CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, I will discuss the relevant literature in line with the topic of this study.
The model used will also be described. This also includes the concept of crime,
perspectives to crime. Record information system will also be discussed as well as system
development methodologies.
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF CRIME
Legally, crimes usually are defined as acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be
punished by imprisonment and/or fine. Murder, robbery, burglary, rape, drunken driving,
child neglect, and failure to pay your taxes all are common examples. However, as
several eminent criminologists recently have noted (Sampson & Laub 1993, Gottfredson
& Hirschi 1990), the key to understanding crime is to focus on fundamental attributes of
all criminal behaviors rather than on specific criminal acts. Instead of trying to separately
understand crimes such as homicide, robbery, rape, burglary, embezzlement, and heroin
use, we need to identify what it is they all have in common. Much past research on crime
has been confounded by its focus on these politico-legal rather than behavioral
definitions.
Furthermore, the behavioral definition of crime focuses on, criminality, a certain
personality profile that causes the most alarming sorts of crimes. All criminal behaviors
involve the use of force, fraud, or stealth to obtain material or symbolic resources. As
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) noted, criminality is a style of strategic behavior
characterized by self-centeredness, indifference to the suffering and needs of others, and
low self-control. More impulsive individuals are more likely to find criminality an
attractive style of behavior because it can provide immediate gratification through
relatively easy or simple strategies. These strategies frequently are risky and thrilling,
usually requiring little skill or planning. They often result in pain or discomfort for
victims and offer few or meager long-term benefits because they interfere with careers,
family, and friendships. Gottfredson and Hirschi assert that this means the “within person
causes of truancy are the same as the within-person causes of drug use, aggravated
assault, and auto accidents (1990, p. 256).”
Criminality in this sense bears a problematic relationship with legal crimes. Some drug
dealers, tax cheats, prostitutes and other legal criminals may simply be businesspeople
whose business activity happens to be illegal. Psychologically, they might not differ from
ordinary citizens.
Almost all ordinary citizens commit at least small legal crimes during their lives.
Nevertheless, Gottfredson’s and Hirschi’s hypothesis is that most of the legal crime is
committed by individuals a general strategy of criminal activity. This conception of crime
explains the wide variety of criminal activity and the fact that individuals tend not to
specialize in one type of crime. It also is consistent with the well-established tendency of
people to be consistent over long periods of time in the frequency and severity of crimes
they commit. Even executives who commit white collar crimes probably are more
impulsive, self-centered, and indifferent to the suffering of others than those who do not
take advantage of similar opportunities. Focusing on criminality rather than political-
legal definitions also allows us to finesse the perplexing problem of why some acts (e.g.,
marijuana consumption) are defined as crimes while similar arguably more damaging
acts (e.g., alcohol consumption) are not. These issues, central to conflict theories and
critical theories of crime, are important.
However, because they focus on systematically deeper power relations between
competing interest groups, they seldom provide feasible policy alternatives and tend to
reinforce perceptions of crime as an insolvable problem. What we want to do here is see
if the human ecological approach can lead us to some practical strategies for controlling
crime. Human resources can have material, symbolic, or hedonistic value. In crimes such
as thefts, individuals take material resources such as property from another person
without his or her knowing cooperation. Those who commit crimes such as narcotics
trafficking and gambling attempt to obtain money that can be exchanged for material
resources. In crimes such as assaults not associated with theft, sexual assaults, and illicit
drug use, people obtain hedonistic resources that increase pleasurable feelings or decrease
unpleasant feelings. Political crimes such as terrorism or election fraud attempt to obtain
symbolic resources such as power or prestige.
2.2.1 SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE ON CRIME
Criminal behavior is the product of a systematic process that involves complex
interactions between individual, societal, and ecological factors over the course of our
lives. In other words, from conception onward the intellectual, emotional, and physical
attributes we develop are strongly influenced by our personal behaviors and physical
processes, interactions with the physical environment, and interactions with other people,
groups, and institutions. These systematic processes affect the transmission from
generation to generation of traits associated with increased involvement in crime.
2.2.1.1 ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
Ecological factors involve interactions between people and their activities in a physical
environment. This category includes things associated with the physical environment
such as geography and topography, crowding, pollution, and recreational opportunities.
These ecological factors can affect how people develop physically and emotionally over
their lives as well as the level of hostility, fear, or well-being they feel from moment to
moment as they experience, for example, a crowded subway, dark lonely parking lot, or
serene park.
2.2.1.2 SOCIETAL OR MACROLEVEL FACTORS
Societal or macro level factors deal with systematic interactions between social groups.
