MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR.

JOHN ADUMA JAMES

MATERIAL SCIENCE
BY
ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES

Introduction
Materials science, also commonly known as materials science and engineering, is an interdisciplinary
field which deals with the discovery and design of new materials. This relatively new scientific field
involves studying materials through the materials paradigm (synthesis, structure, properties and
performance). It incorporates elements of physics and chemistry, and is at the forefront of nano
science and nanotechnology research. In recent years, materials science has become more widely
known as a specific field of science and engineering.
Importance of Materials
A material is defined as a substance (most often a solid, but other condensed phases can be included)
that is intended to be used for certain applications. There are a myriad of materials around us—they
can be found in anything from buildings to spacecrafts. Materials can generally be divided into two
classes: crystalline and non-crystalline. The traditional examples of materials are metals, ceramics and
polymers. New and advanced materials that are being developed include semiconductors, nano
materials, biomaterials etc.

The material of choice of a given era is often a defining point. Phrases such as Stone Age, Bronze Age,
Iron Age, and Steel Age are great examples. Originally deriving from the manufacture of ceramics and
its putative derivative metallurgy, materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and
applied science. Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from
mining and (likely) ceramics and the use of fire. A major breakthrough in the understanding of
materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs
demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related to atomic structure in various phases are
related to the physical properties of a material. Important elements of modern materials science are a
product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and
carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the exploration of space.
Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such
as plastics, semiconductors, and biomaterials.

Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments were named
metallurgy departments, reflecting the 19th and early 20th century emphasis on metals. The field has
since broadened to include every class of materials, including ceramics, polymers, semiconductors,
magnetic materials, medical implant materials, biological materials and nano materials (materiomics).
Why Study Materials Science and Engineering?
• To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and performance.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
• To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with use.
• To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties.
All engineering disciplines need to know about materials. Even the most immaterial like software or
system engineering depend on the development of new materials, which in turn alter the economics,
like software-hardware trade-offs. Increasing applications of system engineering are in materials
manufacturing (industrial engineering) and complex environmental systems.
Classification of Materials
Like many other things, materials are classified in groups, so that our brain can handle the complexity.
One could classify them according to structure, or properties, or use. The one that we will use is
according to the way the atoms are bound together:

Metals: The valence electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that "glues"
the ions together. Metals are usually strong, conduct electricity and heat well and are opaque to light
(shiny if polished). Examples: aluminum, steel, brass, gold.
Semiconductors: The bonding is covalent (electrons are shared between atoms). Their electrical
properties depend extremely strongly on minute proportions of contaminants. They are opaque to
visible light but transparent to the infrared. Examples: Si, Ge, GaAs.
Ceramics: Atoms behave mostly like either positive or negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces between them. They are usually combinations of metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and carbides).Examples: glass, porcelain, many minerals.
Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually based on
H, C and other non-metallic elements. They decompose at moderate temperatures (100 – 400 C), and
are lightweight. Other properties vary greatly. Examples: plastics (nylon, teflon, polyester) and rubber.
Other categories are not based on bonding. A particular microstructure identifies.
Composites: Composites made of different materials in intimate contact (example: fiberglass,
concrete, wood) to achieve specific properties. Biomaterials can be any type of material that is
biocompatible and used, for instance, to replace human body parts.
Advanced Materials
Materials used in "High-Tec" applications, usually designed for maximum performance, and normally
expensive. Examples are titanium alloys for supersonic airplanes, magnetic alloys for computer disks,
special ceramics for the heat shield of the space shuttle, etc.
Modern Material's Needs
• Engineer efficiency increases at high temperatures :requires high temperature withstanding
materials

• Use of nuclear energy requires solving problem with residues, or advances in nuclear waste
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
processing.
• Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures.
• Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly.
• Civil construction–materials for unbreakable windows.
• Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics. Classifications of
Materials on thebasis of Atomic Bonding Forces:

Metallic materials
❖ Ferrous metals
Iron (ii) Stainless steel (iii) Carbon steel (iv) Steel
❖ Non ferrous metals
Aluminum, Copper , Titanium, Tungsten and Zinc
Non metallic materials
Composite, Ceramic, Polymeric and electronics
Alloys
❖ Ferrous
Stainless steel, Nickel steel, Vanadium steel, Manganese steel and Tungsten steel
❖ Non ferrous
German, Silver, Duralumin, Bronze and Brass

Special Materials:

Glass, super conductive materials, refractories (furnaces).

