Sediment transport under unidirectional flows
I. Classification of sediment load
The sediment that is transported by a current.
Two main classes:
Wash load: silt and clay size material that remains in suspension even
during low flow events in a river.
Bed material load: sediment (sand and gravel size) that resides in the
bed but goes into transport during high flow events (e.g., floods).
Bed material load makes up many arenites and rudites in the geological
record.
Three main components of bed material load.
Contact load: particles that move in contact with the bed by sliding or
rolling over it.
Saltation load: movement as a series of
“hops” along the bed, each hop following a
ballistic trajectory.
When the ballistic trajectory is disturbed by turbulence the motion is
referred to as Suspensive saltation.
Intermittent suspension load: carried in suspension by turbulence in the
flow.
“Intermittent” because it is in suspension only during high flow events
and otherwise resides in the deposits of the bed.
Bursting is an important process in initiating suspension transport.
II. Hydraulic interpretation of grain
size distributions
In the section on grain size
distributions we saw that some sands
are made up of several normally
distributed subpopulations.
These subpopulations can be
interpreted in terms of the modes of
transport that they underwent prior to
deposition.
The finest subpopulation represents
the wash load.
Only a very small amount of wash
load is ever stored within the bed
material so that it makes up a very
small proportion of these deposits.
The coarsest subpopulation represents
the contact and saltation loads.
In some cases they make up two
subpopulations (only one is shown in
the figure).
The remainder of the distribution,
normally making up the largest
proportion, is the intermittent
suspension load.
This interpretation of the
subpopulations gives us two bases for
quantitatively determining the
strength of the currents that
transported the deposits.
The grain size “X” is the coarsest
sediment that the currents could
move on the bed.
In this case, X = -1.5 f or
approximately 2.8 mm.
If the currents were weaker, that
grain size would not be present.
If the currents were stronger, coarser
material would be present.
This assumes that there were no
limitations to the size of grains
available in the system.
The grain size “Y” is the coarsest
sediment that the currents could take
into suspension.
In this case, Y = 1.3 f or
approximately 0.41 mm.
Therefore the currents must have
been just powerful enough to take
the 0.41 mm particles into
suspension.
If the currents were stronger the
coarsest grain size would be larger.
This assumes that there were no
limitations to the size of grains
available in the system.
To quantitatively interpret “X” we
need to know the hydraulic
conditions needed to just begin to
move of that size.
This condition is the “threshold for
sediment movement”.
To quantitatively interpret “Y” we
need to know the hydraulic
conditions needed to just begin carry
that grain size in suspension.
This condition is the “threshold for
suspension”.
a) The threshold for grain movement on the bed.
Grain size “X” can be interpreted if we know what flow strength is
required to just move a particle of that size.
That flow strength will have transported sediment with that maximum
grain size.
Several approaches have been taken to determine the critical flow
strength to initiate motion on the bed.
i) Hjulstrom’s Diagram
Based on a series of experiments using unidirectional currents with a
flow depth of 1 m.
The diagram (below) shows the critical velocity that is required to just
begin to move sediment of a given size (the top of the yellow field).
It also shows the critical velocity for deposition of sediment of a given
size (the bottom of the yellow field).
Note that for grain sizes coarser than 0.5 mm the velocity that is required
for transport increases with grain size; the larger the particles the higher
velocity that is required for transport.
For finer grain sizes (with cohesive clay minerals) the finer the grain size
the greater the critical velocity for transport.
This is because the more mud is present the greater the cohesion and the
greater the resistance to erosion, despite the finer grain size.
In our example, the coarsest grain size was 2.8 mm.
In our example, the coarsest grain size was 2.8 mm.
According to Hjulstron’s diagram, that grain size
would require a flow with a velocity of
approximately 0.65m/s.
Therefore, the sediment shown in the cumulative
frequency curve was transported by currents at
0.65 m/s.
The problem is that the forces that are required to move sediment are
not only related to flow velocity.
Boundary shear stress is a particularly important force and it varies with
flow depth.
to = rgDsinq
Therefore, Hjulstrom’s diagram is reasonably accurate only for sediment
that has been deposited under flow depths of 1 m.
i) Shield’s criterion for the initiation of motion
Based on a large number of experiments Shield’s criterion considers the
problem in terms of the forces that act to move a particle.
The criterion applies to beds of spherical particles of uniform grain size.
Forces that are important to initial motion:
1. The submerged weight of the particle ( ( r s r ) gd 3 )
6
which resists motion.
2. to which causes a drag force that
acts to move the particle down current.
3. Lift force (L) that reduces the
effective submerged weight.
What’s a Lift Force?
The flow velocity that is “felt” by the particle varies from approximately
zero at its base to some higher velocity at its highest point.
Pressure (specifically “dynamic pressure” in contrast to static pressure)
is also imposed on the particle and the magnitude of the dynamic
pressure varies inversely with the velocity:
Higher velocity, lower dynamic pressure.
Maximum dynamic pressure
is exerted at the base of the
particle and minimum
pressure at its highest point.
The dynamic pressure on the particle varies symmetrically from a
minimum at the top to a maximum at the base of the particle.
This distribution of dynamic pressure results in a net pressure force that
acts upwards.
Thus, the net pressure force (known as the Lift Force) acts oppose the
weight of the particle (reducing its effective weight).
This makes it easier for the
flow to roll the particle
along the bed.
The lift force reduces the
drag force that is required to
move the particle.
A quick note on saltation……
If the particle remains immobile to the flow and the velocity gradient is
large enough so that the Lift force exceeds the particle’s weight….it will
jump straight upwards away from the bed.
