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 Physical Geography
4
Shuying Leng, Hongyan Liu, Jiawu Zhang, Siyuan He, Xuan Ji,
Linshan Liu, Wenxiang Zhang, Huiyi Zhu, Yunlin Zhang,
and Xianyan Wang

Abstract
Studies in physical geography aim to reveal characteristics of the natural environment, its
evolution, and the geographical diversity of the earth surface. Research objects include the
troposphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and upper layer of the lithosphere. Physical geography
under NSFC has several branches, including geomorphology, hydrology, applied clima-
tology, biogeography, cryospheric geography, and integrated physical geography. Research
on landscape, environmental change and prediction are also included in physical geography
Analysis in this section is based on 134 SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical
geography, of which 39 are comprehensive journals and 95 are specialised. In the past 30
years, with the promotion of many international major scientific programmes, research into
physical geography in China has gradually developed a main line of research guided by
global change and the comprehensive pattern of the earth surface. Frontier research in China
has followed trending global topics in the water cycle and water resources, terrestrial
ecosystems, LUCC, and cryosphere evolution. However, faced by regional environmental
problems, Chinese scholars have done substantial research in permafrost engineering and the
permafrost environment, natural hazards and risk, lake ecosystems and eutrophication, and
ecohydrological processes and water resource utilisation in arid regions. In 1986–2015, the
number of papers in physical geography has rapidly increased. The proportion of papers
published by Chinese authors in the SCI/SSCI mainstream journals, has reached 12.9 % in
the last 5 years. The per capita publication figure is 5.3, 2.1 times that of 10 years ago.
Average citations of the top 100 highly cited papers of each country in the SCI/SSCI
mainstream journals show that the rank of China has risen to 8. As to the role of NSFC
funding, 76.4 % of the SCI/SSCI-indexed articles and 73 % of the CSCD-indexed articles
published by Chinese authors in the past 10 years are supported by NSFC projects. Of the
top 50 highly cited papers in SCI/SSCI journals published by Chinese authors in 2010–2014,
85.6 % are supported by NSFC projects.

Keywords
Physical geography Research topics in physical geography NSFC-funded projects for
physical geography Chinese scholars and institutions of physical geography

Studies in physical geography aim to reveal characteristics landscape or a land unit, or they could be typical objects
of the natural environment, its evolution, and the geographic such as the cryosphere. Physical geography under NSFC has
diversity of the earth surface. Research objects include the several branches, including geomorphology, hydrology,
troposphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and upper layer of the applied climatology, biogeography, cryospheric geography,
lithosphere. In practice, the objects could be a certain envi- and integrated physical geography. Research on landscape,
ronmental element, such as geomorphology, hydrology, environmental change and prediction are also included in
climate, biology and soil, a natural complex such as physical geography. Regional environmental quality, safety

© The Commercial Press, Ltd. and Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2017 49
S. Leng et al., The Geographical Sciences During 1986–2015,
Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-1884-8_4
50 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.1 Number of 100000 90%

SCI/SSCI-indexed articles and 80.5%
proportion of NSFC-funded 90000 Total Number of Articles 80%
articles by Chinese authors in
physical geography during the 80000 Number of Articles by Chinese Authors
period 1986–2015 66.3% 70%

70000 Proportion of NSFC-funded Articles by

in Physical Geography
Chinese Authors 60%

Number of Articles

Proportion of Articles
60000 52.0%
50%
50000
88344 40%
40000
29.3%
70226
30%
30000
16.9%
44604 20%
20000 10.4%
32810 11423
10000 21233 10%
14801 4643
164 237 464 1424
0 0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015

and natural resource management are part of environmental Development, Quaternary Sciences, Journal of Lake Sci-
geography, but they are also closely related to physical ences, Chinese Science Bulletin, Acta Ecologica Sinica,
geography. Analysis in this section is based on 134 Advances in Water Science, Chinese Journal of Applied
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography, of Ecology, Scientia Sinica Terrae, China Population,
which 39 are comprehensive journals and 95 are specialised. Resources and Environment, Journal of Desert Research,
Figure 4.1 shows the number of articles published in 134 China Land Sciences, Resources Science, Journal of Natural
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals and the contribution of Chi- Disasters, and Journal of Natural Resources. There were a
nese authors during the past 30 years. Overall, 272,018 total of 26,369 Chinese articles, 54 % of which were pub-
articles were searched (some journals before 1990 are not lished in the last decade. NSFC-funded papers were 16,288
indexed in Web of Science database), of which 58.3 % were in number, and 63.8 % of those were from the last decade.
published in the last 10 years (2006–2015). Chinese authors The proportion of NSFC-funded papers in the past 30 years
contributed 18,355 articles (6.8 %), and 87.5 % were pub- is 61.8 %, less than the 45.8 % before 1996–2000; this
lished in the last 10 years. They contributed 10.1 % of total increased rapidly to 68 % in 2001–2005 and reached 73.5 %
articles in the last decade, and 12.9 % in the last 5 years. The in the last 5 years. These data indicate that research output
number of NSFC-funded papers was 13,206, and 92.9 % from physical geography published in the Chinese language
were published in the last decade. The proportion of research had been rapidly increasing and that NSFC had a major
funded by NSFC in the past 30 years is 72 %. This is research role. In addition, the citation of papers in the core
smaller than the 29.3 % before 1996–2000, but rapidly Chinese journals indicates that NSFC-funded papers had
increased to 52 % in 2001–2005 and 80.5 % in the last always had more citations than non-NSFC-supported papers
5 years. Data from Fig. 4.1 suggest that NSFC has had an in each 5-year period over the past 30 years, with an average
increasingly important role in supporting exploration of the citation number of 23.4, compared with 9.4 for non-NSFC-
frontiers of physical geography. funded papers. This suggests that NSFC-funded research had
Figure 4.2 shows the total number and NSFC-funded greater quality and had attracted more attention.
articles in the 19 core Chinese journals over the past Table 4.1 shows average citations of the top 100 highly
30 years. The 19 journals are Journal of Glaciology and cited papers in the SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of phys-
Geocryology, Resources and Environment in the Yangtze ical geography, which representing the top research results
Basin, Scientia Geographica Sinica, Acta Geographica of each country/region listed. China was among the top 20
Sinica, Geographical Research, Areal Research and countries in the past 30 years, with an increasing ranking
4 Physical Geography 51

8000 80%
72.6% 73.5%
Total Number of Articles
68.0%
7000 70%
Proportion of NSFC-funded
6000 Articles 60%
in Physical Geography

Proportion of Articles
Number of Articles

5000 45.8% 50%

4000 40%
7332
6908
3000 26.2% 30%
5284

2000 20%
13.1% 3372

1000 2271 10%

1202

0 0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015

Fig. 4.2 Number of CSCD-indexed articles and proportion of NSFC-funded articles in physical geography during the period 1986–2015

from 17th in 1986–1990 to 10th in 2006–2010 to 8th in the Figure 4.3 shows the general pattern of co-occurrence of
last 5 years. The gap in average citations narrowed com- major research topics. These topics in the past 30 years were
pared with Germany, Britain, Australia, Netherlands, in the fields of earth surface patterns, biological processes,
Canada and France, but remained wide compared with the carbon cycle, physical processes, vegetation–water interac-
leader, the United States, which had an average citation tion, and the Quaternary environment. China had received
number equalling the sum of Germany and Britain. If the much attention as a research region. (1) For research on
average citation number of all published papers was con- earth surface patterns, major topics included not only
sidered, for China this equalled 17.2, 26.4 and 12.4 in 1986– landscape patterns driven by climate change, but also envi-
1990, 1996–2000, and 2006–2010, respectively, which was ronmental change or degradation indicated by land-use and
much smaller than corresponding average numbers for the landscape types. (2) For biological processes research,
top 20 countries (29.3, 34.3, and 17.5). The ranking of China popular topics were the distribution and diversity of organ-
was only higher than that of Japan, Brazil, and Chinese isms at scales of community, population, and species, which
Taiwan. This situation clearly shows that research done by revealed the response and adaptation of biodiversity to cli-
Chinese geographers did not attract substantial attention mate change. Another topic was the interaction of plants and
from international colleagues. temperature, revealing the response and adaptation of veg-
etation to climate change. In addition, researches into
ecosystem or diversity conservation (indicated by keywords
conservation, conservation biogeography, soil conservation,
4.1 General Characteristics of the Research nature conservation, and conservation planning) have
Topics Over the Past 30 Years linked biology to geography, soil, and human activities.
(3) Research on the carbon cycle had focused on the impact
This section focuses on the major topics indicated by key- of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration on air
words from papers in the SCI/SSCI mainstream journals and temperature (CO2 enrichment), plant growth, and grain
CSCD core Chinese journals over 1986–2015. The yield. In addition, carbon as a keyword also had high
co-occurrence of major topics (keywords) was analysed to co-occurrence frequency with several other keywords such
show a general pattern of research in physical geography. as soil, forest, ecosystem, vegetation, and land-use change,
52 4 Physical Geography

Table 4.1 Top 20 countries (regions) of average cites per paper for highly cited SCI/SSCI-indexed articles in physical geography during the
period 1986–2015

Countries
Rank 1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015
(Regions)
1 USA 410 538.9 570.7 459 331.7 72.4
2 Germany 77.5 119.1 169.2 192.5 143.1 40.2
3 UK 187 225.1 312.3 277.3 173.2 39.4
4 Australia 141.3 162.9 183.5 178 140.5 34.5
5 Netherlands 88.3 133.1 149.5 146.3 93.3 29.4
6 Canada 139.7 175.3 209.5 177.4 116.5 28.6
7 France 105.8 147.7 151.2 148.5 127.6 28.2
8 China 27.5 55 79.6 91.7 87 27
9 Switzerland 43.1 81.2 153.4 135.7 101.7 26.1
10 Spain 27.1 65.7 103.5 116.9 98.4 26.1
11 Italy 29.2 64.7 93.3 92.1 76.1 22.1
12 Sweden 89.9 107.5 127.5 125.4 76.8 19.9
13 Belgium 28.1 55.3 100.7 92.8 59.6 16.7
14 Norway 52.2 75.8 101.2 82.8 46.8 16.2
15 Japan 30.1 53.9 67.8 73.7 56.1 15.2
16 Austria 20.9 19.3 39 57.2 50.9 14.8
17 Denmark 49.6 84.6 94.6 88.8 65.3 14.8
18 India 22.6 41.5 47.3 55.1 41.8 13.4
19 Brazil 37.7 43.8 68.5 71.7 53.7 12.7
20 Taiwan, China 41 20.1 27.1 36.4 30.3 12.1

Note Top 20 countries (regions) were selected based on average cites of the top 100 highly cited articles in each county (region) out of 25 countries
(regions) with the largest number of articles from the 134 SCI/SSCI mainstream journals in physical geography; that is, total cites of the 100
articles were divided by 100, with listing by descending order for the period 2011–2015 in the last column

strongly indicating that research on carbon in physical processes. (6) In Quaternary paleoenvironmental research,
geography has involved various ecosystems. (4) For research the Holocene was an important period. For this period,
on physical processes, earth surface processes driven by vegetation, lake basin, sediment, (Chinese) loess or Loess
precipitation had received the most attention. These pro- Plateau, cave stalagmite, and glacier (or ice core) were the
cesses included erosion, hedgerows, bedload transport, and major research subjects. Pollen and tree ring were two
suspended sediment. There had been interdisciplinary common indicators in environmental change research, and
research between fluvial geomorphology and hydraulic stable isotope was also an important proxy for paleoclimate.
geometry. There had also been research into salt weathering, In addition, chronology technologies such as thermolumi-
which is a physico-chemical process driven by evaporation nescence and optically stimulated luminescence had been
(mainly in arid areas), and photosynthesis, which was a focuses for many years. (7) In all targeted geographic
biochemical process driven by radiation. (5) In research on regions, China had the highest word frequency, closely
vegetation–water interaction, there was a lack of keywords associated with climate change, natural disasters (including
associated with “vegetation” and “water,” because these two debris flow, earthquake, and hazard assessment), and the
keywords were extremely frequent (Fig. 4.3). In combina- Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Tibetan Plateau, Qinghai).
tion with the frequency of clustered keywords, we found that Antarctica (including Antarctica, the Antarctic Peninsula,
runoff and infiltration were the major keywords in vegeta- and Antarctic ice sheet), the Arctic (Arctic Ocean and Arctic
tion–water research. Runoff production and infiltration under tundra), and the North Atlantic (North Atlantic, North
various types of vegetation and soil directly influence the Atlantic Oscillation, North Atlantic Ocean, and North
accuracy of hydrologic simulation models for hydrologic Atlantic climate) had also attracted widespread attention.
4.1 General Characteristics of the Research Topics Over the Past 30 Years 53