Properties of Materials:

❖ Mechanical properties
Young’s modulus, Tensile stress, Shear stress, Strength, Hardness, Toughness, etc.
❖ Physical properties
Conductance, Magnetic properties and Optical properties
❖ Chemical properties
Corrosion Oxidation and Reduction
Metallic Material

Introduction:
Metallic materials are inorganic substances which are composed one or more metallic elements and
also contain some non metallic elements. Metals are usually found in the form of ores which are raw
or crude form impurities includes oxides, sulphides, nitrites, sulphates and traces elements like inert
gasses. Ferrous materials are usually refers to the materials that have a high content of iron in
them. Iron is the one of the most common element in earth crust making 5% of earth crust. Ferrous
compounds are usually garnished in color.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Occurrence of Iron:

Iron is never available in pure form it is available in the form of different ores the most common ore
is hematite various form of iron and steel are obtained by purifying and adjusting the composition of
pig iron by suitable methods.

Types of Iron Ores (on the basis of IronContent):

❖ Magnetite (72%-75%) Fe3O4

❖ Hematite (70%) Fe2O3
❖ Iron pyrite (47%) FeS
❖ Siderite (40%) Fe2Co3
The reduction of hematite is easy so we prefer it. Iron is extracted from hematite or the separation of
iron by reduction with carbon isvery reactive. This process takes place in a blast furnace at 2000c0.

Types of Ferrous Metals:

Pig iron, Cast iron, Wrought iron and steel

Pig Iron:

It is most impure and crudest form of iron. To remove the impurities from the ores some treatments
are necessary. Pig iron contains (4%-5%) carbon content. Carbon is added by melting it the
product obtained is called pig iron.

Properties of Pig Iron:

➢ It is neither ductile nor malleable.

➢ It melts easily.
➢ It is difficult to bend.
➢ Its fusion temperature is 1200c0.
➢ It can be hardened but cannot be tempered.
➢ It cannot be magnetized.
➢ It does not rust easily.
➢ It cannot be welded.
➢ It has very high compression strength but very small intension and shear.
➢ It is low in cost.

Uses of Pig Iron:

➢ It is use in the manufacturing of cast iron.

➢ It is use in the manufacturing of wrought iron.
➢ It is use in the manufacturing of different forms of steels.
➢ It is use to make wheels.
➢ Because of its high compression strength it is use in columnboxes and plates.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES

Cast Iron:

When we melt the pig iron in the presence of coke and calcium carbonate the product obtained is
called cast iron. It has gray whitecolor its gray color is due to the presence of graphite and white due
to the presence of carbon (carbides).It can be transferred into different molds of desired shapes and
size. It contains (2%-3.5%) carbon content and a small amount of manganese.

Properties of Cast Iron:

➢ It is available in two colors gray and white.

➢ Its structure is crystalline and fibers.
➢ It is brittle in nature.
➢ It cannot wit stand shocks and impacts.
➢ It cannot be welded.
➢ It cannot be magnetized.
➢ It is not ductile.
➢ It is not malleable.
➢ It cannot be crust easily.
➢ Its melting point is (1175%-1290%)CO.
➢ It can be hardened and tempered.

Uses of Cast Iron:

➢ It is used for making grain water pipes.

➢ It is used for making columns.
➢ It is used for making storage tanks.
➢ It is used to support for heavy machinery.
➢ It is used for making wheel and railway tracks.
➢ It is used for making wrought iron.

Wrought Iron:

It is the purest form of iron. It contains 99.5% iron and 0.5% impurity. In wrought iron corrosion
will be large. It is the most common type of iron used in engineering.

Properties of Wrought Iron:

➢ Its structure is fibers.

➢ It is ductile and malleable.
➢ It can be welded
➢ It is tough.
➢ It can withstand shocks and impacts.
➢ Its melting point is 1500co.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
➢ It can be magnetized.
➢ It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

Uses of Wrought Iron:

➢ It is used for making sheets due to its malleability.

