Chapter 10

Temperature and Heat

Lecture PowerPoint

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

In this chapter, we are going to look at temperature and heat. They are not the same thing.
Some definitions will help get us started.

First, heat is thermal energy contained in a substance. That substance can be solid, liquid,
or gas.

Second, we know that the molecules in that substance are moving because of that thermal
energy. In a fluid (i.e. liquid or gas), the molecules can actually move around. In a solid, the
molecules vibrate. Anything moving has kinetic energy. Temperature is a measure of the
average kinetic energy per molecule.

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 What Is Temperature?

How do we
measure
temperature?
What are we
actually
measuring?

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Temperature is a measure of how much heat energy is contained in something. When we

measure temperature, we are using a little bit of that heat energy to cause movement of
some kind. In the old-fashioned thermometer shown here, the heat in the child’s body
warms up the mercury in the thermometer, causing it to expand.

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 Temperature and Its Measurement 1

If two objects are in contact with one another long

enough, the two objects have the same
temperature.
This begins to define temperature, by defining
when two objects have the same temperature.
• When the physical properties are no longer changing,
the objects are said to be in thermal equilibrium.
• Two or more objects in thermal equilibrium have the
same temperature.
• This is the zeroth law of thermodynamics.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

When you read the chapter, you will learn about “laws” of thermodynamics. In our
discussion here, we are going to focus more on the effects of those laws.

The important point on this slide is that two objects are in thermal equilibrium if they have
the same temperature.

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 The first widely used
temperature scale was
devised by Gabriel Fahrenheit.
Another widely used scale was
devised by Anders Celsius.
The Celsius degree is larger
than the Fahrenheit degree:
the ratio of Fahrenheit degrees
to Celsius degrees is 180/100,
or 9/5.
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TC = (TF − 32 )
9
9
TF = TC + 32
5

They are both equal at -40°.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Chapter 10 will tell you about three commonly used temperature scales.

In the United States, we are most familiar with the Fahrenheit scale. Water freezes at 32
deg F and boils at 212 deg F.

Many other countries use the Celsius scale. Water freezes at 0 deg C and boils at 100 C.

There are advantages to both scales. The Celsius scale has the same size “degree” as the
Kelvin scale that we will see in a moment. The Fahrenheit scale uses a smaller degree, so
we can state finer temperature differences without using a decimal fraction of a degree.

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 The zero point on the
Fahrenheit scale was
based on the temperature
of a mixture of salt and ice
in a saturated salt solution.
The zero point on the
Celsius scale is the
freezing point of water.
Both scales go below zero.
Is there such a thing as
absolute zero?

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Another important idea – a term that you have probably heard before – is absolute zero.
This simply the lowest possible temperature.

Remember that temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy – that is, motion – in
molecules. Absolute zero is the temperature at which that motion in minimal. It does not
mean there is no motion at all! Even if the molecules are not moving or vibrating, we still
have motion inside the atoms, such as the electrons buzzing around the nucleus.

The “take away” here is that a substance or object can get very close to absolute zero – in
the lab, a Boze-Einstein condensation can be cooled to within a few millionths of a degree
of absolute zero – but it can never reach absolute zero and can never go below that
temperature.

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 What is absolute zero? 1

If the volume of a gas is kept

constant while the
temperature is increased, the
pressure will increase.
This can be used as a means
of measuring temperature.
A constant-volume gas
thermometer allows the
pressure to change with
temperature while the volume
is held constant.
The difference in height of the
two mercury columns is
proportional to the pressure.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Here is a simple experiment that can be done in a physics lab. A volume of gas is held in a
closed container. The temperature and pressure are constantly measured. We find that as
the temperature goes up, the pressure goes up. As the temperature goes down, the
pressure goes down.

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 We can then plot the pressure of a gas as a function of the
temperature.
The curves for different gases or amounts are all straight
lines.
When these lines are extended backward to zero pressure,
they all intersect at the same temperature, -273.2°°C.
Since negative pressure has no meaning, this suggests that
the temperature can never get lower than -273.2°°C, or 0 K
(kelvin).
TK = TC + 273.2

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

We also find out something important … as the temperature and pressure go up and down
together, they do so in a linear fashion. When we plot the measurements on a graph, we
get a straight line.

When we extend that straight line on the graph – this is called “extrapolation” – all the lines
point to a common spot. This is absolute zero!

That “zero point” is 0 on the Kelvin scale. The size of the degree is the same as on the
Celsius scale. Water freezes at 273.2 K and boils at 373.2 K.