Societal factors describe the ways society is structured. They include such things as the
relative distribution of the population among groups and the flows of information,
resources, and people
Between groups. Societal factors encompass the variety and heterogeneity of
Racial/ ethnic/ cultural/ productive groups, their behaviors, and beliefs, and economic
relations.
2.2.1.3 MOTIVATION AND OPPORTUNITY
Individuals commit the crimes. Although ecological and societal factors must be included
in any full explanation of crime, individual factors always intervene between them and a
criminal act. For this reason, individual factors need to be the center of any description of
the causes of crime. Motivation alone cannot cause a crime to occur; opportunity also is
required. And—although few researchers today address this issue—opportunity itself
may influence motivation (Katz 1988).
Lay people call this “temptation” and probably would consider any discussion of
motivation that excluded temptation silly. Thus a person’s propensity to commit a
criminal act at a particular point in time is a function of both motivation and opportunity.
Some may be motivated to seek out and exploit criminal opportunities that offer
extremely small rewards; others will commit crimes only when presented with relatively
enormous opportunities; and a very few will not commit crimes regardless of rewards.
Criminologists hypothesize that several individual factors determine a person’s
motivation to commit an act. Motivation at a particular point in time is the result of
interactions over a person’s life course between biological, socio-cultural, and
developmental factors—as well as contemporaneous opportunity. Psychological factors
are the result of interactions between biological and socio-cultural factors. Criminologists
do not imagine that some simple constitutional factor (‘criminal nature”) is a very
satisfactory explanation for motivational factors.
2.3 RECORD INFORMATION SYSTEM
Information is “data, ideas, thoughts, or memories irrespective of medium.” Information
sources are considered “non-records”: they are useful but do not provide evidence.
Documents are any “recorded information or objects that can be treated as individual
units.” Examples include works in progress such as draft communications or “to do” lists,
and transitory records such as emails confirming a meeting or acknowledging receipt of a
document. Records are “information created, received, and maintained as evidence and
information by an organization or person, in pursuance of legal obligations or in the
transaction of business.” Examples include final reports, emails confirming an action or
decision, spreadsheets showing budget decisions, photographs or maps of field missions,
which need to be kept as evidence.
The key difference between information, documents, and records is their level of
accountability.
We generate or receive information all the time, in articles, newspapers, radio reports, or
books. If that information is useful but does not provide evidence of our actual official
work, or our actions or decisions, we treat that information as a “non-record”: it is
informative but cannot be used to prove that we did or did not take a certain action.
Within our daily work, we all create, receive, and use documents. We send and receive
emails, draft memos, or write reports. We need those documents for a few minutes,
hours, or months, to help us to work consistently and productively and to keep track of
progress in projects and activities. Documents become records when we use them to
inform our colleagues and ourselves of what has been done or decided or when they
provide examples of or background to previous work or evidence of our actions or
decisions. When a document provides evidence, we “declare” it to be a record. That is,
we store the record in an official records system so that we can find and use it again
easily. If the document is superseded or obsolete – an email confirming a lunch
appointment is no longer needed when lunch is over – we do not need to declare that
document as a record. We destroy that document so it does not take up valuable space in
our records systems.
2.4 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.4.1 WEB BASED APPLICATION
Several researchers studied the issue of Web based application. Rokouet (2004),
distinguished three basic levels in every web-based application: the Web character of the
program, the pedagogical background, and the personalized management of the learning
material. They defined a web-based program as an information system that contains a
Web server, a network, a communication protocol like HTTP, and a browser in which
data supplied by users act on the system’s status and cause changes. The pedagogical
background means the educational model that is used in combination with pedagogical
goals set by the instructor. The personalized management of the learning materials means
the set of rules and mechanisms that are used to select learning materials based on the
student’s characteristics, the educational objectives, the teaching model, and the available
media. Many works have combined and integrated these three factors in e-learning
systems, leading to several standardization projects. Some projects have focused on
determining the standard architecture and format for learning environments, such as
IEEE Learning Technology Systems Architecture (LTSC), Instructional Management
Systems (IMS), and Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM). IMS and
SCORM define and deliver XML-based interoperable specifications for exchanging and
sequencing learning contents, i.e., learning objects, among many heterogeneous e-
learning systems. They mainly focus on the standardization of learning and teaching
methods as well as on the modeling of how the systems manage interoperating
educational data relevant to the educational process ].Juan Quesada and Bernd Simon
have also presented model for educational activities and educational materials. Their
model for educational activities denotes educational events that identify the instructor(s)
involved and take place in a virtual meeting according to a specific schedule. Rokou
(2004). Described the introduction of stereotypes to the pedagogical design of
educational systems and appropriate modifications of the existing package diagrams of
UML (Unified Modeling Language). The IMS and SCORM models describe well the
educational activities and system implementation, but not the educational contents
knowledge in educational activities.