➢ It is used for making rods.
➢ It is used for making gas pipes.
➢ It is used for making boiler tubes.
Steel: Steels are the large family of metals which consists mostly of iron and other elements usually carbon
ranging (0.2%-2.1%) depending upon the grades carbon is the most common alloying material for iron but
various other alloying metals may also be used such as manganese, chromium, tungsten, vanadium
etc…Differencebetween cast iron and steel is due to its carbon contents. Steel goes harder and tougher with a
n increase in carbon content up to 1.5%.this carbon will not combine with iron and will be present asa free
graphite.

Types:

Carbon steel, Stainless steel and Alloy steel

Carbon Steel:

Steel containing (0.2%-1.5%) carbon content is called carbon steel it is further classified
into 3 types.

❖ Low carbon steel (dead mild steel)

❖ Medium carbon steel (mild carbon steel)
❖ High carbon steel

The comparison of carbon content and uses of these three types of carbon steel is given in
table as:

Types Carbon content Use in making

Low carbon steel 0.2% Sheets, wires,
pipes
Medium carbonsteel (0.3%-0.7%) Wheels, axels,
boilers, blades
High carbon steel (0.7%-1.5%) Surgical instruments,
blades, sprigs,
cuttlry

Cast Steel:
If carbon content is greater than 1% thensteel is called as cast steel.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Stainless Steel:

It contains (14%-18%) chromium and (7%-9%) nickel.

Alloy Steel:

It has also three types

✓ Manganese steel (10%-18% manganese)

✓ Silicon steel (1%-5% silicon)
✓ Nickel steel (2%-04% nickel)

Properties of Medium Carbon Steel:

➢ Its structure is fibers.

➢ It has dark blue color.
➢ It is ductile and malleable.
➢ It is more tuff and elastic.
➢ Its corrosion rate is high.
➢ It can be magnetized permanently.
➢ It can with stand with shocks and impacts.

Uses of Medium Carbon Steel:

➢ It is extensively used to reinforce the concrete structures.

➢ It is used in construction works. Like angle iron, rods, e-
sections etc…
➢ It is used in the manufacturing of various tools. Like machine
parts and railway tracks etc…

Properties of High Carbon Steel:

➢ It has granules structure.

➢ It is more tuff and elastic then medium carbon steel.
➢ It is easy to harden and tempered.
➢ It is more difficult to weld.
➢ It can be magnetized easily.
➢ It can withstand shocks and impacts.

Uses of High Carbon Steel:

➢ It is used in surgical instruments.

➢ It is used in cutlery.
➢ It is used in making springs.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
➢ It is used in tools for drilling.
➢ It is used in making blades.
➢ It is used in machine parts with good hardness, toughnessand durability.
Crystalline and Non-crystalline materials:
Single Crystals
Crystals can be single crystals where the whole solid is one crystal. Then it has a regular geometric structure
with flat faces.
Polycrystalline Materials
A solid can be composed of many crystalline grains, not aligned with each other. It is called polycrystalline.
The grains can be more or less aligned with respect to each other. Where they meet is called a grain
boundary.
Non-Crystalline Solids
In amorphous solids, there is no long-range order. But amorphous does not mean random, since the distance
between atoms cannot be smaller than the size of the hard spheres. Also, in many cases there is some form of
short-range order. For instance, the tetragonal order of crystalline SiO2 (quartz) is still apparent in
amorphous SiO2 (silica glass.)

Miller Indices: A system of notation is required to identify particular direction(s) or plane(s) to characterize
the arrangement of atoms in a unit cell
Rules for Miller Indices (Planes)
➢ Determine the intercepts of the face along the crystallographic axes, in terms of unit cell dimensions.
➢ Take the reciprocals
➢ Clear fractions
➢ Reduce to lowest terms
➢ For example, if the x-,y-, and z- intercepts are 2, 1, and 3, the Miller indices are calculated as:
➢ Takereciprocals:1/2,1/1,1/3
➢ Clear fractions (multiply by 6): 3,6, 2
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
➢ Reduce to lowest terms (already there)
Some General Principles
➢ If a Miller index is zero, the plane is parallel to that axis.
➢ The smaller a Miller index, the more nearly parallel the plane is to the axis.
➢ The larger a Miller index, the more nearly perpendicular a plane is to that axis.
➢ Multiplying or dividing a Miller index by a constant has no effect on the orientation of the plane
➢ Miller indices are almost always small.

Why Miller Indices?