Here’s some trivia you can stump your friends with. The Fahrenheit scale was named after
Fahrenheit. The Celsius scale was named after Celsius. Who was the Kelvin scale named
after? The answer is William Thomson … who held the British title 1st Baron Kelvin (or
simply Lord Kelvin).

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 Heat and Specific Heat Capacity 1

What happens when

objects or fluids at different
temperatures come in
contact with one another?
• The colder object gets
hotter, and the hotter object
gets colder, until they both
reach the same temperature.
• What is it that flows between
the objects to account for
this?
We use the term heat for
this quantity.

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What happens when you put ice cubes in a glass of water. Well, the water gets colder,
obviously. What about the ice cubes?

Yeah, they melt. So what is happening? They are getting warmer while the water gets
colder.

Heat is that flow of thermal energy from the water to the ice cubes.

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 Heat and Specific Heat Capacity 2

Heat flow is a form of energy transfer between

objects.
One-hundred grams of room-temperature water is
more effective than 100 grams of room-temperature
steel shot in cooling a hot cup of water.

Steel has a lower specific

heat capacity than water.
The specific heat capacity
of a material is the relative
amount of heat needed to
raise its temperature.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

You have probably noticed that a metal pot heats up quickly, but it takes a long time to heat
up water in that pot.

The difference is how much heat energy it takes to change the temperature of a substance.
The metal in the pan changes temperature quickly. We say it has a low specific heat
capacity. Water, on the other hand, has a much higher specific heat capacity. It can absorb
a lot more heat energy. Most of that heat goes into making the water molecules move
around faster (remember the definition of temperature here).

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 The specific heat capacity of a material is the quantity of
heat needed to change a unit mass of the material by a unit
amount in temperature.
• For example, to change 1 gram by 1 Celsius degree.
• It is a property of the material, determined by experiment.
• The specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal/g⋅C°: it takes 1 calorie
of heat to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.
We can then calculate how much heat must be absorbed
by a material to change its temperature by a given amount:

Q = mc∆T where Q = quantity of heat

m = mass
c = specificCheat capacity
∆T = change in temperature

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

There are several ways to state specific heat capacity. The most common way is stating how
much heat is needed to raise one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.

To use this definition, we need a way to quantify how much heat is transferred. A common
unit for this purpose is the calorie. This is the amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of
water by one degree Celsius.

We spell this calorie with a small ‘c’ for a reason. Look at the label on a soft drink or any
food package. It will have the word Calories with a capital “C” on the label. The [capital ‘C’]
Calorie is actually 1000 of the [little ‘c’] calories, or a kilocalorie.

[Now you have some more trivia to try on your nerdy friends!]

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 When two objects at different temperatures are
placed in contact, heat will flow from the object
with the higher temperature to the object with the
lower temperature.
Heat added increases temperature, and heat
removed decreases temperature.
Heat and temperature
are NOT the same.
Temperature is a
quantity that tells us
which direction the
heat will flow.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Okay, we have seen that heat can flow from one object to another. One object heats up
and one object cools down. The rate at which it happens depends on the specific heat
capacity of each object.

The next thing we are going to look at is how a single substance can change from one
phase … solid, liquid, or gas … to another phase.

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 Phase Changes and Latent Heat
When an object goes through a change of phase
or state, heat is added or removed without
changing the temperature. Instead, the state of
matter changes: solid to liquid, for example.
The amount of heat needed per unit mass to
produce a phase change is called the latent heat.
• The latent heat of fusion of water corresponds to the
amount of heat needed to melt one gram of ice.
• The latent heat of vaporization of water corresponds to
the amount of heat needed to turn one gram of water
into steam.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Water – the form of solid ice, liquid water, or gaseous steam – is a good example.

Think about water freezing into ice. First we have to cool the water down to 0 deg C. Next
we have to freeze it, and that occurs at 0 deg C without changing the temperature. That
means we take heat out, but we don’t lower the temperature.

This is called a change of phase. The amount of heat that we take out (freeze water to ice)
or put in (melt the ice) is called the latent heat of fusion.

Up at the boiling point, we can have water at 100 deg C or steam at 100 deg C. How much
heat we put in (water to steam) or take out (steam condenses to water) is called the latent
heat of vaporization.

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 Gas Behavior and The First Law 1

Consider a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston.

If the piston is pushed inward by an external force, work is
done on the gas, adding energy to the system.