Juan Quemada’s and F. P.Rokou’s models add more pedagogical background by
emphasizing educational contents and sequences using the taxonomy of learning
resources and stereotypes of teaching models. But the educational contents and their
sequencing in these models are dependent on the system and lack standardization and
reusability. Thus, we believe that if an educational contents frame of learning resources
can be introduced into an e-learning system, including ontology-based properties and
hierarchical semantic associations, then this e-learning system will have the capabilities
of providing adaptable and intelligent learning to learners. The hierarchical content’s
structure is able to show the entire educational contents, the available sequence of
learning, and the structure of the educational concepts, such as the related super- or sub
concepts in the learning contents. Furthermore, some of semantic relationships among the
educational contents, such as equivalent, inverse, similar, aggregate, and classified can
provide important and useful information for the intelligent e-learning system. For this
purpose, ontology is introduced in our model. It can play a crucial role in enabling the
representation, processing, sharing and reuse of knowledge among applications in
modern web-based-learning systems because it specifies the conceptualization of a
specific domain in terms of concepts, attributes, and relationships
2.4.2 CRIME AND CRIMINALITY
2.4.2.1 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Lombroso and Biological Positivism In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesar
Lombroso drew on the ideas of Charles Darwin and suggested that criminals were
atavistic: essentially ‘evolutionary throwbacks. He suggested that their brains were mal-
developed or not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they shared
several common physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding chins. In so
doing, Lombroso suggested that involvement in crime was a product of biology and
biological characteristics: criminals were born that way. Lombroso’s theory is essentially
a theory of biological positivism.
2.4.2.2 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
The Chicago School/Social Disorganization Theory Social disorganization theory grew
out of research conducted by sociologists at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and
1930s. It key proponents were Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942), who used
spatial mapping to examine the residential locations of juveniles referred to court. Shaw
and McKay found that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor
housing, poor health, socioeconomic disadvantage, and transient populations. This led
them to suggest that crime was a function of neighborhood dynamics and not due to
individual actors and their actions. Shaw and McKay explained these patterns by
reference to the problems that accompanied immigration to Chicago at this time. They
claimed that areas settled by newly arrived immigrants experienced a breakdown of
social norms due to ethnic diversity and competing cultural traditions. Conventional
institutions of social control were therefore weakened and unable to regulate the behavior
of local youths.
Contemporary theories of crime, place and space include:
• defensible space theory, which examines how the design of physical space is related to
crime;
• broken windows theory, which looks the relationship between low level disorder and
crime; and
• Routine activities theory, which considers how opportunities to commit crime are shaped
by between people’s everyday movements through space and time.
2.4.2.3 ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
Anomie is a concept developed by one of the founding fathers of sociology, Emile
Durkheim, to explain the breakdown of social norms that often accompanies rapid social
change. American sociologist Robert Merton (1957) drew on this idea to explain
criminality and deviance in the USA. His theory argues that crime occurs when there is a
gap between the cultural goals of a society (e.g. material wealth, status) and the structural
means to achieve these (e.g. education, employment). This strain between means and
goals results in frustration and resentment, and encourages some people to use
illegitimate or illegal means to secure success. In short, strain theory posits that the
cultural values and social structures of society put pressure on individual citizens to
commit crime.
2.4.2.4 SUBCULTURAL THEORY
Linked to anomie and strain are concepts of status frustration and differential opportunity,
which North American subcultural theorists used to explain the delinquent activities of
disadvantaged groups in the 1950s and 60s. Status frustration is associated with the work
of Albert Cohen (1955), who conducted research into group offending by young, lower-
class men. Cohen argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to middle-class cultural
goals and so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own subcultural system of
values. In school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the expectations
of peers not teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting, and
acting up in class. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) built on these ideas, pointing
to the differential opportunity structures available to lower-class young people in
different neighborhoods: criminal (making a living from crime), conflict (Territorial
violence and gang fighting) and retreaters (drugs and alcohol).
2.4.2.5 SUBCULTURAL THEORY
Linked to anomie and strain are concepts of status frustration and differential opportunity,
which North American subcultural theorists used to explain the delinquent activities of
disadvantaged groups in the 1950s and 60s. Status frustration is associated with the work
of Albert Cohen (1955), who conducted research into group offending by young, lower-
class men. Cohen argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to middle-class cultural
goals and so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own subcultural system of
values. In school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the expectations
of peers not teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting, and
acting up in class. Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) built on these ideas, pointing
to the differential opportunity structures available to lower-class young people in
different neighborhoods: criminal (making a living from crime), conflict (territorial
violence and gang fighting) and retreaters (drugs and alcohol).