Fig. 4.3 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 1986–2015

Figure 4.4 shows research keywords in the core Chinese research in China. Colour patterns in Fig. 4.4 show that in
journals over the past 30 years, including not only the last three decades, the most popular research topics
problem-driven topics, such as climate change, land use, began to emerge in the last 10–15 years. Some of the early
water resources, and natural hazards, but also regional major issues such as sustainable development, paleoclimate,
physicogeographical units such as China, Tibetan Plateau, and environmental evolution have begun to decline in
Taihu Lake, and Loess Plateau. There were also frequent interest. Several features can be summarised from the cluster
topics regarding methods and approaches such as remote pattern. (1) Research into global change mainly focused on
sensing, GIS, and model simulation. These research topics or changes of evapotranspiration and runoff driven by tem-
research-targeted regions were situated as central nodes of perature and precipitation change, and on simulations of
the co-occurrence network, indicating a certain degree of hydrologic processes, particularly in arid and cold regions.
balanced research between problem-driven and region-based For example, the SWAT model appeared in 2004. Natural
54 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.4 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 1986–2015

hazards related to global warming, including glacier varia- economy. (3) Research on land within physical geography
tion, geologic hazards, climate change, and related droughts in China comprised land use as well as land-use and land-
and floods, were also a focus. (2) Research on water cover change (LUCC). Remote sensing is commonly used to
resources focused around keywords of water resources, study the spatial distribution and dynamic change of land
China, and sustainable utilisation, highlighting tremendous use, and has also been used to analyse the relationship
concern for these subjects. Major impacts on water resources between land use and desertification or soil loss. The agri-
in China include vulnerability under climate change, land culture-pasture ecotone had been the focus of much concern.
management, south-to-north water diversion, and the return Land-use/land-cover change (LUCC) had mainly centred on
of farmland to forest or pasture. Negative effects of water spatial heterogeneity, driving factors, impacts on soil
utilisation mainly included land degradation and desertifi- moisture and nutrients, landscape patterns, plant diversity,
cation. In terms of water utilisation, the North China Plain water and soil conservation, and ecosystem services. Major
and north western arid area were frequently researched research methods are experiments in small watersheds,
regions. The research content mainly involved water geostatistics, and scenario simulation. The loess hilly-gully
resource carrying capacity, virtual water, water footprint, region had also seen substantial research. (4) Research into
ecological water demand, and water use efficiency, indicat- natural hazards differed from that in international studies.
ing interactions among water resources, ecology, and This topic included research on floods, typhoons, rainfall,
4.1 General Characteristics of the Research Topics Over the Past 30 Years 55

hail, ice floods, thunderstorms, droughts, fires, sand dust, 4.2.1 Period of 1986–1995
freeze injury (cold spells from low temperature), earth-
quakes, debris flow, landslides, abrupt change of climate, Figure 4.5 shows research topics in SCI/SSCI mainstream
and extreme weather. Accordingly, the research focus has journals over 1986–1995. This period was the beginning of
gradually changed from single geological or climatic hazards research into single physical geography elements and global
to complex hazards, climate change, and extreme weather change. During the period, research on individual elements,
caused by global change. Remote sensing and GIS are the such as soil, climate, geomorphology, water and vegetation,
two major approaches to studying natural hazards. The as well as environmental change based on sediments, had a
research topics of hazard processes, risk assessment, risk large proportion that increased. Branches of physical geog-
zonation, loss evaluation, hazard reduction mitigation, and raphy such as geomorphology, biogeography, paleogeog-
hazard prediction indicated the research directions of raphy, paleoecology, landscape ecology, ecology, and
reduction–prediction–risk as well as a focus change from a phenology are thematic words but lack organic links. The
hazard itself to human–economy–society. This change fitted cluster graph in Fig. 4.5 illustrates several points. (1) Cli-
the scientific development rules of our perception of hazards mate and vegetation had gained more attention than other
and long-term precautions against them and their ameliora- elements since 1991. In the same period, carbon and carbon
tion. (5) Environmental change research had focused on dioxide had emerged as research topics. (2) Soil had the
timescales of the Quaternary, late Pleistocene, Holocene, highest frequency in this period and was associated with
last glacial, and historical periods. The major objects had land use, soil loss, deforestation, and forestry, indicating a
been vegetation, geomorphology, paleosol, lacustrine sedi- close relationship. (3) The study of plant geography had
ments, and Quaternary glaciations. Important environmental focused on the relationship between vegetation and soil, in
indicators included pollen (spores), tree rings, ice cores, addition to traditional aspects of succession, vegetation–
stalagmites, magnetic susceptibility, and particle size, which environment relationships, and growth. Spatiotemporal pat-
were used in paleovegetation, paleoclimate and paleofloods. terns of forest and desert ecosystems had also seen devel-
Isotopes (oxygen and carbon) and chronology (mainly ra- opment. At the same time, landscapes were an emergent
diocarbon 14C and optical luminescence dating, OSL) were topic in vegetation research. Europe was a major area for
also important methods. The Tibetan Plateau, Loess Pla- vegetation research, and landscapes and ecology had seen an
teau, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, middle and lower explosion in the first half of the period. (4) Climate change
reaches of the Yangtze River, and Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and its impact plus the carbon cycle had materialised as new
were regions where samples had been collected. The Tibetan research directions but still lack interaction with the tradi-
Plateau was not only a priority region in the study of pale- tional climatology within physical geography. (5) Early
oclimate and environmental change but also a focus of attention was given to high-resolution research into envi-
global change research, because it was important for ronmental change. New technologies in dating such as the
large-scale climate models and climate change simulations. accelerator mass spectrometer began to be used in research.
Therefore, the cluster shows that the Tibetan Plateau had a During the subject period, research into environmental
close relationship with temperature, precipitation, climate change concentrated on high latitudes of both northern and
reconstruction, glacier change, global warming, and ENSO. southern hemispheres, such as northern Europe, Antarctica,
(6) There were other prominent issues discussed in Chinese New Zealand, and South America. There was no particularly
articles, such as ecosystems of Taihu Lake and its impact on dominant theme in research on global change, but it clus-
the Yangtze River basin, the water environment, biodiversity, tered around sea ice, Antarctica, Younger Dryas, and bios-
nature conservation, change of permafrost under climate tratigraphy, indicating a focus on paleoclimatic history or
change, and the construction of railways and highways. events. Climate was clustered around tropical forest, coastal
dunes, coral, fishery, and sediments, signifying that climate
had a close relationship with these subjects. (6) Regional
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various studies were mainly in Europe, North America, Australia,
Periods and Antarctica and its islands. Research in China began to
increase but lacked a clustered topic.
In the following sections, change of major research topics Research topics retrieved from the core Chinese journals
internationally and in China as indicated by papers in of the same period (1986–1995) shows an overall pattern of
SCI/SSCI journals was analysed and compared at a 5-year research in China over the past 30 years (Fig. 4.6).
(or 10-year) interval over the past 30 years. (1) Keywords of climate change and carbon dioxide
56 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.5 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 1986–1995

appeared in 1987, but substantial research progress was not objects included floods, thunderstorms, typhoons, fire,
made until 1990. This gradually evolved to a node with earthquakes, debris flow, and landslides. Disaster evalua-
strong clustering in the subsequent 10 years. Research topics tion plus disaster prevention and reduction engineering were
included climate change relative to desertification, glacier also major topics. (3) There was a burst of paleoclimate and
mass balance, seasonal frozen soil/permafrost, and sea level late Pleistocene in 1987, and these continued to be keywords
rise. China Antarctic Great Wall Station appeared in 1993 as with high centrality in the subsequent 10 years. Timescales
a keyword, and Antarctica in 1995. (2) Research on natural included the Holocene, late Pleistocene, and last glacial.
hazards became a popular topic after the keyword natural The Loess Plateau, Mu Us Sandland, Aibi Lake, Hulun Lake,
hazard appeared in 1991 as a strong focus. Major research Yellow River Delta, Jianghan Plain, and Liaodong
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 57

Fig. 4.6 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 1986–1995

Peninsula were regions where samples were concentrated. geomorphology, and paleoenvironment (the Holocene).
Paleoclimate reconstruction was based on proxies from loess Additionally, attention was paid to methods and technologies
and lake sediments and ice cores. The keyword loess for data analysis (modelling, remote sensing, and geographic
appeared in 1987, pollen in 1990, and ice core in 1992. information system or GIS). Regional studies focused on
Research on the Tibetan Plateau focused on permafrost and Antarctica and Australia. There was a rapid increase in the
Quaternary glaciers. (4) Taihu Lake appeared in 1987 with frequency of keywords including carbon dioxide, climate
high frequency and Poyang Lake in 1992, mainly in research change, modelling, and the Holocene. Of the most frequently
on wetland plant communities and water surface evapo- used 15 keywords by Chinese authors, only geomorphology
ration. Three Gorges Project appeared in 1991, but then had a similar frequency to that used by foreign authors. In
only four times in total in the 5-year period. (5) Water general, the top 15 keywords used by Chinese authors
resource appeared in 1989 in research related to droughts, reflected the prevalent topics, including China (China and
floods, and agriculture. Attention was paid to the influences Inner Mongolia), sustainable development of resource and
of climate change on permafrost and seasonal frozen soil of environment (sustainable development, environment, sus-
the Tibetan Plateau. tainability, resource, and development), sedimentology and
Figure 4.7 shows a comparison of prominent keywords geomorphology (sand dune, sedimentology, and geomor-
in SCI/SSCI journals used by Chinese authors and others. phology), storm surges, biology-soil processes and ecosys-
In the decade shown (1986 to 1995), the 15 keywords with tems (grassland, primary productivity, and soil water), and
highest frequency use by foreign authors covered the research numerical simulation. Only geomorphology, sustainable
area of global change and climate (climate change, carbon development, and grassland had a frequency in excess of 10,
dioxide, and climate), ecology (landscape ecology, biogeog- indicating that other research topics of interest to Chinese
raphy, biodiversity, disturbance, and conservation), authors were not very common during this period.
58 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.7 Comparative diagram of prominent keywords by Chinese proportion of keyword frequency in a single year to its total frequency
authors and others in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical in 1986–1995. Each keyword has the same colour. Keywords are listed
geography during the period 1986–1995. Note Right panel shows in descending order according to their total frequencies in the above
keywords used by Chinese authors and left panel shows those used by period
the authors from other countries (regions). Size of circles represents the

4.2.2 Period of 1996–2000 balance in individual trees, reflecting the contribution of

vegetation to climate change. Second, ecology and bio-
Figure 4.8 shows research topics in the SCI/SSCI main- geography increasingly merged, with a concentration of
stream journals over 1996–2000. This was a period of research in the field of landscape patterns, community
research into physicogeographical processes centred on glo- diversity, and ecological conservation, which were all major
bal change. First, there were close relationships among cli- research issues of earth-surface ecological processes.
mate change, vegetation dynamics, and the carbon cycle Research on landscape ecology and biodiversity conservation
within ecosystems. Since 1996, climate change had become developed vigorously during this period. Third, as research
the most frequent keyword, followed by the Holocene, cli- into soil is closely linked to that into water, soil-water loss
mate, soil, forest, vegetation, sediment, biodiversity, and related to land-use change was a principal research field
lake. Research on global change during this period were during the period. Finally, research in regional geography
centred on paleoclimate and past environmental change, with still focused on North America, Europe, and Oceania, but that
timescales concentrating on the late Quaternary, the last on Africa, South America, and Asia increased substantially,
glacial maximum, and the Holocene. Paleoclimate and indicating a multi-regional trend.
paleoenvironment were reconstructed through sediments Figure 4.9 shows dominant research topics in the core
from lakes, glaciers, and the ocean, with proxies such as Chinese journals for 1996–2000, which reflected develop-
pollen (spores). The keyword temperature was very popular ment of the previous period (1986–1995). (1) Research on
and was used in *1 % of all published papers. Isotopes global change, paleoenvironment, and the Tibetan Pla-
received attention in research on the paleoenvironment and teau and Loess Plateau began to be combined. The key-
modern ecological carbon cycle. Research into vegetation word Loess Plateau was frequent in 1998, and paleoclimate,
dynamics was associated with that on plant growth and environmental change, climate warming, global warming,
productivity, and was also related that on carbon and nitrogen temperature, and precipitation became keyword nodes with
in ecosystems. Accordingly, research on forests (especially high centrality. Temperature, precipitation, and runoff were
tropical forest, where carbon flux is strong) increased rapidly. closely related. Climate change related to desertification and
There was modelling work centred on the carbon–moisture glacier mass balance remained important research themes.
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 59

Fig. 4.8 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 1996–2000
60 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.9 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 1996–2000

Pollen and grain size, as two important paleoenvironmental algorithms also began to be used. (5) Research on Taihu
proxies, occurred simultaneously with oxygen isotope in Lake began to centre on species diversity and population
1996. As critical progress in paleoenvironmental research of dynamics. Shallow lake appeared in 2000 as a keyword and
the Tibetan Plateau, Guliya ice core and Dunde ice core lake hydraulics began to be emphasised. Although Three
appeared in the co-occurrence network of keywords in 1999. Gorges Project had some centrality, its total frequency was
Periods of this research concentrated on the Quaternary and only four times in 5 years. (6) Wetland appeared in 1998 and
historical period, which appeared in 1998, and the late was very frequent. Research in this field was mainly in the
Pleistocene remained frequent. (2) Research on water Yellow River and Liaohe River deltas and middle and lower
resources began to be linked to evapotranspiration and other reaches of the Yangtze River, focusing on biodiversity and
hydrologic processes, and reasonable utilisation of water wetland resources.
resources also became an important research topic. (3) Land Figure 4.10 shows a comparison of major issue keywords
use appeared in 1997, and attention was devoted to dynamic in SCI/SSCI journals used by Chinese authors and others
monitoring of land use by remote sensing, land use, and during 1996–2000 (the diagram description see the note of
sustainability, and land use in natural reserves. (4) Research Fig. 4.7). There was a significant increase in both the
into natural hazards continued to receive attention, with number of published papers and total keyword frequency,
many studies on floods in the Huaihe River basin. There was and a slight increase in the frequency of the top 15 keywords
research into the relationship between floods, climate vari- used by Chinese authors. In this 5-year period, frequencies
ation and the East Asian monsoon. Methods related to of the top 15 keywords used by foreign authors were all
hazards research, such as fractal, neural network and genetic greater than 75. Compared with 1986–1995, high-frequency
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 61