The force exerted on the

piston by the gas equals the
pressure of the gas times the
area of the piston: F = PA
The work done equals the
force exerted by the piston
times the distance the piston
moves:
W = Fd = ( PA ) d = P∆V

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We are now going to look at some gas laws, and we’ll do this in a general descriptive way.

If we compress a gas, we do work on that gas. That means we add energy to the gas.

What does added energy do to a gas? It results in greater pressure on the sides of the
container (the piston in this diagram).

The work we do decreases the volume and increases the pressure.

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 If the gas is being compressed, the change in
volume is negative, and the work done is negative.
• Work done on the system is negative.
• Negative work increases the energy of the system.
If the gas is expanding, positive work is done by
the gas on its surroundings, and the internal energy
of the gas decreases.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

If you think about it, you will realize this is what happens in the cylinders of the gasoline
engine in your car.

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 An ideal gas is a gas for which the forces between atoms
are small enough to be ignored.
• For an ideal gas, absolute
temperature is directly
related to the average
kinetic energy of the
molecules of the system.

• Most gases behave

approximately as
ideal gases.

If the process is adiabatic, no heat flows into or out of the

gas.
Even though no heat is added, the temperature of a gas will
increase in an adiabatic compression, since the internal
energy increases.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Here are two definitions that are useful to know.

An ideal gas is one in which we can ignore small forces (such as electromagnetic forces)
can be ignored. Most gases, like gases that make up our atmosphere, come pretty close to
this.

An adiabatic process in one in which no heat flows into or out of the gas. The compression
in the cylinder of a gasoline engine is an example of a nearly adiabatic process.

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 If the process is adiabatic, no heat flows into or out of the
gas.
Even though no heat is added, the temperature of a gas will
increase in an adiabatic compression, since the internal
energy increases.
Be very careful. This is an example where NO heat is
transferred (Q equals zero) yet the temperature increases.
Temperature and heat are NOT the same thing.
An example of an adiabatic process is one that occurs in a
perfectly insulated container.
Another example is an process that occurs so fast that
there is not time for heat to be transferred.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

The last line here – “occurs so fast that” (think of RPM in your engine) – is why the gasoline
engine is a good example of the adiabatic process.

What this process tells us is that the main interaction is between changes in pressure and
volume, with little to no change in temperature. (This is true after your engine warms up to
operating temperature.)

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 In an isothermal process, the temperature does not
change.
• The internal energy must be constant.
• The change in internal energy, ∆U, is zero.
• If an amount of heat Q is added to the gas, an equal amount of work
W will be done by the gas on its surroundings, from ∆U = Q - W.

In an isobaric process, the pressure of the gas remains

constant.
• The internal energy increases as the gas is heated, and so does the
temperature.
• The gas also expands, removing some of the internal energy.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

There are two other types of processes that we could delve into (but we don’t have time
for).

An isothermal process is one that happens without any change in temperature.

An isobaric process is one that happens without any change in pressure.

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 Ideal Gas Law
Experiments have determined that the pressure,
volume, and absolute temperature of an ideal gas
are related by the equation of state:
PV = NkT where N is the number of molecules and
k is Boltzmann’s constant.
This is also known as the ideal gas law.
Another form of this equation is PV =nRT, where n
is the number of moles and R is the gas constant.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

The processes that we have mentioned are quantified in several laws you might see in a
chemistry course … Boyle’s Law and Charles’ Law, in particular.

For our purposes, we combine all of these into a single ideal gas law that describes, in very
measurable ways, how pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T) are related in an ideal
gas. If you take a more advanced physics course, like PHY 151, you will use this law.

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 What process makes a hot-air
balloon rise?
When gas is heated in a
hot-air balloon, the
pressure, not the
temperature, remains
constant.
The gas undergoes an
isobaric expansion.
Since the gas has
expanded, the density has
decreased.
The balloon experiences a
buoyant force because the
gas inside the balloon is
less dense than the
surrounding atmosphere.
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When you see the burner going on a hot-air balloon, the air in the balloon is being heated.
It will expand to maintain a constant pressure. As it expands, its density becomes lower,
and the denser atmosphere provides a buoyant force that sends the balloon aloft.

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 The Flow of Heat 1

There are three basic processes for heat

flow:
• Conduction
• Convection
• Radiation

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Now let’s turn our attention to the mechanisms by which heat energy can be transferred
from one point to another.

