INTRODUCTION TO

THE BASIC CONCEPTS

OF STATISTICS
STATISTICS
It is a branch of science
that deals with the
collection, presentation,
analysis and
interpretation of
quantitative data.
TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

Descriptive • Measures of Central Tendency

Statistics • Measures of Spread

Inferential
• Testing Statistical Hypothesis
Statistics
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

• It is the term given to analysis of data that help describe, show,

or summarize data in a meaningful way.

• Descriptive Statistics do not, however,

allow us to make conclusions beyond
the data we have analyzed or reach
conclusions regarding any
hypotheses we might have made.
They are simply a way to describe our
data.
 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
• It is the process of obtaining
about a larger group from the
study of a smaller group or the
science of drawing statistical
conclusions about the
population from specific data
using probability and specific
statistical data prediction
techniques.
Level of Measurement

Nominal Level

Ordinal Level

Interval Level

Ratio Level
 NOMINAL LEVEL
• This is the first level of measurement and it is characterized by
data that consist of names, labels or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in ordering scheme.

Example of Nominal variable:

Gender (Male, Female)
Eye Color (Blue, Green, Brown)
Type of House (Bungalow, Duplex, Ranch)
 ORDINAL LEVEL

• This involves data that may be arranged in some order, but

differences between data values either cannot be determined or
meaningless.

Example of Nominal variable:

High School Class Ranking (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.)
Social Economic Class (First, Middle, Lower)
Preferences
 INTERVAL LEVEL

• This is a measurement level not only classifies and

orders the measurements, but it also specifies that
the distances between each interval on the scale are
equivalent along the scale from low interval to high
interval.

Example of Nominal variable:

Temperature on Fahrenheit/Celsius Thermometer
 RATIO LEVEL

• A variable with the features of interval, but with the added

condition that 0 (Zero) of the measurement indicates that there is
none of that variable.

Example of Nominal variable:

Age Quantity Purchased
Weight Time Measured
Height
 Two Types of Variables

Qualitative Variable
• are words or a code that represents a class or category.

Quantitative Variable
• are numbers that represents an amount or count.
 What is Data Collection?

❑The process by which the researcher collects the

information needed to answer the research
problem.
 In Collecting the data, the
researcher must decide:

❑Which data to collect?

❑ Who will collect data?

❑ When to collect data?

❑ How to collect data?
 Sources of
Data

Primary Secondary
Data Data

Include information Information that has

collected and processed already been collected,
directly by the researcher, processed and reported
such as observations, out by another
surveys, interviews, and researcher/entity
focus groups.
Method of Collecting Primary Data

Indirect Direct Focus

Method Method Groups
 Indirect/Questionnaire Method

❑ This methods of data collection involve sourcing and accessing existing

data that were not originally collected for the purpose of the study. The
researcher makes use of written questionnaire to the respondents either
by personal or by email.

❑ This method of data collection is quite popular

particularly in case of big enquiries.
Advantage and Disadvantage of
Indirect/Questionnaire Method
- Administration is comparatively inexpensive and easy.
- Reduces chance of evaluator bias.
- Some people feel more comfortable responding to a
survey than participating an interview.
- Tabulation of closed-ended responses is
straightforward process.

- Survey respondents may not complete the survey.

- Items may not have the same meaning to all
respondents.
- Size and diversity of sample will be limited by
people’s ability to read.
- Given lack of contact with respondent.
- Unable to probe for additional details
 KEY DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF A
GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE
1. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.

2. Ask short, simple, and clearly worded questions.

3. Start with demographic questions to help respondents get

started comfortably.

4. Use dichotomous (yes/no) and multiple choice

questions.
 KEY DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF A
GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE
5. Use open-ended questions cautiously.
6. Avoid using leading-questions.
7. Pretest a questionnaire on a small number of people.
8. Think about the way you intend to use the collected data when
preparing the questionnaire.
 Direct/Interview Method

❑ The researcher has direct contact with

the interviewee. The researcher
gathers information by asking
questions to the interviewee
Advantage and Disadvantage of Direct/
Interview Method

-Useful for gaining insight and context into a topic.

- Allows respondents to describe what is important to them.
- Useful for gathering quotes and stories

- Susceptible to interview bias.

- Time consuming and expensive .
- May seem intrusive to the respondent.
 Focus Group Method
A focus group is a group interview of
approximately six to twelve people who
share similar characteristics or common
interests. A facilitator guides the group
based on a predetermined set of topics.

The facilitator creates an environment that

encourages participants to share their perceptions
and points of view.
Advantage and Disadvantage of
Focus Method

- Quick and relatively easy to set up.

- Group dynamics can provide useful information.
- Is useful in gaining insight into a topic that may be more
difficult to gather information through other data
collection methods

- Susceptible to facilitator bias.