Fig. 4.10 Comparative diagram

of prominent keywords by
Chinese authors and others in
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of
physical geography during the
period 1996–2000

keywords reflected that prominent research topics included were not only the same as the major international topics but
the following characteristics. Global change, especially the also had Chinese characteristics, such as loess, Tibetan
Holocene paleoclimate and paleoecology (indicated by Plateau, and human activities. Attention began to be direc-
keywords climate change, Holocene, paleoclimate, Paleoe- ted toward remote sensing. However, the frequency of these
cology, carbon dioxide, pollen, climate, and temperature) keywords with Chinese characteristics remained low (10
were of further concern. Isotopes continued to be an times; Tibetan Plateau, Loess Plateau, South China Sea,
important proxy (stable isotope), and research on biodiver- human activities, and Qaidam Basin). This indicates that
sity and its geographical distribution became more important foreign researchers rarely touched upon regional research
(biodiversity, biogeography). Research on land use became a inside China. However, there was also the problem of dif-
popular topic (land use). Remote sensing and simulations ferent English terminology for the same region. For exam-
(remote sensing, modelling) and Antarctica were still fre- ple, Chinese authors preferred to use the keywords “Tibetan
quent research topics. Judged by growth rates of the top 15 Plateau” or “Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau”, which
keywords used by Chinese authors, all 15 increased, among emphasise the part within China, while foreign authors
which paleoclimate, biogeography, and stable isotope preferred to use the “Hindu Kush-Himalayan region”, which
increased slightly faster. An obvious change during this emphasized regions within Nepal, India, and Pakistan.
period was that six of the top 15 keywords used by Chinese Statistics suggest the number of papers using “Himalaya” as
authors overlapped those used by foreign colleagues, indi- a keyword for research by foreign authors was 1–1.5 times
cating that the Chinese researchers were paying more that using “Tibetan Plateau,” indicating that this region
attention to popular international topics. Overall, the top 15 attracted similar attention both locally and abroad.
keywords used in papers published by Chinese authors had
the following aspects: regional issues within China (China,
Tibetan Plateau, Loess Plateau, South China Sea, and 4.2.3 Period of 2001–2005
Qaidam Basin), Quaternary paleoclimate and paleoecology
(Quaternary, climate change, Holocene, temperature, pale- Figure 4.11 shows research topics in the SCI/SSCI main-
oclimate, pollen, loess, and late Holocene). These keywords stream journals during the period 2001–2005. This was
62 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.11 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 2001–2005

another period of popular research focused on global change. change included late glacial, monsoon, sea ice, and Tibetan
Compared with the previous 5 years, the top five keywords Plateau, revealing that research on climate change in China
were identical, and there were only slight changes in key- began to occupy an important position in global change
word order from fifth through ninth. “China” as a keyword research. The keyword climate was clustered with Holocene,
increased its frequency ranking from No. 161 in 1996–2000 late glacial, the Quaternary, and sediment, with no signifi-
to No. 11 in this period. Keywords clustered with climate cant changes over the previous period. Model was clustered
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 63

with forest, environment, vortex, carbon dioxide, energy, Index (NDVI), representing vegetation growth, and became
and Europe, suggesting that modelling during the period was keyword nodes with high centrality. Second, the keyword
focused on simulations of vegetation carbon sequestration permafrost had an emergence in 2001 together with roadbed
processes. Such research was widespread in Europe. and surface temperature, indicating that climate change and
Figure 4.12 shows popular research topics in core Chinese its impact on the permafrost zone and engineering construc-
journals over 2001–2005. Major topics developed further on tion on the Tibetan Plateau became major research topics.
the basis of the previous period (1996–2000), entering a Third, there was increasing co-occurrence of research topics
period of physicogeographical-process research centred on temperature and precipitation, focusing on their impacts on
global change. (1) A mutual combination pattern formed biodiversity, soil temperature, seed germination, crop growth,
among research on global change, paleoenvironmental and soil microbiotic crusts. Finally, paleoenvironmental
reconstruction, the Tibetan Plateau and Loess Plateau, research centred more on short timescales. The appearance of
and modern global change research increased. The keyword last glacial maximum (LGM) occurred in 2001, and key-
climate change appeared in 2001 in the co-occurrence net- words last interglacial and the Holocene megathermal had
work of keywords. First, the keywords atmospheric circu- high centrality. Research objects concentrated on loess-pa-
lation and interdecadal variation in climate change research leosol, paleosol, and stalagmite, and research results
were closely linked to the Normalized Difference Vegetation involving Dasuopu ice core emerged. (2) Water resource

Fig. 4.12 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 2001–2005
64 4 Physical Geography

research began to be combined with that on landscape pat- tide and nutrients in 2001 and 2003 in the co-occurrence
terns. The keyword landscape pattern appeared in 2003. networks of keywords. (5) Research works on natural haz-
Other keywords like ecosystem, water saving, cyclic econ- ards decreased and mainly focused on sandstorms and debris
omy, and ecological footprint co-occurred with water flow during the period. There was also the appearance of
resource, indicating that water resource research began to be agricultural drought in 2002. Research on Taihu Lake con-
associated with ecology and the economy. With the occur- tinued the topics of water environment, hydraulics, and
rence of water pollution in 2003, the concept of water aquatic ecosystems.
resources expanded from water quantity to water quality. Figure 4.13 compares popular keywords in SCI/SSCI
(3) Research on land use merged with LUCC. In addition to journals between Chinese authors and others during the per-
the influences of desertification, research focused on the iod 2001–2005 (the diagram description see the note of
effects of hydrology and water resources resulting from Fig. 4.7). There was a significant increase in both journals and
LUCC, such as topics of soil erosion, soil water, groundwa- articles. Total keyword frequency and the top 15 keywords
ter, irrigation drainage, and solute transport. In addition, the selected by Chinese authors also increased. The top 15 key-
keyword Heihe River Basin appeared in 2001, and related words all had word frequencies greater than 123, and the top
research focused on the impact of oasis land use on ground- two Holocene and climate change reached 467 and 458 times.
water, aboveground biomass and agricultural ecosystems. Compared with the previous period, major research topics had
This research was strongly promoted by the Major Research some new features. Research on climate change, especially
Plan (MRP) of Environmental and Ecological Research in paleoclimate and paleoecology, increased further to become
Western China, launched by NSFC in 2000. (4) Research into the most popular topics (indicated by keywords like Holocene,
ecological processes significantly strengthened. Keywords climate change, paleoclimate, pollen, paleoecology, climate,
such as community structure, distribution pattern, vegetation diatom, and carbon dioxide). Of the environmental change
cover, diversity, and ecological niche became nodes with proxies, diatom appeared for the first time, as did pollen in the
high centrality. There were appearances of the keywords red previous period. Holocene became the most popular keyword.

Fig. 4.13 Comparative diagram

of prominent keywords by
Chinese authors and others in
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of
physical geography during the
period 2001–2005
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 65

Research in biodiversity, especially those at species level, 4.2.4 Period of 2006–2010

became a prominent topic (indicated by keywords such as
biodiversity, biogeography, and species richness). Research Figure 4.14 shows research topics in the SCI/SSCI main-
into land use by remote sensing received additional attention stream journals during 2006–2010. During this period,
(remote sensing, and land use). Five keywords in articles physical geography research was dominated by global
published by Chinese authors were the same as those by for- change, focusing on physicographical processes and
eign authors, four of which focused on paleoclimate and dynamic comprehensive research. (1) Climate change
paleoenvironment and the other on land use. This indicates a remained the most frequent keyword. Compared with the
rapid catch-up of Chinese researchers with international previous period, Holocene gave way to climate, which
research on land use. Overall, research on scientific issues became the second most frequent. China rose to fifth place.
within China was still a priority, as the frequency of China was Climate change, climate, and Holocene were clustered in
67 as used by Chinese authors, accounting for 63.8 % of the one group. Other keywords within this group included pol-
total frequency of keywords used by all authors. China’s len, high mountains, and oceans, indicating that the role of
regional issues were also a priority, such as research on per- oceans in the mechanism of climate change received atten-
mafrost (25.9 % of the total frequency). The Yellow River was tion. (2) Research themes in physicogeographical pro-
added to regional research (South China Sea, Loess Plateau, cesses focused on three aspects. The first was climate change
Yellow River, and Tibetan Plateau). Research into paleocli- processes and their ecological responses, including paleo-
mate and paleoenvironment continued to track the major climate reconstruction and climate change trends, as well as
international issues (climate change, Holocene, and paleo- responses of water, soil, and vegetation to climate change.
climate), prominently represented by precipitation research. The second was ecosystem dynamics, especially for forest
Attention was also given to the impacts of human activity and and grassland ecosystems. The third was geobotany and
climate change on the earth surface. Remote sensing and GIS landscape ecology, with emphasis on vegetation productivity
remained powerful tools in regional research. In short, key- and land-use change. (3) Major features of research during
words used by Chinese authors indicated growing attention to the period were the emergence of keywords model and
the country’s cold and arid regions and a global perspective on simulation, and a focus on interactions between global
regional issues. change and earth surface systems, covered by keywords like

Fig. 4.14 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 2006–2010
66 4 Physical Geography

climate change impact, adaptation, vulnerability, and re- change. Antarctica became a central node of keywords,
silience. Such features show that attention was directed at the indicating that it was an important research area for envi-
impacts of global change on human society and societal ronmental change. Pollen became a key proxy for investi-
adaptation to climate change. Simulating the characteristics gation into paleoenvironmental change, and the ecology of
of global change with models and predicting possible future modern surface pollen enabled more quantitative research,
climate trends became essential content for research into that with improved accuracy in the reconstruction of paleocli-
change. (4) Regional research centred on China rapidly mate using paleovegetation. Simultaneously, reconstructions
increased with more than three focus regions, excepting of paleotemperature and paleoprecipitaiton using lake sedi-
North America, Europe, and Oceania. ments were strengthened. The keyword ice core appeared in
Figure 4.15 shows the dominant research topics in the 2006 in the co-occurrence network of keywords and research
core Chinese journals over 2006–2010. It can be seen that results centred on East Rongbuk ice core materialised in
research on global change had greatly facilitated the devel- 2009. Second, keywords reflecting the impact of climate
opment of physical geography based on the previous period change on glacial and water resources became nodes, with
(2001–2005). A greater number of studies focused on the high centrality in research on the impacts of climate change
impacts of global change. (1) Research on climate change on glaciation, such as glacier, glaciation, glacial variation,
and paleoenvironment continued the previous mutual glacial retreat, glacial landform, glacial runoff, and glacial
combination and there was a significant enhancement of meltwater. The most studied glaciers were mountainous
interest in impacts of climate change on the ecosystem and ones, including the No. 1 glacier at the Urumqi River head,
human activities. First, the Holocene remained the dominant Tianshan, Miaoergou flat-topped glacier, Qiyi glacier, and
period of research into paleoclimate and environmental Zhadang glacier. Third, western China became a popular

Fig. 4.15 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 2006–2010
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 67

research target for global change. In addition to climatic use. Important study regions included Shenzhen, the
characteristics of temperature and precipitation variation, Yangtze River Delta, Dongting Lake, Northern China,
researchers paid more attention to ecosystem variation dri- Shiyang River drainage, karst regions, and international
ven by climate change and human activity. As an important rivers. (5) Natural hazards again received substantial
embodiment of human activity, land use gained much attention in 2006–2010. Natural hazards, agricultural haz-
attention. Keywords such as Qinghai-Tibet railway and ards, and risk management were popular keywords in 2006.
vegetation recovery had an emergence in 2006, and cold Wenchuan Earthquake and Sichuan Basin were frequent
region, arid region, agro-pastoral transition zone, per- keywords. (6) Research into lake water environments,
mafrost degradation, community characteristics, desert hydrodynamics and aquatic ecology expanded. Cyanobac-
plant, hydrologic process, carbon cycle, soil respiration, teria emerged in 2008 with high centrality. Research on
grassland ecosystem, and agricultural ecosystem all became eutrophication was not limited to Taihu Lake but extended
critical nodes. (2) Research into ecological processes con- to Dianchi, Fuxian, and Wuli lakes. Nutrients, vertical dis-
tinuously strengthened and combined with hydrologic pro- tribution, biomass, phytoplankton, species composition, and
cesses. First, keywords in this field such as biodiversity, temporal-spatial characteristics were all important key-
spatial variation, and plant community all became keyword words. Phosphorus appeared in the co-occurrence network
nodes with high centrality, with one appearance of the of keywords in 2006.
keyword plant functional group in 2008. Second, ecosys- Figure 4.16 shows a comparison of prominent keywords
tems in arid and semiarid regions became a focus. Nodes of in SCI/SSCI journals used by Chinese authors and others
keywords with high centrality included Tengger Desert, during the period 2006–2010 (the diagram description see
biological soil crusts, Artemisia ordosica, and typical the note of Fig. 4.7). Compared with 2001–2005, this period
grassland. Third, research on ecosystems addressed not had some new traits of keywords with high frequency.
only natural but also artificial ones, and the interference of Global change became the most popular research topic and
human activity on ecosystems. For example, keywords ar- climate change research continued to focus on paleoclimate
tificial vegetation, enclosure, and ecological water delivery and paleoecology (indicated by keywords such as Holocene,
had high frequencies. Finally, research into soil moisture in paleoclimate, climate, paleoecology, and pollen), and began
ecohydrology greatly increased, driven by the Major to address changes to its elements and its impact on
Research Plan (MRP) of Environmental and Ecological ecosystems (precipitation, temperature, and eddy covari-
Research in Western China launched by NSFC in 2000. ance). Biodiversity and biogeography received consistent
Because soil is an important link between ecological and attention, and the frequency of biodiversity jumped to third
hydrologic processes, research on soil moisture revealed place. There was also enduring consideration of geographi-
greater involvement in ecohydrology, especially for arid and cal data collection, analysis and simulation (remote sensing,
semiarid regions. During 2006–2010, soil water, green stable isotope, and modelling). Investigation of land use
water, and evapotranspiration were all keyword nodes with maintained the same level as in 2001–2005. Of the top 15
high centrality, and SWAT model appeared in 2008. At the keywords used by Chinese authors, seven were the same as
same time, Heihe River Basin, Tarim River Basin, isotope, those used by foreign authors (climate change, remote
water cycle, and distributed hydrological model became sensing, Holocene, precipitation, temperature, land use, and
important keyword nodes, demonstrating significant pro- eddy covariance). Most of these were related to global
gress in the study of ecohydrology in inland river drainages change, indicating that geographical research in China had
of arid regions. (3) The themes of LUCC combined with caught up with the international research pace. Eddy
ecological processes, ecological conservation, and water covariance, precipitation, temperature, evaporation, and
resource allocation. Spatial heterogeneity, ecological water soil organic carbon all appeared simultaneously in the top
demand, groundwater, and habitat became nodes with high 15 popular keywords of Chinese authors, indicating exten-
centrality. Various topics were involved in research on land sive observations and research of the carbon cycle in Chi-
use. As one of the three major aspects of global change, land nese ecosystems. In addition, there was emergence of a focus
use together with climate change were subjects of studies on on the water cycle under global change and ecological
the water cycle, water resources, and ecosystems. processes in soil. Keywords related to this topic made up
(4) Research on water resources increased regarding the 13.7 % of all keywords used by both Chinese and foreign
utilisation, management, evaluation, and capacity of water authors. Research into local issues was still a centre of
resources, and regarding water quality and international attention, with China the most frequent keyword, accounting
water disputes under the impacts of urbanisation and land for 69.2 % of total keyword frequency. Research using the
68 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.16 Comparative diagram