Imagine you are sitting around a campfire toasting marshmallows on a metal skewer.

You can feel heat being passed along the metal skewer. This is due to conduction.

You can hold your had over the fire and feel hot air rising. This is due to convection.

You can even feel the heat of the fire by sitting close to it. This is due to radiation.

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 In conduction, heat flows through a material when
objects at different temperatures are placed in
contact with one another.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Conduction is heat flowing through a material. This happens because the molecules on the
warm end move faster and bump against their neighboring molecules. The “bumping” gets
past along through the material.

Materials that “bump” a lot are called conductors. The metal in the pot we talked about
earlier is a good example.

Materials that don’t “bump” so much are called insulators. The insulation in the walls of
your house and the air between the panes in double-paned windows are good examples.

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 In convection, heat is transferred by the motion of a fluid
containing thermal energy.
• Convection is the main method of heating a house.

• It is also the main method heat is lost from buildings.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Convection is when something actually moves. The hot air rising from the campfire is one
example. Air circulating around the room is another. Hot water bubbling to the top in a pot
is another one.

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 In radiation, heat energy is
transferred by electromagnetic
waves.
• The electromagnetic waves involved
in the transfer of heat lie primarily in
the infrared portion of the spectrum.
• Unlike conduction and convection,
which both require a medium to travel
through, radiation can take place
across a vacuum.
• For example, the evacuated space in
a thermos bottle.
• The radiation is reduced to a
minimum by silvering the facing walls
of the evacuated space.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Radiation is the transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The warmth we
feel from the Sun on sunny days or from the side of the campfire in the evening is due to
radiation.

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 What process makes a car’s interior heat up when
parked in the sun?
radiation
Why are houses insulated with material in the
walls instead of just empty space?
To reduce convection and conduction
Why is this insulated material often foil-backed?
To limit radiation
Is a light-colored roof or a dark-colored roof more
energy efficient?
Light colored roofs keep a house cooler reducing
cooling costs.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Here are some examples of these processes.

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 What is ‘the greenhouse effect?’ 1

The glass enclosure of a greenhouse allows visible

sunlight in while preventing heat from escaping via
radiation at longer wavelengths. It is an energy trap.
Glass (or plastic) is transparent to visible sunlight
(which you know since you can see through it).
Glass (or plastic) is opaque to infrared radiation, so
these waves cannot pass through the glass.
The visible sunlight comes into the greenhouse,
heats up the surroundings. The warmed air is now
in the infrared region of the light spectrum.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Greenhouse effect is something that you’ve heard about and probably experienced.

You leave your car sitting outside on a sunny day. What happens? Well, you know the
answer to that. When you open the car door hours later, you find it’s very hot inside.

That’s the greenhouse effect!

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 How is the greenhouse effect related
to global warming? 1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

How does the greenhouse effect actually work?

Light from the sun is electromagnetic (EM) radiation at visible wavelengths. It passes easily
through the windows in your car and heats up the interior of the car (especially plastic
seats).

That hot interior radiates the heat back out from itself, but it does so in the form of infrared
EM waves. Infrared light cannot pass through glass, so it’s trapped inside the car, heating up
the air.

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 How is the greenhouse effect related
to global warming? 2

The Earth also resembles a large greenhouse. Carbon

dioxide gas is transparent to visible radiation but not to
infrared radiation.
Carbon dioxide is a natural by-
product of the burning of any
carbon-based fuel such as oil,
natural gas, coal, or wood. Our
heavy use of fossil fuels such as
oil, coal, and natural gas has
increased the amount of carbon
dioxide in the upper
atmosphere.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

The same thing happens with Earth’s atmosphere. Visible light warms the surface of the
Earth. The Earth tries to maintain an equilibrium temperature by radiating excess heat
energy back into space as infrared radiation.

Some gases in the atmosphere – most notably carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane –
block that infrared radiation, trapping the heat.

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 How is the greenhouse effect related
to global warming? 3

The greenhouse effect associated with this increase in

carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases is slowly
increasing the Earth’s average temperature (global
warming). The loss of forests and other plant life that
absorb carbon dioxide may also contribute to the
carbon dioxide buildup.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

Here is one of the important questions about global warming. The three gases just
mentioned – carbon dioxide, water vapor, and methane – all occur naturally. But they are
also generated by a lot human activity.

The “solution” is to balance out these processes with human activity, so that we don’t drive
up the worldwide temperature. At the present time, this is a very serious problem that
humanity needs to address quickly.

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