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Geography: From Ancient Study to Modern Discipline

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Muhammad Mohsin
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 GEOGRAPHY: FROM ANCIENT STUDY TO
MODERN DISCIPLINE
Muhammad Mohsin
Assist. Prof. Geography

Introduction

Geography is a synoptic science that uses the same elements as

the other sciences but in a different context. It integrates data spatially,
making elaborate use of maps as its special tool and develop a mental
map of your community, province or territory, country, and the world so
that you can understand the “where” of places and events. It also explains
how the processes of human and physical systems have arranged and
sometimes changed the surface of the Earth and spatial organization of
society. Geography has played an important role in the evolution of
people, their ideas, places, and environments and appreciates Earth as
the homeland of humankind and provides insight for wise management
decisions about how the planet‟s resources should be used.
Geography was first systematically studied by the ancient Greeks,
who also developed a philosophy of geography; Thales of Miletus,
Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristotle, Ptolemy, Strabo, and Ptolemy made
major contributions to geography. The Roman contribution to geography
was in the exploration and mapping of previously unknown lands. Greek
geographic learning was maintained and enhanced by the Arabs during
the Middle Ages. Arab geographers, among whom Al-Idrisi, Al-Beruni, Ibn
Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun are prominent, traveled extensively for the
purpose of increasing their knowledge of the world. The journeys of Marco

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Polo in the latter part of the Middle Ages began the revival of geographic
interest outside the Muslim world.

Definition and Origin of Geography

The first recorded use of the word geography was made by the
Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar who lived from 276-194 BC. He is credited
to coin the word geography and also sketched out the first map of the
known world (Figure 1).
The word „geography‟ originates from two Greek words “geo” means „the
earth‟ and “graphien” means „to describe or to write‟. There is no
unanimous definition of geography found in literature because there
geography is a highly diversified discipline. Generally, geography is
thought to the study of the earth. Things like natural ecosystems, physical
features, migration patterns, ethnic distribution patterns, and other facets
of human-environment interaction are all the province of the geographer.
Geography, the science of place, i.e., the study of the surface of the
earth, the location and distribution of its physical and cultural features, the
areal patterns or places that they form, and the interrelation of these
features as they affect humans.
“The study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere, and of
human activity as it affects and is affected by these, including the
distribution of populations and resources and political and economic
activities” (Oxford Dictionary, 2018).

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 Figure 1: 19th-century reconstruction of Eratosthenes‟ map of the known
world, c. 194 BC
Source: Roller (2010)

Main Branches of Geography

In the study of geography, two main branches may be
distinguished, physical geography and human (or cultural) geography,
originally anthropogeography. The first, based on the physical sciences,
studies the world's surface, the distribution, delineation, and nature of its
land and water areas. Climate, landforms (see geomorphology), and soil
are examined as to the origin and are classified as to distribution. Drawing
on the biological sciences, fauna, and flora (biogeography) are brought
into an areal pattern. Through the mathematical sciences, the motion of
the earth and its relationship to the sun (seasons), the moon (tides), and
the planets are studied, as well as mapmaking and navigation.
Human geography places humans in their physical setting; it
studies their relationship with that environment as well as their conscious
activities and continuous progress in adapting themselves to it (and to
other humans) and in transforming their environment to their needs.

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Human geography may, in turn, be subdivided into a number of fields,
such as economic geography, political geography (with its 20 th-century
offshoot, geopolitics), social geography (including urban geography,
another 20th-century ramification), environmental perception and
management, geographical cartography, geographic information systems,
and military geography. Historical geography (which reconstructs
geographies of the past and attempts to trace the evolution of physical
and cultural features) and urban and regional planning are sometimes
considered branches of geography.

