falling on it. During Lunar Eclipse light coming from the Sun is
blocked by the Earth, and directly it does not reach up the Moon so, moon‟s
brightness, reduced very much. Moon‟s brightness is not totally vanished because,
some indirect light from earth‟s atmosphere reaches up to the Moon so it remains
visible up to some extent

In a partial lunar eclipse, part of the Moon is within the Earth's umbral shadow.
From the Earth, we see the Moon partially in shadow, almost as if it wasn't full. In
the later stages of a partial eclipse, as the Moon darkens, red coloration may become
visible on the shadowed side of the Moon. A total lunar eclipse is when the Moon is
completely shadowed by the Earth. The Moon passes through the Earth's umbra, and
no direct light can reach it from the Sun.

A solar eclipse occurs when the moon passes in a direct line between the Earth and
the sun. The moon's shadow travels over the Earth's surface and blocks out the sun's
light as seen from Earth.

Different types of solar eclipses

• A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the
intensely bright light of the Sun, allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible.

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• An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line, but the
apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun. Hence the Sun appears as a
very bright ring surrounding the dark disk of the Moon.

• A hybrid eclipse shifts between a total and annular eclipse. At certain points on the
surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse, whereas at other points it appears as
annular. Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare.

• A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the
Moon only partially obscures the Sun.

Concept and nature of sound.Wave length and frequency,

infrasonic and Ultrasonic sounds, Sources of Infrasonic
sound In nature, Ultrasonic sound characteristics and some
applications.
Sound is a longitudinal wave, in which the particles oscillate to and fro in the same
direction of wave propagation. Sound waves cannot be transmitted through vacuum.
The transmission of sound requires at least a medium, which can be solid, liquid, or
gas.

Newton to derive a relation for the velocity of sound in a gaseous medium, assumed
that compression and rarefaction caused by the sound waves during their passage
through the gas take place under isothermal condition. This means that the changes
in volume and pressure take place at constant temperature. Under such conditions,
Newton agreed that the velocity of sound wave in a gas is given by v = ?(P/ ?)

Frequency is the number of oscillations completed by an oscillator in one second. It

is denoted by v. The SI unit of frequency is hertz (symbol Hz). Since v is the number
of oscillations per second, the time taken to complete one oscillation is 1/v. Hence T
=1/v or v = (1/T) s–1.

Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency ranges.

(1) Audible waves lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear. They can be
generated in a variety of ways, such as by musical instruments, human voices, or
loudspeakers.

(2) Infrasonic waves have frequencies below the audible range. Elephants can use
infrasonic waves to communicate with each other, even when separated by many
kilometers. Various animals like Elephants, Whale and Rhino produces Infrasonic
waves. Sources of infrasound in nature include volcanoes, avalanches, earthquakes
and meteorites.

(3) Ultrasonic waves have frequencies above the audible range. You may have used a
“silent” whistle to retrieve your dog. The ultrasonic sound it emits is easily heard by

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dogs, although humans cannot detect it at all. Ultrasonic waves are also used in
medical imaging

Ultrasonic sound characteristics

 They have a high energy content.

 Just like ordinary sound waves, ultrasonic waves get reflected, refracted
and absorbed.
 They can be transmitted over large distanceswith no appreciable loss of
energy.
 If an arrangement is made to form stationary waves of ultrasonics in a liquid,
it serves as a diffraction grating. It is called an acoustic grating.
 They produce intense heating effect when passed through a substance.

Ultrasonic waves are used for the following purposes.

1. Ultrasonic flaw detection.

2. Cutting and matching of hard materials.
3. Ultrasonic soldering and welding.
4. Measurement of flow devices.
5. Applications in medicine.
6. Thermal effect.
7. Ultrasonic as means of communication.

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