of prominent keywords by
Chinese authors and others in
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of
physical geography during the
period 2006–2010

keyword permafrost by Chinese researchers made up 1/3 of clustered with climate, vegetation, trees, carbon flux,
all the research, a small increase over the 25.9 % during the uncertainty, and sensitivity, indicating that global change
previous period. This suggests a continuing focus on per- research focused on the accuracy of measurement of carbon
mafrost by Chinese researchers. Tibetan Plateau, Loess flux in the global carbon cycle. Research on China was
Plateau, and South China Sea were popular research target clustered with ice core, lithological records of climatic
regions, with a proportion of 70 % of keywords used. This events, and radiocarbon dating, showing that paleoenviron-
indicates that attention to Chinese regions by foreign mental research in the country was still an important aspect
researchers and the extent of foreign cooperation had not of global change. The ranking of temperature rose to eighth
improved. However, Tibetan Plateau was cited a total of 61 place, from 15th in 2006–2010. Being clustered with pre-
times by Chinese and foreign authors, 10 times that during cipitation, continent, carbon cycle, and fir, temperature had
1996–2000, and foreign authors mentioned it 22 times, a high co-occurrence with desert, NDVI, and productivity.
factor of 22 increase over that during 1996–2000. This pattern reveals a strong increase in research into the
responses of precipitation, vegetation productivity, and car-
bon cycle to temperature change.
4.2.5 Period of 2011–2015 Figure 4.18 shows dominant research topics in the core
Chinese journals over 2011–2015. During this period, global
Figure 4.17 shows research topics in the SCI/SSCI main- change led studies in physical geography in China, con-
stream journals during the period 2011–2015. This remained centrating on physicogeographical processes and compre-
a period when research topics centred on geographical pro- hensive dynamics. (1) Research into impacts of global
cesses and comprehensive dynamics under global change. change took a prominent position. First, greater attention
As the most popular keyword, from 2011 global change led was given to paleofloods, slack water deposits, solar activity,
research in physical geography. The top 10 most frequent atmospheric circulation, cold climate events in paleoclimate,
keywords were similar to those in 2006–2010, but China and environmental change research. Qing Dynasty became a
rose to second place, before climate. Global change was frequent keyword. Second, the impact of global change on
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 69

Fig. 4.17 Co-occurrence network of keywords in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 2011–2015

the water cycle and water resources became a major theme climatic, hydrologic, and economic elements, and investi-
of research in physical geography, with the appearance of gation of ecohydrological processes in arid areas increased
runoff in 2011 in co-occurrence network of keywords. unprecedentedly. First, the impacts of temperature, precip-
Supported by the National Global Change Major Research itation, and soil-water and groundwater fluctuations on
Project sponsored by the MOST and various NSFC projects, habitat selection, drought resistance, and adaptation to salt
research on glaciers and permafrost became major research stress of typical species in temperate deserts under global
objectives in global change. Accordingly, glacier and warming were prominent academic topics. Second, inland
hydrologic processes in permafrost also become core pro- river drainages within arid regions, such as the Heihe, Tarim,
cesses in studies of the water cycle and variations of water and Shiyang river basins, and keywords related to ecohy-
resources in inland river drainages. Third, there was further drological processes in arid regions, such as evapotranspi-
overlap in the themes of temperature and precipitation, and ration, potential evapotranspiration, groundwater, and
attention was focused on extreme weather and hydrological response, all became important keyword nodes
agro-meteorological disasters, as reflected by the emergence driven by the MRP of Integrated Research on the
of agroclimatic resources and risk assessment in 2011. Eco-Hydrological Process in Heihe Basin, which was laun-
(2) Research into ecosystems was further combined with ched by NSFC in 2009. (3) Ecological effects of land use
70 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.18 Co-occurrence network of keywords in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 2011–2015

and LUCC became an important theme, with more com- efficiency. In addition, keywords such as water resource use
prehensive research associated with management, ecology, efficiency, south-to-north water diversion, water resource
and planning. Ecological effects mainly had two aspects. supply-demand system, water right transaction, salty water
One was the effect on hydrology and the other was the effect irrigation, and water resource allocation increasingly
on biodiversity. Land use, farmland resource, land man- appeared in papers. (6) Research on natural hazards
agement, and land control planning were keywords with declined compared with that of the previous 5 years, but
high centrality. (4) Research on lake and wetland ecosys- vulnerability analysis, risk assessment, disaster prevention
tems increased further. The key objects were Poyang, Taihu, and reduction, and emergency management continued to
and Dongting lakes, and studies of the lake water environ- have high centrality. The major hazards addressed during the
ment centred on biomass, lake level, water quality, and period were debris flow and earthquakes, with appearance of
cyanobacteria bloom. Three Gorges Reservoir appeared as a the keyword Lushan earthquake in 2013.
critical keyword node, with increased papers using it as a Figure 4.19 compares major issue keywords in SCI/SSCI
keyword. (5) Research into water resource research was journals used by Chinese authors and others during the
refined and became increasingly combined with engineering, period 2011–2015 (the diagram description see the note of
management, and ecological issues. This was reflected by Fig. 4.7). The average frequency of the top 15 keywords
frequent keywords such as water footprint, water resource used by the former authors was 59, 1.6 times that of the
utilisation, water quality, water resource capacity, virtual previous period. The top 15 keywords used by foreign
water, water resource management, reservoir, and water use authors all had a frequency in excess of 148. The most
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 71

Fig. 4.19 Comparative diagram

of prominent keywords by
Chinese authors and others in
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of
physical geography during the
period 2011–2015

frequent keywords were climate change and Holocene, with outside China, an additional characteristic of domestic
frequencies 1241 and 473, respectively, much higher than research was a concern for hazards. In addition to drought,
those of the remaining 13 keywords. Twelve of the 15 key- four of the top 15 keywords were hazard-related, such as
words had already appeared in the previous 5-year period, debris flow, landslide, and Wenchuan earthquake. The key-
showing little change in frequency. Only the frequency of word debris flow constituted 48.1 % of the total frequency.
climate change increased, by 35.8 %. Newly emerging The proportions of landslide and Wenchuan earthquake were
frequent keywords included drought, land-use change, and 23.7 and 93.5 %, respectively. This indicates that geologic
ecosystem service. This suggests that global change research disasters and their effects in southwestern China were
had shifted from climate change facts to ecosystem services, momentous, becoming critical issues in Chinese physical
disastrous weather, and agriculture and crop production under geography research. Other prominent topics in China inclu-
the influences of climate change and human activity. Such a ded land use and urbanisation. The frequency proportion of
shift of research theme is closely related to human survival, land use increased 8 % over the previous period. Urbanisa-
especially for people in developing countries. Seven of the top tion was a new keyword that made up 43.5 % of the total
15 frequently used keywords by Chinese authors were the frequency of international keywords. The Tibetan and Loess
same as those used by foreign authors (these were climate plateaus remained major research regions in China.
change, precipitation, Holocene, remote sensing, land use,
temperature, and drought). The proportions of keyword
frequency to total frequency all increased. Climate change 4.2.6 Analysis of Driving Factors
increased by 3.1 %, precipitation by 11.9 % (accounting for for Disciplinary Development
26.2 % of total research), Holocene by 3.3 %, and tempera- over the Past 30 Years
ture by 9.7 % (20.2 % of total research). This pattern indi-
cated that research into physical geography in China not only The previously analysed evolution of research themes based
continued to focus on climate change facts as in the previous on the mainstream SCI/SSCI physical geography journals is
period following the international trend, but also began to consistent with the development of global change research. In
focus on the new popular topic drought, reflected by a research during 1986–1995, traces of earlier international
frequency proportion of 14.5 %. Compared with research research projects could be followed. For example, the
72 4 Physical Geography

International Biosphere Program (IBP) of 1964–1974 and century, China has implemented several large projects on
subsequent Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) beginning global change. These have been fully represented by research
in 1975 were reflected in later research by the major topics of into Chinese regional physical geography, especially in the
forest and desert ecosystems and nature conservation. Key- last decade. Research on regional characteristics like the Asian
words Diversity and Biogeography began to appear sporadi- monsoon, Loess Plateau, and Tibetan Plateau has made China
cally in 1988 and 1990, and have significantly increased since outstanding in the regional physicogeographical field. Inter-
1991. This indicates that research development in biodiversity disciplinary research has also promoted the development of
and biogeography may be related to establishment of the physical geography. As a product of the combination of
International Programme on Biodiversity Science, DIVER- geography and ecology, landscape ecology has developed
SITAS. The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme vigorously since 1970 and has become a widespread research
(IGBP) initiated by the International Council of Scientific topic since the late 1980s. The depiction of patterns and pro-
Unions has directly promoted overall development of physical cesses has fully brought the advantages of geography and
geography in China during the past 30 years. Because this ecology into full play, which is also the reason why they have
project examines the life-supporting earth system environ- always been important keywords in physical geography.
ment, interactions between different system elements, and Recent research on ecosystem services has combined physical
changes in the system and impacts of human activity, it has processes and sustainability, further enhancing the value of the
facilitated research into physicogeographical processes, discipline of geography and ecology.
interactions between different spheres, and human-land rela- Research topics reflected in the CSCD journals are clo-
tionships. One of the core plans in the IGBP is Past Global sely related to the regional response of global change in the
Changes (PAGES), established in 1991, which has promoted country, and coincide with the traditional research direction
the study of environmental change in physical geography. The of Chinese physical geography. With regard to the afore-
late Quaternary, last glacial maximum, and Holocene are all mentioned response, impacts on water resources and natural
focus periods proposed by PAGES. As a result, Holocene and hazards are the most important topics in China, followed by
pollen have significantly increased in international papers on land use and biodiversity. The above three topics are all
physical geography since 1991. Promoted by the project traditional research directions in the country. Therefore,
Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystem (GCTE) in 1995, these topics have become the most common themes in the
research on land-use and land-cover change (LUCC), which past 30 years, steered by global change in Chinese physical
investigates changes of earth surface pattern, has been greatly geography. The lack of focus on the carbon cycle, temper-
enhanced. Land has become a critical keyword since 1996, ature and precipitation in Chinese papers is largely related to
being one of the 25 most frequent keywords during 1996– a long-term fine division of disciplines in the country.
2005. Research in LUCC emphasises the close relationship Taking the carbon cycle as an example, geographers focus
with ecological processes and increases attention to human on simulations at large scales, whereas carbon emissions by
factors. The Global Land Project emerged from the GCTE, ecosystems are more often investigated by ecologists or
and LUCC study has further facilitated physicogeographical pedologists. Although temperature and precipitation were
research to have a more comprehensive direction. Modelling traditional research topics in physical geography, Chinese
as emphasised by the IGBP has always been one of the top five geographers examined regional characteristics of tempera-
keywords in physical geography. Climate and climate change ture and precipitation, and their relationships to droughts and
have been the top three keywords since 1991, being closely floods. In addition, international issues of climate variability
related to guidance from the Intergovernmental Panel on were mainly studied by atmospheric scientists in China.
Climate Change (IPCC), beginning in 1988. As affected by Moreover, many regional keywords in Chinese papers not
IPCC reports, the focus of global change research has shifted only signify that the regions have clear-cut physicogeo-
from an initial focus on global warming, greenhouse effects graphical traits, but that they are also typical regions for
and atmospheric composition change to the recent focus on global change research. For example, research centred on the
earth surface processes, especially the response and adaptation Tibetan Plateau, including climate, ecosystems, glacial
of human society to climate change. The steering role of the change, and permafrost and lakes, have fully reflected the
IPCC in global change research has been reflected in papers importance of the cryosphere in global change. Research on
about global change problems, with discussion by interna- the Tibetan Plateau is closely related to the Holocene envi-
tional physical geographers. Since the beginning of the present ronmental changes as reflected by keywords, indicating the
4.2 Change of Research Topics in Various Periods 73