Once off the bed, the
pressure difference from top
to bottom of the particle is
lost and it is carried down
current as it falls back to the
bed….
following the ballistic
trajectory of saltation.
Shield’s experiments involved determining the critical boundary shear
stress required to move spherical particles of various size and density
over a bed of grains with the same properties (uniform spheres).
He produced a diagram that allows the determination of the critical shear
stress required for the initiation of motion.
A bivariate plot of “Shield’s Beta” versus Boundary Reynolds’ Number:
to
rs r gd
vs
U *d
R*
Critical shear stress for motion.
to
rs r gd
Submerged weight of grains per unit area
on the bed.
to
= Force acting to move the particle (excluding Lift)
rs r gd Force resisting movement
As the Lift Force increases will decrease (lower to required for movement).
U *d Reflects something of the lift force (related to the velocity
R*
gradient across the particle).
For low boundary Reynold’s numbers Shield’s decreases with
increasing R*.
For high boundary Reynold’s numbers Shield’s increases with
increasing R*.
For low boundary Reynold’s numbers Shield’s decreases with
increasing R*.
For high boundary Reynold’s numbers Shield’s increases with
increasing R*.
The change takes place at R* 12.
At boundary Reynold’s numbers less than 12 the grains on the bed are
entirely within the viscous sublayer.
At boundary Reynold’s numbers greater than 12 the grains on the bed
extend above the viscous sublayer.
As Shield’s decreases (R* < 12) the critical shear stress required for
motion decreases for a given grain size.
At low boundary Reynolds numbers (< 12) the grains experience a
strong velocity gradient within the VSL.
As R* increases towards a value of 12 the VSL thins and the velocity
gradient becomes steeper, increasing the lift force acting on the grains.
The greater lift force reduces the effective weight of the grains and
reduces the boundary shear stress that is necessary to move the grain.
At high boundary Reynolds numbers (> 12) the grains protrude through
the VSL so that the region of strong velocity gradient is below the grains,
leading to lower lift forces.
As R* increases the velocity gradient acting on the grains is reduced and
resulting lift forces are reduced.
The lower lift force leads to an increase in the effective weight of the
grains and increases the boundary shear stress that is necessary to move
the grains.
The boundary Reynold’s number accounts for the variation in lift force
on the grains which influences the critical shear stress required for
motion.
How to use Shield’s Diagram
What is the boundary shear stress required to move
2.18 mm sand?
d = -1.5f = 2.8 mm = 0.0028 m
n = 1.1 x 10-6 m2/s (water at 20C)
r = 998.2 kg/m3 (density of water at 20C)
rs = 2650 kg/m3 (density of quartz)
g = 9.806 m/s2
Note the assumptions
regarding the water
Calculate:
d rs
0.1 1) gd
r
=172
to
= 0.047
rs r gd
Rearranging: t o rs r gd
0.047 rs r gd
= 2.13 N/m2
Limitations of Shield’s Criterion:
1. It applies only to spherical particles; it doesn’t include the influence
of particle shape.
It will underestimate the critical shear stress required for
motion for angular grains.
2. It assumes that the material on the bed is of uniform size.
It underestimates the critical shear stress for small grains on a bed of
larger grains
It overestimates the critical
shear stress for large grains on
a bed of finer grains
b) The threshold for suspension
The coarsest grain size in the intermittent
suspension load is the coarsest sand that the
current will suspend.
Sediment is suspended by the
upward component of
turbulence (velocity V).
The largest particle to be
suspended by a current will be
that particle with a settling
velocity (w) that is equal to V.
Experiments have shown that V U* for a given current.
Therefore, Middleton's criterion is:
A particle will be taken into suspension by a current when the shear
velocity of the current equals or exceeds the settling velocity of the
particle.
U* w
Comparisons of the settling velocity of the largest grain size in the
intermittent suspension load found in the bed material of major rivers
show that they compare very favorably to the measured shear velocity
during peak flow in those rivers.
River U* w
(m/s) (m/s)
Middle Loup 7–9 7-9
Middle Loup ≈ 20 ≈20
Niobrara 7 - 10 7-9
Elkhorn 7-9 2.5 – 5.0
Mississippi (Omaha) 6.5 – 6.8 2.5 – 5.0
Mississippi (St. Louis) 9 - 11 3 - 12
Rio Grande 8 - 12 ≈10
This diagram shows the shear velocity required to suspend particles as a
function of their size (the curve labeled U* = w).
For comparison it also shows the critical shear velocity required to move
a particle on the bed based on Shield’s criterion.
The U* = wcurve can
also be used to estimate
settling velocity for
grains coarser than 0.1
mm (the upper limit for
Stoke’s Law).
For 0.5 mm diameter quartz spheres:
As flow strength increases at As flow strength increases further
U*=0.021 m/s the grain will at U*=0.05 m/s the moving grain
begin to move on the bed. will be taken into suspension.
Note that for grain sizes finer than approximately 0.015 mm the grains
will go into suspension as soon as the flow strength is great enough to
move them (i.e., they will not move as contact load).
What is the critical shear velocity required to
suspend 0.41 mm sand?
The critical shear velocity
for suspension is 0.042 m/s.
How do our estimates based on the coarsest grains size in transport on
the bed and the coarsest grain size in suspension compare?
Middleton’s criterion: U* = 0.042 m/s
Shield’s criterion: to = 2.13 N/m2
to
U* r = 998.2 kg/m3 (density of water at 20C)
r
U* = 0.046 m/s
Very close!