2.5 TYPES OF MODELS IN SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
In Software development SDLC stands for Software Development Life Cycle. It is also
called as
Software development process. This is further shown in the image below:
Figure 2:1: Stages Involved in a Software Development Lifecycle.
The software development should be complete in the pre-defined time frame and cost. It
consists of a detailed plan describing how to develop, maintain, replace and alter or
enhance specific software. Every phase of the SDLC lifecycle has its own process and
deliverables that feed into the next phase. The Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)
gives structure to the challenges of transitioning from the beginning to the end of your
project without forgetting a step. A number of different SDLC methodologies are used
today to guide professionals through their project-based work. Here are the key pros and
cons of six of the most common SDLC methodologies.
2.5.1. WATERFALL MODEL
Waterfall is the oldest and most straightforward of the structured SDLC methodologies
finish one phase, then move on to the next. No going back. Each stage relies on
information from the previous stage and has its own project plan. Waterfall is easy to
understand and simple to manage. But early delays can throw off the entire project
timeline. And since there is little room for revisions once a stage is completed, problems
can’t be fixed until you get to the maintenance stage. This model doesn’t work well if
flexibility is needed or if the project is long term and ongoing.
2.5.2 V-SHAPED MODEL
Also known as the Verification and Validation model, the V-shaped model grew out of
Waterfall and is characterized by a corresponding testing phase for each development
stage. Like Waterfall, each stage begins only after the previous one has ended. This
model is useful when there are no unknown requirements, as it’s still difficult to go back
and make changes.
2.5.3. ITERATIVE MODEL
The Iterative model is repetition incarnate. Instead of starting with fully known
requirements, you implement a set of software requirements, then test, evaluate and
pinpoint further requirements. A new version of the software is produced with each
phase, or iteration. Rinse and repeat until the complete system is ready. One advantage
over other SDLC methodologies: This model gives you a working version early in the
process and makes it less expensive to implement changes. One disadvantage: Resources
can quickly be eaten up by repeating the process again and again.
2.5.4. SPIRAL MODEL
One of the most flexible SDLC methodologies, the Spiral model takes a cue from the
Iterative model and its repetition; the project passes through four phases over and over in
a “spiral” until completed, allowing for multiple rounds of refinement. This model allows
for the building of a highly customized product, and user feedback can be incorporated
from early on in the project.
But the risk you run is creating a never-ending spiral for a project that goes on and on.
2.5.5 BIG BANG MODEL
A bit of an anomaly among SDLC methodologies, the Big Bang model follows no
specific process, and very little time is spent on planning. The majority of resources are
thrown toward development, and even the client may not have a solid grasp of the
requirements. This is one of the SDLC methodologies typically used for small projects
with only one or two software engineers. Big Bang is not recommended for large or
complex projects, as it’s a high-risk model; if the requirements are misunderstood in the
beginning, you could get to the end and realize the project may have to be started all over
again.
2.5.6. AGILE MODEL
By breaking the product into cycles, the agile model quickly delivers a working product
and is considered a very realistic development approach. The model produces ongoing
releases, each with small, incremental changes from the previous release. At each
iteration, the product is tested. This model emphasizes interaction, as the customers,
developers and testers work together throughout the project. But since this model
depends heavily on customer interaction, the project can head the wrong way if the
customer is not clear on the direction he or she wants to go.
Each of these SDLC methodologies offers unique process for the variety of project
challenges that will be encountered during development. Finding the right one depends
heavily on not just the expected outcome, but the parameters by which the project is
executed.
2.6 HISTORY OF THE NPF-CID
The Nigeria Police Force Criminal Investigation Department (FCID) is the highest
investigating arm of the Nigeria Police. Its functions include investigation and
prosecution of serious and complex criminal cases within and outside the country. The
department also coordinates crime investigations/prosecution throughout the force. For
effective and efficient administration, the NPF CID is divided into sections with most of
them headed by Commissioner of Police.
The Department is currently headed by a DIG JOSEPH EGBUNIKE
The Sections under the Force Criminal Investigation Department (FCID) include the
following:
• Administration
• Ant-Fraud Section
• The Central Criminal Registry (CCR)
• Special Anti-Robbery Squad (SARS)
• Special Enquiry Bureau
• X-Squad
• General Investigation
• Special Fraud Unit (SFU)
• Legal Section
• Forensic Science
• Interpol
• Homicide
• Anti-Human Trafficking Unit