importance of earth surface processes in interpreting pale- 4.3.1 Numbers and Proportions of NSFC
oenvironmental change. Another example is research into Applications and Funded Projects
Taihu and Poyang lakes, with a focus on eutrophication. for Physical Geography
Research on the Loess Plateau has focused on soil erosion
and ecosystem services. Research on arid and semiarid In the past 30 years, both the number of applications sub-
regions included hydrologic processes, such as runoff, soil mitted to and those funded by NSFC in physical geography
water and groundwater, natural hazards represented by had been increasing, although the 5-year rate of increase had
sandstorms, and ecosystems represented by wetlands and tended to slow (Fig. 4.20). The proportions of applications/
biodiversity. Keywords representing arid and semiarid funded projects in physical geography to the total in geo-
regions such as Mu Us Sandland, Badan Jilin Desert, and graphical sciences had been decreasing. For example, the
Heihe River Basin indicate that there has been much physical application proportion decreased from an initial 50 % to less
geography research in these regions. than 30 % in the last 5 years. Similarly, the proportion of
approved applications decreased from more than 50 % in
1991–1995 to less than one third in those 5 years. These data
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research suggest that research teams in physical geography in China
Teams in China had gradually lost their dominant position in geographical
sciences, becoming similar to those in other branches of those
This section analyses the disciplinary development trend sciences. The reason for large proportions of projects funded
based mainly on the following. (1) The proportions of by NSFC to applications submitted in physical geography is
applications and funded projects in physical geography to tied to the concept of disciplinary development and manage-
total number of those in the NSFC Geographical Sciences; ment measures by NSFC. As the core branch of geographical
(2) number of applications and funded projects in different sciences, physical geography is most closely related to geol-
branches of physical geography; and (3) characteristics of ogy, atmospheric science, and marine science. To guarantee
themes chosen by researchers in NSFC-funded projects. The the opportunity for physical geography to develop syn-
conditions of teams in research institutions in China were also chronously with other branches of earth science, the Division
analysed. We determined (1) the number of institutions with of Geography in the Department of Earth Science of NSFC
research in physical geography; (2) the number of publica- gave preference to physical geography when determining the
tions in SCI/SSCI journals per researcher in these institutions; proportion of projects funded, resulting in the higher propor-
(3) collaborative networks of Chinese authors with publica- tions of projects funded to applications submitted.
tions in SCI/SSCI or CSCD journals; and (4) institutions with The proportions of applications in each branch of phys-
which the highly cited SCI/SSCI-indexed articles were ical geography and their variations during the period 1986–
affiliated and situations of NSFC-funded projects in these 2015 are listed in Fig. 4.21. Applications counted included
institutions. those applying for the General Programme (GP), Young

Fig. 4.20 Proportions of NSFC 7000 60%

projects for physical geography
during the period 1986–2015. 51.2%
Note Non-funded proposals from 6000 48.6% 5754
50%
1986 to 1997 were not recorded
in the NSFC database. Therefore, 44.6%
48.9%
number of applications and 5000
Proportion of Projects

44.6%
Number of Projects

NSFC-funded projects are 40%

35.9%
identical from 1986 to 1995, as Number of Applications for Physical
shown in the figure 4000 Geography 37.9% 32.3%

Number of Funded Projects for Physical 30%

Geography 30.7%
3000 27.4%
Applications as a Share of Geographical
3274
Sciences Applications
20%
2000 Funded Projects as a Share of Funded 1851
1725
Projects in the Georaphical Sciences

901 10%
1000 736
509
151 151 208 208 229
0 0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015
74 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.21 Proportions of NSFC 100% 4.1% 4.0% 5.0%

applications of branches of 2.0% 9.9% 7.7% 5.1%
6.7%
90% 7.9%
physical geography during the 14.2% 9.1%
8.3%
period 1986–2015. Note 9.8% Applied Climatology
80%
23.2% 9.4%

Proportion of Applications
Non-funded proposals from 1986 24.6%
16.7% 10.1% Landscape Geography
to 1997 were not recorded in the 70%
23.6% 13.0%
NSFC database. Therefore, the 9.8% Biogeography
60%
proportion of applications shown 18.8%
24.6%
in the figure is the proportion of 50% 24.1% 17.2% 14.0% Cryosphere Geography
funded projects during the period 24.3%
40% Geomorphology
13.0% 19.1% 19.0%
15.2% 18.9%
30% Environmental Change and
12.2% Prediction
20% Hydrology
27.8% 26.1% 24.3%
10% 23.6% 23.2%
18.9% Integrated Physical
Geography
0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015

Scientists Fund (YSF) and the Fund for Less Developed geography in China are relatively small in number compared
Regions (LDR Fund). Results show that the proportion of with those in other branches of physical geography.
applications to total applications in physical geography in
“Geomorphology” and “Environmental Change and Pre-
diction” had decreased drastically since 2000, while the 4.3.2 Objects of Studies in NSFC-Funded
proportions in “Biogeography,” “Landscape Geography” Projects
and “Hydrology” had all increased. The proportion of
applications in geomorphology decreased from almost a During the period 1986–2015, NSFC Geographical Sciences
quarter in the first 5 years to less than 10 % in the last supported 547 projects with 390,162 thousand yuan for the
5 years. Analyses of the titles and keywords of applications study of 153 rivers nationwide (Fig. 4.22). Of these rivers, a
in 1986–2015 suggest a decrease in number within pale- third are third-order and fourth-order rivers, a quarter are
oenvironment and an increase within modern physicogeo- second-order, 8.5 % are fifth-order, 1.3 % are first-order and
graphical processes and patterns. In addition to the sharp sixth-order, and 0.7 % are seventh-order rivers. These rivers
reduction of applications within “Environmental Change and are all over the country and are classified into six levels per
Prediction,” proposals with research contents of modern the number of NSFC-supported projects (these levels are
environmental processes indicated by paleoenvironmental designated by six colours in Fig. 4.22. Rivers in red indicate
proxies increased rapidly. At the same time, over the past that most research projects for these rivers were supported
5 years the proportion of applications in biogeography had by NSFC. (1) Rivers with the most research projects
increased to nearly 10 % and that of hydrology to 19 %. supported were the Heihe, Yellow, Tarim, and Yangtze.
Keywords describing earth surface ecological and physical Ninety-one projects and 40,256 thousand yuan were
processes in applications emerged in large numbers, such as assigned to the Yellow River for research in geomorphol-
hydrological model, isotope hydrology, water cycle, evapo- ogy, hydrology, biogeography, and landscape ecology.
transpiration, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and soil Associated research topics were river landform evolution,
carbon cycle, and their frequencies and increase rates were silt source, and transport, water level fluctuation,
among the largest. There is a wide range of application flood-drought hazards and their risks, alpine wetlands, and
topics under integrated geography. The proportion of water conservation, ecosystem services, biodiversity in delta
applications in that area was as large as 28 % in 1996–2005 wetland, sea water invasion, adaptation to climate change,
but decreased to *24 % in the last 5 years. The 2008 and vulnerabilities. Eighty-six projects were funded 148,274
adjustment of environmental effects of human activities in thousand yuan for the Heihe River, and 41 projects received
integrated geography to environmental geography might 23,416 thousand yuan for the Tarim River. Those two are
have somewhat reduced the number of applications in inte- the most important inland rivers in the arid region of China.
grated geography. Applications involved were those study- Research topics on the two river drainages included ice and
ing ecological recovery and environmental effects of major snow in inland river basins in the arid region; permafrost
engineering construction. The proportion of applications in evolution and hydrology; water resource change; transfor-
cryosphere geography was once near 15 % (in 1986–1990), mation of surface water and groundwater and its ecological
but this continuously declined and stabilised at the present effects; biological mechanisms of water use and water
*10 %. This is because researchers in cryosphere consumption by plants at different scales; mechanisms of
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 75

Fig. 4.22 Distribution of rivers studied by NSFC-funded projects in geographical sciences during the period 1986–2015

ecological-hydrological interaction under typical vegetation Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, the Lancang, Yarlung Zangbo,
patterns; economy–ecology–water system evolution at basin and Minjiang, were supported by 32 projects and 10,215
scale; and eco-hydrological integrated models and decision thousand yuan for research on multiscale interactions of
support systems at basin scale. Thirty-nine projects were hydrologic processes between upper and lower reaches,
funded a total of 16,182 thousand yuan for research on the impacts of hydropower exploitation on river silt and aquatic
Yangtze River pertaining to the impacts of climate change life, and hydraulic effects under climate change and land use.
on runoff and the water cycle in the catchment; impacts of There was also research into glacier and permafrost pro-
land use and hydraulic engineering in the drainage basin on cesses, river geomorphology and river valley aeolian land-
hydrologic processes and water-sand variations; river–lake forms, and geologic hazards. Thirty-five projects and 15,541
relationships and water system evolution; natural hazards thousand yuan were allocated to the Shiyang, Laohugou,
and human–land relationships from the historical period; Shule, and Huangshui-Datong rivers in the arid regions of
estuary and coastal geomorphology; and biogeochemical the northwest. Research on the Laohugou River was mainly
cycles. Another heavily invested river was the Urumqi, with about monitoring and simulation of mass balance of glaciers,
23 projects and 9355 thousand yuan. Studies on this river glacial climate, and hydrologic effects. Research into the
system were centred on melting and runoff change under Shule and Shiyang rivers included land use, reservoir con-
global warming (using isotope hydrology methods) and struction, groundwater change in arid oases, vegetation
hydrologic processes simulations. Research on the afore- population, function change in oasis-desert ecotones, grass-
mentioned five rivers accounted for 44 and 60.9 % of total land degradation and desertification, water use efficiency of
projects and funding, respectively, for research on all rivers drought-resistant plants, ecological-hydrological processes,
in China. (2) Rivers with more projects and funds were and ecological water demand, and water right systems and
mainly at the southeast edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan water resource management. The Huangshui-Datong River
Plateau, arid regions in northwestern China, and the is in the Qilan mountainous of the northeastern Tibetan
Loess Plateau. Three rivers in the southeast corner of the Plateau. Research there was centred on distribution change
76 4 Physical Geography

of permafrost and snow and fluvial deposition/erosion mainly climate change, lake water balance under land use
cycles. Twenty-one projects with 13,260 thousand yuan and hydrologic construction, water and sand change, aquatic
were put into research on the Manas, Akesu, Tailan, vegetation community structure, and river recharge and its
Hetian, and Gongnaisi rivers in Xinjiang, in the arid region relationship to lakes. Important new directions in recent
of northwestern China. Major themes were extreme climate years included isotope hydrology, lake evaporation and
events affected by both the monsoon and westerly circula- biodiversity of wetlands around lakes, and soil microor-
tions under global change, water resource change and suit- ganisms. Focal points varied by region. For example, mon-
able scales of oases, and mountain-oasis-desert systematic itoring research was done for Aibi, a terminal lake in the arid
evolution. Rivers on the Loess Plateau, including the Weihe, region, to observe oasis–desert interactions. The spatial
Jinghe, Yanhe, Kuye, and Fenhe rivers, were supported distribution of permafrost and simulation of its impact on
by 37 projects and 21,404 thousand yuan. Major themes permafrost hydrologic processes were studied for Zhaling
were land use/land cover change, landscape patterns, eco- Lake, the headwater of the Yellow River. In Taihu, a shallow
hydrological modelling, ecosystem services, flood and lake in an intensively urbanised area, research mainly
drought, water and sand change, and water conservation. involved lake hydrodynamics, observations, and simulations
Other topics included impacts of climate and tectonic of light intensity impacts on the ecosystem. (2) Of the 71
movement since the Holocene on fluvial landforms and river lakes, 26.8 % were researched for their water environment,
system evolution, and paleofloods. Projects and funds and these were mainly in eastern China and Yunnan Pro-
approved for the aforementioned 17 rivers represented 19.7 vince. This consumed about 26.8 % of the total funding for
and 15.5 % of the total number of projects and funding, lakes. Lake projects receiving funds of over 3000 thousand
respectively. Apart from these rivers, there was another 41 yuan included those for Taihu, Chaohu, Poyang, and Dia-
projects and 22,695 thousand yuan for the Hanjiang, nchi lakes. Other lakes, including Baiyangdian, Nansihu,
Haihe, Huaihe, Xiangxi, Minjiang, Xiangjiang and Tao- Dianshan, Yangzonghai, Aibi, Bosteng, and Fuxian, also
jiang rivers, constituting 6.4 and 5.8 % of the total number received substantial funding. Research topics were mainly
of projects and funding. These seven rivers are in the eutrophication, cyanobacteria bloom, nutrients cycling in the
monsoon region of eastern China. Research topics for these soil-water-sediment interface, pollutant transport and trans-
rivers were river system change, climate change and its formation, and environmental risk assessment. Nutrients
hydrologic effects, wetland processes and species invasion, target nitrogen and phosphorous. Pollutants included heavy
carbon and nitrogen cycles in wetland, environmental effects metal, persistent organic pollutants and endocrine disruptors,
of hydraulic construction, water pollution prevention and and soil microbial degradation. (3) Sixty-nine percent of the
remedies, and ecological restoration. 71 lakes were researched for paleoenvironment, and these
From 1986 to 2015, NSFC Geographical Sciences funded were mainly in western China, representing 24 % of total
261 projects with 151,092 thousand yuan for 71 lakes, for funds for lakes. Lakes funded at over 2000 thousand yuan
research in hydrology, water ecology, paleoenvironment, were only Qinghai and Namucuo. Greater funding for
and water environment (Fig. 4.23). Of these lakes, large paleoenvironmental research was also allocated to Cuo’e,
ones (with area >500 km2) accounted for 12.7 %. Those Kanas, Pumoyongcuo, Aibi, Bosteng, Hala, Tangra Yumco,
with area between 100 and 500 km2 made up 31 %; 28.2 % Luobupo, Poyang, and Sugan lakes. Research topics centred
had area 10–100 km2; 11.3 % had area 1–10 km2; 4.2 % on sedimentary processes since the Holocene, the sedimen-
had area <1 km2. Number of projects for each lake and the tary environment, climatic significance of environmental
research topics are shown in Fig. 4.23. Studied lakes were proxies, and lake–desert interactions. The pollen, varves,
mainly on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, in arid regions of the diatoms, phytoliths, halophilic algae, midges, radish snails,
northwest, middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, margarya mansuyi, carbonates, and clay minerals were all
Yunnan Province, and Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. used as environmental proxies for reconstruction of regional
(1) Forty-six and a half percent of the 71 lakes were studied paleovegetation and paleoenvironment.
in the field of hydrology and water ecology, consuming From 1986 to 2015, the NSFC Geographical Sciences
49.2 % of the total funding for lakes. Lake projects receiving supported 761 projects with 402,678 thousand yuan for
over 3000 thousand yuan funding were for Poyang, Taihu, mountain research. Except for 13 projects without a clear
Aibi, Yangzhuoyongcuo, Namucuo, Qinghai, Selincuo and statement of study region, the projects were in the northwest,
Dongting lakes. Relatively large funds were put into projects southwest, and Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 4.24). Major
for Xingkai, Bosteng, Baiyangdian, Ranwu, Chaohu, research topics included cryosphere geography, hydrology,
Longgan, Fuxian, and Dianchi lakes. Research topics were biogeography, and geomorphology. There was also
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 77