- Discussion can be dominated or sidetracked by a few individuals.
- Data analysis is time consuming and needs to be well planned in
advance.
- Does not provide valid information at the individual level.
- The information is not representative of other groups.
 Method of Collecting Secondary

Published report on newspaper and periodicals

Financial Data reported in annual reports

Records maintained by the institution

Internal reports of the government departments

Information from official publications

 Sampling Technique

❑ Sampling is the process of

selecting samples from a given
population
 TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

Non-Probability Sampling Probability Sampling

Convenience Simple Random

Quota
Systematic
Purposive
Stratified
Accidental Cluster

Multistage
 Types of Non-Probability
Sampling
Convenience Sampling -- is a process of picking out people in the
most convenient and fastest way to get reactions immediately.

This method can be done by telephone interview to get the immediate

reactions of a certain group of sample for a certain issue.

Quota Sampling -- There is specified number of persons of

certain types is included in the sample.
 Types of Non-Probability
Sampling
Purposive Sampling-- It is based on certain criteria laid down by the
researcher. People who satisfy the criteria are interviewed. It is used
to determine the target population of those who will be taken for the
study.

Accidental Sampling– There is no system of selection but only those

whom the researcher or interviewer meets by chance.
 Types of Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sample -- Every individual or item from the frame

has an equal chance of being selected. In addition, any selected
sample has the same chance of being selected as any other.

Samples obtained from table of random numbers or computer

random number generators
 Types of Probability
Sampling
Systematic Sampling -- Divide frame of N individuals into
groups of k individuals: k=N/n. Randomly select one
individual from the 1st group. Then Select every kth individual
thereafter
 Types of Probability
Sampling
Stratified sampling -- Divide population into subgroups (called strata)
according to some common characteristic. A simple random sample is
selected from each subgroup. Samples from subgroups are combined
into one.
Draw a sample from each stratum
 Types of Probability
Sampling
Cluster Sampling -- Population is divided into several “clusters,”
each representative of the population. Then, a simple random
sample of clusters is selected.

All items in the selected clusters can be used, or items can be

chosen from a cluster using another probability sampling
technique
 Types of Probability
Sampling

Multistage Sampling – It is like cluster sampling, but involves

selecting a sample within each chosen cluster, rather than including
all units in the cluster. Thus, multi-stage sampling involves selecting
a sample in at least two stages.
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
The steps in multi-stage sampling are as follows:

❑Organize the sampling process into stages where the unit of

analysis is systematically grouped.

❑Select a sampling technique for each stage.

❑Systematically apply the sampling technique to each stage until

the unit of analysis has been selected
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..

Example of step by steps process:

A large area, such as a country, is

First, divide into smaller Second, a random sample of Third, a random sample of
regions (such as states), smaller areas (such as even smaller areas (such as
and a random sample of counties) is taken from within neighborhood) is taken from
these regions is each of the regions chosen within each of the areas chosen
collected. in the first stage. in the second stage.
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..

Note:
If these areas are sufficiently small for the purposes of
the study, then the researcher might stop at the third
stage. If not, he or she may continue to sample from the
areas chosen in the third stage, etc., until appropriately
small areas have been chosen.
MULTISTAGE
SAMPLING……..
 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

Two major types of error can arise when a sample of

observations is taken from a population:

❑Sampling error
❑Non sampling error
 Sampling Error

It refers to differences between the sample and the

population that exist only because of the observations that
happened to be selected for the sample. We have no control.

Note: Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error.
 Non sampling Error

It is more serious and due to mistakes made in the acquisition of data

or due to the sample observations being selected improperly.
Three types of non sampling errors:
❑Errors in data acquisition
❑Nonresponse errors
❑Selection bias

Note: Increasing the sample size will not reduce this type of error.
Presentation of Data

Graphical
Textual Tabular Presentation
Presentation Presentation - Bar Graph
- General Purpose - Pie Chart
(or Primary) Tables
- Line Graph
- Special Purpose
- Statistical Maps
Tables
- Pictograms
- Histogram
Presentation of Data
 Textual Presentation

❑ The data gathered are presented in paragraph form.

❑ Data are written and read.
❑ It is a combination of text and figures.
 Textual Presentation…..
The following is one way of presenting data in textual
form:
 Tabular Presentation

Statistical tables present numerical data in a

systematic way. Tabulation is the process of
condensing classified data and arranging them
in a table.
 Tabular Presentation……
Below is a sample of a table with all of its parts
indicated:

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 Graphical Presentation

Graphs is the most effective way to present

results in a study since it shows the statistical
values and relationship in a pictorial or diagram
form.
 Graphical Presentation…..
Histogram – is similar to the bar graph but the base of the rectangle has a
length exactly equal to the class width of the corresponding interval. Also,
there are no spaces between rectangles.
 Graphical Presentation…..

Bar graph – used to show relationship/comparison between

groups.
 Graphical Presentation…..
Pie chart – shows percentages effectively.
 Graphical Presentation…..
Line graph – most useful in displaying data that changes
continuously over time
 Graphical Presentation…..

Statistical maps
Used to show geographic distribution
of magnitudes in which shades, bar or
dots may be used to indicate variation
in magnitude in different areas.

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 Graphical Presentation…..

Pictograms
It uses small identical or
figures of objects called
isotopes in making
comparisons. Each
picture represents a
define quantity.
END OF PRESENTATION
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