Evolution of the Geography

The Greeks and the Romans were the first to rooted and develop
the subject considerably i.e. Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Hippocrates, Strabo,
and many others are credited to contributed significantly and geography
has turned from a mere description of the names of different places, cities,
mountains, seas, rivers etc. to a more systematic science. Later, in the
Muslim period, the Muslim geographers did play a vital role in the
discipline by various discoveries and valuable written work. The work of
Muslims geographers, in fact, changes the whole scenario of geography
and built it on solid and scientific bases. Renowned Muslim geographers
like Al-Battani, Al-Masudi, Ibn-Hquqal, Al-Idrisi, Al-Beruni and Ibn-Khaldun
attempted to correlate environment with human activities and mode of life.
During the 15th century, with the Renaissance in Europe came the desire
to explore unknown parts of the world that led to the voyages of
exploration and to the great discoveries. However, it was mercantile
interest rather than a genuine search for knowledge that spurred these
endeavors. The 16th and 17th centuries reintroduced sound theoretical
geography in the form of textbooks (e.g. the Geographia generalis of

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Bernhardus Varenius) and maps (e.g. Gerardus Mercator‟s world map). In
the 18th-century, geography began to achieve recognition as a discipline
and was taught for the first time at the university level.

Geography in Modern Period

The modern period of geography began toward the end of the 18 th
century. with the works of Alexander von Humboldt, and Karl Ritter.
Thenceforth two principal methods of approach to geography can be
distinguished: the systematic, following Humboldt, and the regional,
following Ritter. Of the national schools of geography that developed, the
German and the French schools of thought were the most influential. The
German school of thought, which dealt mainly with physical geography,
developed a scientific and analytical style of writing. The French school of
thought became known for its descriptive regional monographs presented
in a lucid and flowing manner; human and historical geography was its
strength. Although emphasis has shifted several times between the
approaches and viewpoints, their interdependence is recognized by all
geographers.
In the 20th-century, since the end of World War II, geography, like
other disciplines, has experienced the explosion of knowledge brought on
by the new tools of modern technology for the acquisition and
manipulation of data; these include aerial photography, remote sensors
(including infrared and satellite photography), geographic information
systems (GIS) and computer applications (for quantitative analysis and
mapping). The quantitative method of geographical research has gained
much ground since the 1950s, Edward Ullman and William Garrison of the
United States and Peter Haggett of Great Britain being leading exponents.

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Important contributions to the advancement of geography and to the
development of geographic concepts have been made by Ferdinand von
Richthofen, Albrecht Penck, Friedrich Ratzel, Alfred Hettner, Karl
Haushofer, and Walter Christaller in Germany; Paul Vidal de la Blache,
Jean Brunhes, Conrad Malte-Brun, Elisée Reclus, and Emmanuel de
Martonne in France; and William Morris Davis ,Isaiah Bowman, Ellsworth
Huntington, Ellen Churchill Semple, Carl O. Sauer, Albert Brigham, and
Richard Hartshorne in the United States. Today geography is studied by
governmental agencies and in many of the world‟s universities. Research
is stimulated by such notable geographic institutions as the Royal
Geographical Society (1830, Great Britain), the American Geographical
Society (1852, United States), and the Société de Geographie (1821,
France).

Conclusion
Geography is a highly diversified discipline that studies the earth
and its features and their influence on humans. It has two main branches
physical geography (study physical features of the earth) and human
geography (study the human‟s related aspects like population,
settlements, economic activities etc.) It is also helpful to learn the location
of places and the physical and cultural characteristics of those places in
order to function more effectively in our increasingly interdependent world.
The discipline geography passes several stages of time to turn from an
ancient to modern scientific discipline. The Greeks and the Romans were
the first to rooted and develop the subject considerably i.e. Aristotle,
Eratosthenes, Hippocrates, Strabo, and many others are credited to
contribute significantly. Later, during the Medieval period, Muslim
geographers have developed the discipline on a scientific basis. During

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 the 18th and 19th century the role of German and French Geographers can
never be ignored. Lastly, during the 20th and 21st centuries, American
school of thought also contributed immensely in the development of the
discipline and it is recolonized in real terms with the introduction of modern
techniques like remote sensing (RS), geographic information system
(GIS), spatial analysis with the aid of computers and quantitative
revolution. Nowadays, Geography is considered a scientific discipline that
are being taught and reserached at various scales and levels throughout
of the world (e.g. from elementary to post-doctorate level).

References
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