Fig. 4.23 Distribution of lakes studied by NSFC-funded projects in geographical sciences during the period 1986–2015

Fig. 4.24 Distribution of Risk and Natural Hazards

mountains studied by Geomorphology
300 Cryosphere Geography 270 Biogeography
NSFC-funded projects in Geomorphology Hydrology
Number of Projects

geographical sciences during the 250 Paleoenvironment Rural Geography

Biogeography
period 1986–2015 Paleoenvironment Tourism Geography Paleoenvironment Biogeography
200 Tourism Geography Hydrology 170
Remote Sensing
Biogeography Biogeography
150 Urban Geography 121
Geomorphology Paleoenvironment Geomorphology
100 Geomorphology Landscape Geography
Remote Sensing 54
38 34
50 19 20 22
0
North-east North China East China South China Central Multi-region Tibetan North-west South-west
China China Plateau China China

Top 5 Hydrology Paleoenvironment Biogeography Hydrology

Research Biogeography Biogeography Remote Sensing Cryosphere Geography
Paleoenvironment Hydrology Paleoenvironment Geomorphology
Fields
Geomorphology Geomorphology Cryosphere Geography Paleoenvironment
Ecological Restoration Ecological Restoration Tourism geography Biogeography

substantial research on paleoenvironment, remote sensing, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment of CAS,
natural hazards and risk assessment, ecological restoration, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research of CAS, Lanzhou
and tourism geography (Fig. 4.25). Six hundred and three University, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural
investigators from 159 research institutions or universities Resources Research of CAS, Peking University, Xinjiang
nationwide coordinated these mountainous projects sup- Institute of Ecology and Geography of CAS, Yunnan
ported by Geographical Sciences. Institutions receiving more University, Beijing Normal University, Northeast Normal
projects or funds included the Cold and Arid Regions University, Yunnan Normal University, Nanjing University,
Environmental and Engineering Research Institute of CAS, and Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology of CAS.
78 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.25 Research topics on Population Geography

Rural Geography
mountains studied by 2.0% Economic Geography
0.4%
0.2%
NSFC-funded projects of
geographical sciences during the Landscape Geography
2.5% Health and Medical
period 1986–2015 Geography Tourism Geography
0.1% 2.9%

Cryosphere Geography Hydrology Coupled Natural and

Soil Biology
15.6% 14.7% Human Systems
0.2%
0.7%
Land System
Geomorphology 2.6%
13.1% Fate, Process and Effects
Remote Sensing
6.9% of Environmental
Natural Resource Pollutants
Management 1.2%
0.6% Paleoenvironment Biogeography Social and Cultural
7.9% 13.6% Geography
0.9%
Urban Geography
Climate
Ecological Restoration 2.2%
2.2%
3.6%
Impact and Risk Regional Sustainable Soil Nutrient
Assessment of Natural Development 0.2%
Hazards 1.1%
4.5%

Research on mountains in northwestern China was largely the vertical distribution of population in mountainous areas.
supported in cryospheric hydrology, general glacial research, This research reflected characteristics of large scale or com-
biobotany, paleoenvironment, and geomorphology. Research pared various types of mountains.
on mountains in southwestern China was mostly funded in the
areas of natural hazards, biobotany, and tourism geography.
Principal support for research on mountains of the 4.3.3 Research Teams
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau was mainly for glaciers, but there
was also support for alpine tree lines and the response to Analyses of research teams mainly included the following
climate change of alpine evergreen shrubs and herbaceous aspects: (1) number of institutions applying for NSFC pro-
plants. Research on mountains in northeastern and northern jects in physical geography; (2) number of institutions
China was mainly sustained in the field of biobotany. publishing papers in SCI/SSCI or CSCD journals; (3) au-
Research on mountain hydrology constituted a large pro- thors and their collaborative networks; (4) average number
portion of mountain research, but the topic varied by region. of papers from institutions supported by NSFC physical
For example, in the southwest, ecohydrological observation geography and the top 5 institutions receiving the most funds
of forest micro-watersheds was the principal topic. In north- from that source; (5) the general situation of the highly cited
western China, cryosphere hydrologic processes and simu- papers in SCI/SSCI journals published by Chinese authors
lations of the upper reaches of inland rivers were important (top 50 Chinese papers and top 1000 international papers),
topics. Research on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau focused on and the top 10 institutions receiving the most NSFC funds.
climate–hydrology interactions. In northern China, there was In the figures of collaborative networks of Chinese authors
research into isotope hydrology of groundwater and ecohy- (in SCI/SSCI and CSCD journals, Figs. 4.27 and 4.28),
drology in rocky mountainous areas. In the northeast region, some author names are marked with abbreviations of their
the major topic was snow sublimation in the broadleaf Korean institutions in case of identical names (abbreviations and full
pine forest of the Changbai Mountains. Finally, cross-region names of institutions are listed in Appendix D).
research included mountainous plant species biodiversity, Figure 4.26 shows the number of institutions applying for
alpine tree line dynamics, comparative investigation of the NSFC physical geography funding and of institutions (all
vertical spectrum of alpine vegetation, comparison of pale- Chinese authors) with publications in SCI/SSCI mainstream
oenvironmental records of the eastern monsoon and western journals by 5-year interval from 1986 to 2015. The green
regions, tourism geography of scenic areas in famous line indicates the proportion of number of institutions with
mountains, remote sensing of mountain radiative transfer, and publications to all institutions applying for NSFC funds.
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 79

Fig. 4.26 Number of Chinese 900 80%

research institutions on physical Number of Institutions Applying for NSFC Funding
geography during the period 800 Number of Institutions with SCI/SSCI-indexed Papers 70%
1986–2015
67.5% 67.9%
700 Proportion of Institutions with SCI/SSCI-indexed
Papers among those Appling for NSFC Funding 60%

Proportion of Institutions
Number of Institutions
600 58.0%
50%
500
45.2% 40%
841
400
34.6% 30%
300 31.7%
567 563
20%
200
354
301
245 10%
100
165
135
88 99
52 60
0 0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015

Several characteristics are evident from the data shown in fields for papers in both SCI/SSCI and CSCD journals are
this figure. (1) Both the number of institutions applying for generally quite similar. Therefore, we introduce them toge-
NSFC funds and that of institutions with publications in ther. In the past 30 years, Chinese geographers were active
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals had been increasing, reveal- in six fields, i.e., cryosphere research, hydrology and water
ing that the number of institutions engaged in physical resources, biogeography and ecosystems, geomorphology
geography research in China was growing and that interna- and Quaternary environment, integrated geography and
tionalisation was gradually improving. (2) The proportion of landscape ecology, and natural hazards and their risks. It is
institutions with SCI/SSCI publications to those applying for also seen that core nodes of the author collaborative network
NSFC funds had increased from an initial 35–68 % over the are mainly important disciplinary leaders in institutions with
last 5 years, indicating that the overall research level of research characteristics. The main branch nodes are
institutions applying for NSFC funds had greatly risen. middle-aged and young academic key members. Interactions
(3) The number of institutions publishing papers in among branch disciplines in physical geography are obvi-
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals had exceeded that of the ous. The six major research fields in the author collaborative
institutions applying for NSFC funds, and the gap was network are introduced in the following sections.
widening. Several factors were responsible for such a situ-
ation. First, investigators in some institutions are performing Cryosphere Research
research that did not rely on NSFC funding. Second, some
institutions had only few scientists involved in basic Research in this field was usually carried out in cold regions,
research. Although such institutions were not qualified to like the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, and polar regions. (1) The
apply for NSFC projects, some of their investigators could author collaborative network was centred around the cold
cooperate with other qualified strong institutions to obtain environment, glacial hydrology and water resources on the
NSFC funds and published papers. Third, some researchers Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, ice core and paleoclimate research,
were conducting interdisciplinary research related to physi- snow/ice and atmospheric chemistry, polar glacial environ-
cal geography, but did not apply for NSFC projects in mental change and its relationship with climate. Major nodal
physical geography because of their academic backgrounds. authors were Yao Tandong and Kang Shichang in ITP and
They instead chose other disciplines when applying for Liu Shiyin (CAREERI). Other nodal authors included Qin
NSFC funding. Dahe, Ren Jiawen, Li Zhongqin, Ding Yongjian, and He
Figures 4.27 and 4.28 show the collaborative networks of Yuanqing (CAREERI), and Xu Baiqing (ITP). Related
Chinese authors who published papers in the SCI/SSCI papers had been published in the Journal of Glaciology,
mainstream journals and CSCD core journals of physical Quaternary International, Hydrological Processes, Journal
geography in 1986–2015 (see Appendix D for the names of of Mountain Science, Global and Planetary Change, and
institutions). Analyses on both networks suggest that the Journal of Geographical Sciences. (2) Another author
80 4 Physical Geography

Fig. 4.27 Collaborative network of Chinese authors in SCI/SSCI mainstream journals of physical geography during the period 1986–2015

collaborative network was centred around permafrost on the Hydrology and Water Resources
Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Research included frozen soil
The author collaborative network was composed of
mechanics, permafrost change under road construction,
researchers in areas of hydrology and climate, hydrology and
roadbed stability, and interactions between permafrost and
engineering, and hydrology and ecology. (1) A network
climate change. Major nodal authors were Cheng Guodong
formed around the water cycle, runoff generation and con-
and Lai Yuanming (CAREERI). Other authors of interna-
vergence, and impacts of climate change and human activity
tional papers were Ma Wei, Wu Qingbai (CAREERI) and
on the water cycle and water resources. Major nodal authors
Zhang Tingjun (LZU). Papers mainly appeared in Cold
were Liu Changming (IGSNRR) and Xu Zongxue (BNU).
Regions Science and Technology, Permafrost and Perigla-
Nodal authors also included Zhang Yongqiang and Fu
cial Processes, and Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research.
Guobin from Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
In addition, Cui Zhijiu (PKU) was an important cooperative
Research Organization (CSIRO) and IGSNRR, and Yu
node linking research into glaciers, permafrost, geomor-
Jingjie (IGSNRR). Major journals were Hydrological Pro-
phology, and the Quaternary environment.
cesses, Journal of Hydrology, Journal of Geographical
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 81

Fig. 4.28 Collaborative network of Chinese authors in CSCD journals of physical geography during the period 1986–2015

Science, and Water International. (2) A second network was The University of Oslo (UIO) and NIGLAS. Other authors
around hydrologic processes and simulation of hydrologic were Chen Yongqin David (CUHK), Chen Xiaohong
responses to land-surface change. Major authors were Yu (SYSU), Yang Tao (HHU), and Shao Quanxi
Zhongbo (HHU/University of Nevada) and Chen Xi (CSIRO/HHU). Papers were mainly in the Journal of
(HHU). Other nodal authors were Ren Liliang and Yong Hydrology, Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk
Bin (HHU). Papers were mainly published in the Journal of Assessment, Hydrological Processes, Theoretical and
Hydrologic Engineering, Hydrological Processes, Journal Applied Climatology, and Journal of Hydrologic Engineer-
of Hydrology, and Hydrology Research. (3) A third network ing. (5) A fifth network was around vegetation pattern pro-
was around hydrologic forecasting, flood prevention and cesses in the arid region and desert ecohydrological research.
disaster reduction, and water resource management and Major nodal authors were Chen Yaning (EGI) and Li
allocation methods. Major nodal authors were Huang Xinrong (CAREERI). Other nodal authors included Li
Guohe (NCEPU) and Xia Jun and Guo Shenglian (WHU). Weihong (EGI) and Wang Xinping (CAREERI). Related
Papers were in Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk papers were published in Hydrological Processes, Journal of
Assessment, Water Resource Management, Journal of Arid Environments, Arid Land Research and Management,
Hydrology, and Hydrological Processes. (4) A fourth net- and Ecohydrology. (6) A sixth network was around wetland
work formed around analysis of extreme meteorological and hydrology and ecology and ecological risk assessment.
hydrological values, extreme climate, mechanisms and pre- A major nodal author was Yang Zhifeng (BNU). Other
diction of extreme hydrologic events. Major nodal authors nodal authors included Cui Baoshan and Chen Bin (BNU).
were Zhang Qiang (SYSU/NIGLAS), V.P. Singh from Papers were principally in Ecological Modelling, Ecological
Texas A&M University (TAMU), and Xu Chongyu from Engineering, and Journal of Hydrology.
82 4 Physical Geography