➢ Using reciprocals spares us the complication of infinite intercepts.
➢ Formulas involving Miller indices are very similar to related formulas from analytical geometry.
➢ Specifying dimensions in unit cell terms means that the same label can be applied to any face with a
similar stacking pattern, regardless of the crystal class of the crystal. Face 111 always steps the same
way regardless of crystal system.

Failure

Fundamentals of Fracture
Fracture is a form of failure where the material separates in pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the
melting point. The fracture is termed ductile or brittle depending on whether the elongation is large or small.
Steps in fracture (response to stress):
• Crack formation
• Crack propagation
Ductile Fracture
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES

Stages of ductile fracture

➢ Initial necking
➢ Small cavity formation (microvoids)
➢ Void growth (ellipsoid) by coalescenceintoa crack
➢ Fastcrackpropagationaroundneck.Shearstrainat45o
➢ Final shear fracture(cup and cone)
The interior surface is fibrous, irregular, which signify plastic deformation.

Brittle Fracture

There is no appreciable deformation, and crack propagation is very fast. In most brittle materials, crack
propagation (by bond breaking) is along specific crystallographic planes (cleavage planes). This type of
fracture is transgranular (through grains) producing grainy texture (or faceted texture) when cleavage
direction changes from grain to grain. In some materials, fracture is intergranular.
Fatigue:

Fatigue is the catastrophic failure due to dynamic (fluctuating) stresses. It can happen in bridges, airplanes,
machine components, etc. The characteristics are: • long period of cyclic strain
• The most usual (90%) of metallic failures (happens also in ceramics and polymers)
• Is brittle-like even in ductile metals, with little plastic deformation
• It occurs in stages involving the initiation and propagation of cracks.
Electrical Properties
Electronic and Ionic Conduction
In metals, the current is carried by electrons, and hence the name electronic conduction. In ionic crystals, the
charge carriers are ions, thus the name ionic conduction.

Electrical Resistivity of Metals

The resistivity then depends on collisions. Quantum mechanics tells us that electrons behave like waves.
One of the effects of this is that electrons do not scatter from a perfect lattice. They scatter by defects, which
can be:
➢ Atoms displaced by lattice vibrations
➢ Vacancies and interstitials
➢ dislocations, grain boundaries
➢ impurities
One can express the total resistivity ρtot by the Matthiessen rule, as a sum of resistivities due to thermal
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
vibrations, impurities and dislocations. Fig. 19.8 illustrates how the resistivity increases with temperature,
with deformation, and with alloying..

Semiconductivity
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Semiconductor can be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic means that electrical conductivity does not depend on
impurities, thus intrinsic means pure. In extrinsic semiconductors the conductivity depends on the
concentration of impurities. Conduction is by electrons and holes. In an electric field, electrons and holes
move in opposite direction because they have opposite charges.
In an intrinsic semiconductor, a hole is produced by the promotion of each electron to the conduction band.
Semiconductor Devices
A semiconductor diode is made by the intimate junction of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor (an n-
pjunction). Unlike a metal, the intensity of the electrical current that passes through the material depends on
the polarity of the applied voltage. If the positive side of a battery is connected to the p-side, a situation
called forward bias, a large amount of current can flow since holes and electrons are pushed into the junction
region, where they recombine (annihilate). If the polarity of the voltage is flipped, the diode operates under
reverse bias. Holes and electrons are removed from the region of the junction, which therefore becomes
depleted of carriers and behaves like an insulator. For this reason, the current is very small under reverse
bias. The asymmetric current-voltage characteristics of diodes are used to convert alternating current into
direct current. This is called rectification.

Superconductivity:
Superconductivity is the ability of certain materials to conduct electrical current with no resistance and extremely
low losses.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Loading:

Any engineering materials are subjected to force both during processing/fabrication and in services.
When a force is subjected to an engineering material it may result in translation, rotation and
deformation of that material. Aspects of translation and rotation of materials are deled by
engineering dynamics. We restrict our cells here to the subject of materials under deformation
forces. Deformation constitutes both changes in shape called distortion and change in size/volume
called dilatation.