Biogeography and Ecosystems Coastal and Shelf Science, and Holocene. (3) A third net-
work was eolian landforms, with a focus on mechanisms of
Research networks were mainly centred around carbon
dust release, impacts of eolian activities on the composition
storage in terrestrial ecosystems and its response to climate
of eolian deposits, and changes in topography. Major nodal
change, vegetation productivity, vegetation distribution and
authors were Dong Zhibao (CAREERI), and nodal authors
dynamic change, and plant biodiversity. (1) The first net-
included Qu Jianjun (CAREERI) and Wang Xunming
work formed around global change biogeography and
(CAREERI/IGSNRR). Papers were principally in Geomor-
ecology, including nodal authors Fang Jingyun and Piao
phology and Journal of Arid Environments. (4) A fourth
Shilong (PKU) and Yu Guirui (IGSNRR). Nodal authors
network of glacial and periglacial landforms formed around
also included Liu Hongyan (PKU) and Peng Changhui
research into glaciers on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and
(UQ/Northwest A&F University), Wu Ning (CIB), Sun
surrounding mountains. The major nodal author was Cui
Xiaomin (IGSNRR), and Zhou Guoyi and Ren Hai (SCIB).
Zhijiu (PKU). Nodal authors included Yi Chaolu (ITP) and
Papers were mainly published in Nature, PNAS, Global
Zhu Cheng (NJU). Papers were published in Quaternary
Change Biology, Agricultural and Forest Meteorology,
International, Permafrost and Periglacial Processes, Jour-
Biogeosciences, Global Ecology and Biogeography, Global
nal of Glaciology, Geomorphology, and Journal of Geo-
and Planetary Change, and Global Biogeochemical Cycles.
graphical Sciences.
(2) A second network formed around distributions of bio-
logical communities and their relationships to the environ-
ment, vegetation structure and function, and plant Integrated Geography and Landscape Ecology
biodiversity. Major nodal authors were Wu Jianguo (Ari- This network was mainly about landscape patterns and
zona State University), Ni Jian (IBCAS), An Shuqing processes, LUCC, and water resource and food security.
(NJU), and Huang Yao (IBCAS). Papers were in Landscape (1) The first network formed around landscape pattern and
Ecology, Ecological Engineering, Journal of Arid Environ- processes and ecosystem services in the Loess Plateau
ments, Ecological Modelling, and Ecological Research. region. Nodal authors were Fu Bojie and Chen Liding
(RCEES). Nodal authors included Liu Guohua and Lü
Geomorphology and Quaternary Environment Yihe from the same institute. Papers were mainly published
in Catena, Progress in physical geography, Hydrology and
Networks mainly formed around topics of fluvial, eolian,
Earth System Sciences, Ecological Research, and Journal of
glacial and periglacial landforms, plus Quaternary environ-
Hydrology. (2) There was a second network around LUCC,
mental changes. (1) The first network was around records of
which formed around Liu Jiyuan (IGSNRR) and Chen Xi
paleoenvironmental change (river terraces, lake sediments,
(EGI). Nodal authors included Zhang Zhao (BNU), Tao
pollen, tree rings and historical documents), spatiotemporal
Fulu (IGSNRR), Zhou Chenghu (IGSNRR), and Luo
evolution of paleoclimate, and proxies of environmental
Geping (EGI). Research methods were geographical infor-
change. Major nodal authors were Chen Fahu and Li Jijun
mation system and remote sensing. Papers were mainly in
(LZU), Feng Zhaodong (EGI), Fang Xiaomin (ITP), Lai
Ecological Modelling, Journal of Arid Land, Agricultural
Zhongping (ISL), Lu Huayu (NJU), Li Chengsen
and Forest Meteorology, Journal of Geographical Sciences,
(IBCAS), and Ge Quansheng (IGSNRR). Nodal authors
Global and Planetary Change, Hydrological Processes, and
were Pan Baotian and Gou Xiaohua (LZU), Zhao Yan
Water Resources Management.
(LZU/IGSNRR), Jef Vandenberghe (Vrije University,
Amsterdam), Yang Bao (CAREERI), Xu Qinghai (HBNU),
Zheng Zhuo (SYSU), Zhu Liping (ITP), Shao Xuemei Natural Hazards and Their Risks
(IGSNRR) and David Ferguson (University of Vienna). Major nodal authors of papers in natural hazards and their
Papers were published in Quaternary International, Qua- risks were Cui Peng (IMHE) and Shi Peijun (BNU). Papers
ternary Research, Quaternary Geochronology, Global and were published in Journal of Mountain Science, Natural
Planetary Change, Holocene, Quaternary Science Reviews, Hazards, Ecological Engineering, Landscape and Urban
and Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. Planning, and Geomorphology.
(2) The second network was around fluvial landforms. Major In addition to the abovementioned important nodal
nodal authors were Chen Zhongyuan (ECNU) and Xu authors in the networks appeared in both SCI/SSCI and
Jiongxin (IGSNRR). Nodal authors were Saito Yoshiki CSCD journals, there were also some authors form impor-
(Geological Survey Japan) and Wang Zhanghua (ECNU). tant nodes in the network of CSCD journals. However,
Papers mainly appeared in Geomorphology, Estuarine & because their works were either on regional characteristics in
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 83

China or earlier pioneering work when the internationaliza- with numerous publications were Quaternary International,
tion level was low. Moreover, their research results were Journal of Climate, Journal of Geographical Sciences,
mainly published in Chinese and could not be reflected in Ecological Modelling, Ecological Engineering, Geomor-
the SCI/SSCI journal-based network. Earlier research on phology, Cold Regions Science and Technology, Stochastic
glaciers on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau included that done by Environmental Research and Risk Assessment, Agricultural
Xie Zichu, Shi Yafeng (CAREERI), Zhou Shangzhe and Forest Meteorology, Global and Planetary Change, and
(LZU/SCNU) and Liu Gengnian (PKU). Nodal authors of Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. In
researches in ice core or precipitation isotopes in the total, there were 1353 papers in the aforementioned journals,
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau included Wang Ninglian (CAR- a proportion of 30 %. The remaining 108 journals published
EERI), Tian Lide and Wu Guangjian (ITP). Dong about 60 % of the 4461 papers, but the average proportion of
Guangrong and Wang Tao (CAREERI) were nodal authors each journal was less than 2 %.
in desert environment and desertification in China. Research Nearly 77 % of authors publishing in the SCI/SSCI
on the Kerqin Sandy Land and Tengger Desert were carried mainstream journals and 86 % of authors publishing in
out by Zhao Xueyong, Zhao Halin and Xiao Honglang Chinese CSCD journals were supported by NSFC projects.
(CAREERI). Their studies focused on observations of soil Thirty-two authors rank in the top 100 authors with the most
water change, ecohydrological processes, biodiversities and publications in both SCI/SSCI and CSCD journals. They
vegetation restoration. Zheng Jingyun (IGSNRR) and Fang were granted 587 projects funded by NSFC. Of the top 100
Xiuqi (BNU) were nodal authors carrying out research in authors with the most publications in SCI/SSCI journals, 21
extracting paleoclimatic information from historical docu- were once supported by the Young Scientists Fund (YSF),
ments in the fields of environmental change or global 24 by the National Science Fund for Distinguished Young
change. In the network of integrated geography, researches Scholar (DYS Fund) (including scholars with foreign citi-
on LUCC, land systems, sustainable assessment of land use zenship). Six groups, led by Chen Fahu, Fu Bojie, Yao
and farmland resource and food security from the perspec- Tandong, Qin Dahe, Ma Wei and Zhou Chenghu, were
tives of integrated physical geography were represented by supported by the Science Fund for Creative Research
Cai Yunlong (PKU) and Li Xiubin (IGSNRR). Research Groups (CRG Fund). The sum of funds supporting the Key
focusing on the natural environment of the Qinghai-Tibetan Programme (KP), Major Programme (MP), and Major
Plateau and its regional differentiations, Chinese ecological Research Plan (MRP) made up 58.2 % of total funds, and
and geographical zoning system, and climate change and this proportion for the General Programme (GP) was
LUCC, from the perspectives of geobotany and geomor- 15.8 %. Of the top 100 authors with the most publications in
phology was led by Zheng Du, Li Bingyuan, Zhang Yili CSCD journals, 68 were granted different types of projects
and Wu Shaohong (IGSNRR). Zhang Yuanming funded by NSFC and 47.8 % of the total funds were granted
(EGI) carried out research on desert ecosystems in the inland to them as the Key Programme (KP), Major Programme
river basins in Xinjiang and the influence of climate change (MP) and Major Research Plan (MRP). The General Pro-
and exploitation in oases. Ecological security of international gramme (GP) and the Young Scientists Fund (YSF) granted
rivers was studied by He Daming (YNU). The network to them account for 33.7 and 7.9 % of the total funds,
centred on Zhang Fengrong (CAU) indicates researches on respectively. The above data suggest that the talent-oriented
farmland protection, rural residential land reorganization and programmes such as the National Science Fund for Distin-
land quality from the perspective of pedogeography using guished Young Scholar (DYS Fund) and Science Fund for
Beijing as a major case. Additionally, Qin Boqiang, Fan Creative Research Groups (CRG fund), and the importance-
Chengxin (NIGLAS) and Lü Xianguo (NEIGAE) were based types such as “Key” and “Major” NSFC programmes
nodal authors of studies on lakes and wetlands in China. have been important to international academic achievements
Overall, above nodal authors conducted research pertaining of physical geography in China.
to regional characteristics or earlier pioneering work in Table 4.2 shows institutions, number of people sup-
China. Their research has been influential in China and ported, and the sum of funds for the top five institutions
played an important role in promoting later research in the funded by NSFC physical geography by 5-year intervals
international science community. from 1986 to 2015. The number of people refers to the total
According to statistics of the top 200 Chinese authors of those funded by NSFC within an institution in each 5-year
who published papers in the SCI/SSCI physical geography period. The same person was only counted once in the
journals during 1986–2015, there were 4461 papers pub- 5 years. In the past 30 years, there were nine institutions
lished in 121 journals. Journals with the most papers from entering the top five supported by NSFC, of which four were
Chinese authors were Hydrological Processes and Journal universities and five were research institutes. Institute of
of Hydrology, with more than 200 papers in both journals, Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research of
accounting for about 10 % of all 4461 papers. Other journals CAS, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and
84 4 Physical Geography

Table 4.2 Top 5 institutions with NSFC funding for physical geography during the period 1986–2015

1986-1990 1991-1995 1996-2000

Funding
Number of Number of Funding Number of Funding
Institutions (10,000 Institutions Institutions
PIs yuan) PIs (10,000 yuan) PIs (10,000 yuan)
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Institute of Geographic Sciences and Institute of Geographic Sciences and
Engineering Research Institute, Chinese 21 125.6 Natural Resources Research, Chinese 25 432.7 Natural Resources Research, Chinese 30 1,170.5
Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences
Institute of Geographic Sciences and Cold and Arid Regions Environmental
Natural Resources Research, Chinese 23 115.8 and Engineering Research Institute, 29 401.6 Peking University 15 930.5
Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Sciences
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and
Peking University 10 45.7 Peking University 11 139.8 Engineering Research Institute, Chinese 23 488
Academy of Sciences
Northeast Institute of Geography and
Agricultural Ecology, Chinese Academy 6 40.5 Beijing Normal University 3 126.5 Lanzhou University 8 377
of Sciences
Institute of Mountain Hazards and Institute of Mountain Hazards and
Nanjing University 10 37.5 Environment, Chinese Academy of 10 86 Environment, Chinese Academy of 7 294
Sciences Sciences
Total of top 5 70 365.1 Total of top 5 78 1,186.6 Total of top 5 83 3,260
Total of non top 5 74 333.4 Total of non top 5 112 884.9 Total of non top 5 118 2,243
Total of physical geography 144 698.5 Total of physical geography 190 2,071.5 Total of physical geography 201 5,503
Sum of geography 294 1,362.3 Total of geography 374 3,840.6 Total of geography 422 9,984.9
2001-2005 2006-2010 2011-2015
Funding
Number of Number of Funding Number of Funding
Institutions (10,000 Institutions Institutions
PIs PIs (10,000 yuan) PIs (10,000 yuan)
yuan)
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Cold and Arid Regions Environmental Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and
Engineering Research Institute, Chinese 57 3,780.6 and Engineering Research Institute, 118 8,801 Engineering Research Institute, Chinese 176 16,399.2
Academy of Sciences Chinese Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences
Institute of Geographic Sciences and Institute of Geographic Sciences and Institute of Geographic Sciences and
Natural Resources Research, Chinese 47 2,014.9 Natural Resources Research, Chinese 62 3,945.5 Natural Resources Research, Chinese 106 10,126.6
Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences Academy of Sciences
Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research,
Lanzhou University 22 1,443 Lanzhou University 35 2,940.9 69 9,321.3
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research,
Peking University 22 1,402.8 34 2,529.8 Lanzhou University 59 6,522.9
Chinese Academy of Sciences
Beijing Normal University 22 1,017.6 Peking University 24 1,952.6 Beijing Normal University 46 5,992.4
Total of top 5 170 9,659 Total of top 5 273 20,169.8 Total of top 5 456 48,362.4
Total of non top 5 185 5,862.6 Total of non top 5 450 19,698.7 Total of non top 5 1,006 67,269.5
Total of physical geography 355 15,521.6 Total of physical geography 723 39,868.5 Total of physical geography 1,462 115,631.9
Total of geography 890 33,800.6 Total of geography 2,197 90,823.6 Total of geography 4,821 304,971.3

Engineering Research Institute of CAS and Institute of With the increase of per capita publications, the number of
Tibetan Plateau Research of CAS (established in 2005) had highly cited papers in physical geography in China had
always been within the top five positions, indicating their also increased. Figure 4.30 shows that the proportion of
major advantages in the study of physical geography. NSFC-funded papers to the top 50 highly cited papers by
In Fig. 4.29, the per capita SCI/SSCI-indexed articles are Chinese authors in SCI/SSCI journals had been increasing,
those of institutions listed in Table 4.2, calculated by from 48 % in 2000 to 86 % in 2014. This proportion had
dividing total papers supported by NSFC in the 134 increased by *30 % since 2009. The proportions of articles by
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals by the total number of people the top 10 institutions to the top 50 highly cited articles did not
supported. The funding proportion is the sum of funds fluctuate much, with a minimum of 24 % (in 2010) and max-
received from NSFC in these listed institutions to total imum of 48 % (in 2006). The proportion of publications from
NSFC physical geography funds in each five-year bin. This the top 10 institutions (with most NSFC funds) increased from
shows that the funding proportion was rising before 2005 71.4 % in 2000 to 94.1 % in 2014, indicating that such pub-
and reached 62.2 % in 2001–2005. However, this figure has lications were almost all supported by NSFC in the last 5 years.
dropped rapidly to 41.8 % in recent years. Such a process In conclusion, the top 10 most advantageous institutions had
suggests that with improvement of the overall level of the produced *30 % of influential SCI/SSCI-indexed articles in
discipline, traditional advantageous institutions in physical China. NSFC projects had been important in the publication of
geography had gradually lost their dominance in the acqui- these influential papers, as 2/3 of all the top 50 highly cited
sition of funding. Per capita publications had been increas- papers in SCI/SCCI journals were funded by NSFC.
ing. The number of such publication was less than one The growth rate of the highly cited papers in China was
before 2000 but had increased rapidly to 2.8 in 2001 and accelerating, but the number of the highly cited papers has
2005, exceeding the number of other institutions. By 2011– remained limited. Within the top 1000 highly cited
2015, this number reached 5.6, twice that from a decade SCI/SSCI-indexed articles, Chinese authors contributed 14
earlier, further widening the gap between the top five insti- in 2000–2004 and 50 in 2010–2014. The top 1000 highly
tutions and other institutions. This reflects a rapid cited papers in various periods (Table 4.3) indicate that the
improvement in the internationalisation of research in China. U.S. authors contributed 465 (46.5 %) in 2000–2014, and
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 85

7 80%

70%
6
62.2%
59.2%
Per Capita SCI/SSCI-indexed Articles
57.3%
60%
5 52.3% 50.6%

Funding Proportion
50%
Top 5 Institutions 41.8%
4
Other Institutions 40%

3 Funding Proportion of Top 5 Institutions

in the Physical Geography Grant 5.6
30%
4.9
4.4 4.3
2
20%
2.8
1 2.3
10%
0.18 0.15 0.7 0.6
0.10 0.09
0 0%
1986–1990 1991–1995 1996–2000 2001–2005 2006–2010 2011–2015

Fig. 4.29 Funding proportion of top 5 NSFC-funded institutions and their per capita SCI/SSCI-indexed articles in physical geography during the
period 1986–2015. Note Co-authors from different institutions were counted separately

Proportion of NSFC-funded Articles among all Publications by Authors from the Top 10 Institutions
Proportion of NSFC-funded Articles in the Chinese Top 50 Articles
Proportion of Articles from the Top 10 in the Top 50 100% 100% 100%
100%
95.8%
94.1% 94.1%
83.3%
80% 81.3% 90%
76.5% 76.2% 88% 86%
80% 84%
71.4% 80%
64.3% 80%
66.7%
61.9% 60%
60% 58%
58%
48% 50%
48%
44% 44% 50%

40% 48% 36%

32% 34% 32% 32% 34%
42% 42%
24%
34%
28% 30% 30% 28%
20%

0%
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Fig. 4.30 Proportion of NSFC-funded SCI/SSCI-indexed articles in Research of CAS, Lanzhou University, Peking University, Beijing
Chinese top 50 citation in physical geography during the period 2000– Normal University, Xinjiang Institute of Ecology and Geography of
2014. Note The top 10 institutions refer to those with top 10 NSFC’s CAS, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences of CAS,
annual funding for physical geography during the period 2000–2014, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology of CAS, Northeast
including the Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Institute of Geography and Agricultural Ecology of CAS, Nanjing
Research Institute of CAS, Institute of Geographic Sciences and University, and Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment of
Natural Resources Research of CAS, Institute of Tibetan Plateau CAS
86 4 Physical Geography

Table 4.3 Analysis of top 1000 highly cited SCI/SSCI articles in physical geography during the period 2000–2014

% of articles % of articles from Top 10 % of articles from Top 10

% of articles by % of articles
with NSFC institutions with NSFC institutions with NSFC
Periods American by Chinese
funding by funding to articles by funding to articles funded
authors authors
Chinese authors Chinese authors by NSFC
2000-2004 47.6 1.4 42.9 35.7 60.0
2005-2009 42.0 2.7 55.6 22.2 100.0
2010-2014 31.9 5.0 80.0 32.0 93.8
2000-2014 46.5 0.9 33.3 44.4 50.0
Note The Top 10 institutions refer to those with top 10 NSFC’s annual funding for physical geography during the period 2000–2014, including the
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute of CAS, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources
Research of CAS, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research of CAS, Lanzhou University, Peking University, Beijing Normal University, Xinjiang
Institute of Ecology and Geography of CAS, Research Center for Eco-environmental Sciences of CAS, Nanjing Institute of Geography and
Limnology of CAS, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agricultural Ecology of CAS, Nanjing University, and Institute of Mountain Hazards
and Environment of CAS

Chinese authors contributed 9 (0.9 %). In the past 15 years, keywords were identical, including climate change, model,
the proportion of papers by the U.S. authors decreased by Tibetan Plateau, Holocene, and environmental change. This
15.7 % and that by Chinese authors increased by 3.6 %. For indicates that NSFC projects had provided a basis for highly
the papers published by Chinese authors, the proportion of influential research outputs in Chinese physical geography
those supported by NSFC had been increasing, from 42.9 % and had been at the frontiers of development of the discipline.
in 2000–2004 to 80 % in 2010–2014. The proportion of The keywords climate change and Holocene already had a
papers published by the top 10 institutions decreased from place in NSFC-funded projects during 2000–2004, but did
35.7 % in 2000–2004 to 22.2 % in 2005–2009 and 32 % in not appear in the highly cited papers until 2005–2009. This
2010–2014. Of the papers funded by NSFC, the proportion indicates a lag from research to publication and in becoming a
of those published by the top 10 institutions increased from highly cited paper. It also demonstrates the importance of the
60 % in 2000–2004 to 93.8 % in 2010–2014. The above accumulation of research results. The distribution of the
data show that high-quality research results in physical paper-based top 10 keywords shows that physical geography
geography in China, which are recognised internationally, in China had produced influential research results in climate
had increased rapidly in the last 5 years. Eighty percent of change, the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, Holocene environ-
these results were supported by NSFC projects. Ninety mental change, and hydrology. The project-based top 10
percent of the highly cited papers supported by NSFC were keywords had correspondence with the paper-related top 10
from the top 10 institutions funded by NSFC physical keywords, further indicating the substantial attention paid by
geography projects, and highly cited papers from those basic research in Chinese physical geography to major global
institutions accounted for more than 30 % of all highly cited topics, methodology, and basic scientific issues. Of all the
papers published by Chinese authors. keywords, LUCC represents substantial attention to the
For further analysis of the relationship between research impacts of global (not just climate change and human activ-
themes of the highly cited papers from Chinese authors and ities). Isotope hydrology represents strong emphasis on the
themes in their NSFC projects, the top 10 most frequent methodology of hydrology. Scale and scale effect represent an
keywords by those authors were selected from the top 1000 emphasis on scientific issues. Proportions of keywords in
highly cited papers in physical geography. The proportion of different periods show that paper-based keywords such as
the top 10 most frequent keywords to total number of papers precipitation, water, carbon, and model have increased in the
published by Chinese authors was calculated (referred to as last 5 years. Project-based keywords climate change, model,
the “paper-based top 10 keywords”). The proportion of top 10 hydrological model, and water cycle also increased, revealing
most frequent keywords in projects supported by NSFC was that simulating the impact of climate change on the water and
also determined (referred to as “project-based top 10 key- carbon cycles had become a frontier of research in physical
words”). Comparison of the paper-based and project-based geography in China. Piao Shilong from Peking University,
keywords (Fig. 4.31) shows that 50 % of the two types of Liu Junguo from Beijing Forestry University, Zhang Qiang
4.3 Disciplinary Development and Research Teams in China 87

Fig. 4.31 Comparative diagram of Proportion of Keyword Frequency Proportion of Keyword Frequency
prominent keywords in the articles by in Chinese Author's Articles in NSFC-funded Projects
Chinese authors among the top 1000 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
highly cited SCI/SSCI-indexed articles
climate change 18.5% 18.0% 15.3% 12.6% 7.5% climate change
with those in NSFC-funded projects in
physical geography during the period carbon 7.4% 10.0% 9.7% 6.8% 2.6% model
2000–2014
land use and land cover
precipitation 11.1% 14.0% 5.6% 5.5% 4.5%
change

Tibetan Plateau 7.1% 11.1% 8.0% 6.4% 3.7% 2.3% hydrological model

model 7.1% 3.7% 10.0% 4.8% 5.4% 1.9% Tibetan Plateau

Holocene 7.4% 8.0% 5.5% 2.2% 0.9% water cycle

water 7.1% 3.7% 6.0% 4.7% 3.1%1.4% Isotope Hydrology

2000-2004
environmental change 7.1% 3.7% 4.0% 2.7% 3.4% 3.1% Holocene
2005-2009
last glacial maximum 7.1% 3.7% 4.0% 2.0% 4.2% 4.5% environmental change
2010-2014
urbanization 3.7% 4.0% 3.3% 2.7% 0.9% scale and scale effect

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

from Sun Yat-sen University, and Yang Tao from Hohai 5 years. The per capita publication figure was 5.3, 2.1 times
University had all published highly cited SCI/SSCI-indexed that of 10 years ago. Average citations of the top 100 highly
articles focusing on the aforementioned topics. cited papers of each country in the SCI/SSCI mainstream
journals show that the United States has stabilised at the top,
and China has risen to number 8. However, the average
4.4 Summary citations of all papers published by Chinese authors remain
less than the average of the top 20 countries (regions).
In the past 30 years, with the promotion of many interna- NSFC has played an important role in Chinese physical
tional major scientific programmes, research into physical geography research. In the past 30 years, of the top 100
geography in China has gradually developed a main line of authors with the most publications in the CSCD journals,
research guided by global change and the comprehensive 86 % were supported by projects granted by NSFC. Of the
pattern of the earth surface. Disciplinary-exclusive research top 100 authors publishing in the SCI/SSCI journals, 77 %
is weakening. Instead, question-oriented research is gradu- were supported. There were 32 researchers among the top
ally becoming dominant and physical geography is devel- 100 authors with the most publications, in both the
oping toward multi-element and comprehensive research. SCI/SSCI and CSCD journals. In the last 10 years, 76.4 %
Frontier research in China has followed trending global of papers by Chinese authors in the SCI/SSCI journals and
topics in the water cycle and water resources, terrestrial 73 % in the CSCD journals were supported by NSFC pro-
ecosystems, LUCC, and cryosphere evolution. However, jects. Of the top 50 highly cited papers in SCI/SSCI journals
faced by regional environmental problems, Chinese scholars published by Chinese authors in 2010–2014, 85.6 % were
have done substantial research in permafrost engineering and supported by NSFC projects, 1.7 times that in 2000–2004. In
the permafrost environment, natural hazards and risk, lake 2010–2014, the proportion of the top 1000 highly cited
ecosystems and eutrophication, and ecohydrological pro- SCI/SSCI-indexed articles from Chinese authors increased
cesses and water resource utilisation in arid regions. This by 3.6 % compared with 2000–2004, and 80 % of those
research was aimed at resolution of the associated problems. authors were supported by NSFC projects. Institutions
Overall, comprehensive research on the Qinghai-Tibetan receiving greater funding include Institute of Geographic
Plateau, arid regions of northwestern China, Loess Plateau, Sciences and Natural Resources Research of CAS, Cold and
and Taihu Lake has reflected research characteristics of Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research
physical geography in China and promoted international Institute of CAS, Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research of
academic influence. In 1986–2015, the number of papers CAS, Peking University, Beijing Normal University and
published in the SCI/SSCI mainstream journals and CSCD Lanzhou University. They have not only become the most
journals of physical geography had rapidly increased. Half advantageous research institutions in Chinese physical
of these papers were published in the last decade. The pro- geography but have also been increasingly important in
portion of papers published by Chinese authors in the major international scientific programmes and global com-
SCI/SSCI mainstream journals reached 12.9 % in the last prehensive research.

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