Types of Loading:

Tension or Tensile, Compression, Shear and Torsion

Tension or Tensile:

Tension or tensile is developed when a material is subjected to pulling a load. For example when
using a rope to lift a load.
Compression:
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Compression is developed within a material when forces compress or crush the materials. For
example a column that supports anoverhead beam is in compression.
Shear:

Shear occurs within a material when external forces are applied in parallel lines but in opposite
directions. Shear force can separate the materials by sliding part of it in one direction and rest of
part is in opposite direction.

Torsion:

Torsion is the variation of pure shear. Shear stress in this case is the function of applied torque.
Shear strain is related to the angle of twist. In short torsion is twisting any object due to an applied
torque.

Elastic and Plastic Deformation:

Material deformation can be permanent or temporary. Permanent deformation is irreversible and

stays even after the removal of applied forces such a deformation is called as plastic deformation

Inelastic Deformation:
Time dependent recoverable deformation under loadis called as inelastic deformation.
Creep:
Time dependent progressive permanentdeformation under
constant load is called creep.
while the temporary deformation is reversible and disappears after the removal of applied forces
such a deformation is called as elastic deformation. So elastic deformation is recoverable. Both kinds
of deformation can be a function of time or independent of time.

Stress:
When a material is subjected to an external force it will eithertotally comply with that force and be pushed
away or it will set up the internal forces to oppose that forces. Solid materials are generally act wither like a
spring when stressed or compressed the internal forces come into play as it is easily seen when spring is
released. A material is subjected to an external force that tends to stretch it is called as tension. Whereas
forces which squeeze the material are put in compression. The term stress represented byゅσょ is used for
force per unit area and has units of Pascal’s.
Strain:

The material in tension or compression change its length and change in length compared to the
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
original length is refers to as strain. The strain is represented by a symbol called epsilon ゅ€ょ.Since
strain is the ratio of two lengths so it has no units and it frequently expressed as percentage.

Hooke’s Law:

(ooke’s law states that the tension of spring is direct proportion with the load added to it as long as
this load does not exceed the elastic limit. Materials obeying the (ooke’s law are known as linear
elastic or Hookean materials. If a spring is gradually stretched the force needed to increase but the
material spring that to its original shape when the force is increased. Materials that obey (ooke’s law
exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain. This linear relationship between stress and
strain can be shown in the form of a graph as this graph shows that as we increase or decrease the
stress the strain also increase or decrease with same proportion respectively. So both are directly
proportional to each other.

Many materials following (Hooke’s law until a certain level of stress has been applied after which the
material will distort more severely. The point at which the straight line behavior ceases is called
limit of proportionality. Beyond this the material will not spring back to its original shape and said to
exhibit some plastic behavior. This stress at which the material starts to exhibits permanent
deformation is called elastic limit or yield point. If stress is increased beyond yield point the sample
will eventually break. The term UTS ultimate tensile stress is used for the maximum value of tensile
stress that a material can withstand without breaking and it is calculated as…

maximum tensile force

UTS=
original cross−sectional area
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES

Where EL= elastic region, YP= yield point, LOP= limit of proportionality, PR= plastic region,
UTS= ultimate tensile strength.

Young’s Modulus:

)t is the description of an object or substance’s tendency to deform elastically when the

force is applied to it. Young’s modulus of an object is defined as, the slope of its stress and
strain curve in the elastic deformation region. The slope of stress over strain graph varies
with stress so we gradually take the slope of initial straight line portion. The units of
young’s modulus are those of stress since strain has no units.

Mechanical Properties of Metals:

The some important mechanical properties of metals are given below as…

Contraction and Expansion, Density, Strength, Hardness, Toughness, Elasticity, Plasticity, Ductility
Malleability, Brittleness, Fusibility and Creep.
➢ Contraction and Expansion:
When metals are heated or cooled they are either expand or contract. It is the one of the
important property of metals. When metals are heated they expand and become larger while
cooling themetals causes them to contract or shrink in size. It is very important for metals that
are used in process industry to consider temperature changes and how they affect the metals.
➢ Density:

Density is the physical and mechanical property of the metals which may be defined as mass
per unit volume metals have high density then the non metals this is because of the tiny packed
crystals in the metal structures. Metal density is very important factor in different structures i.e.
vehicles machines etc…

➢ Strength:

Strength is the property of metals that enables the metals to resist deformation under load there are three
types of strength as…

Tensile Strength Fatigue Strength Impact Strength

✓ Tensile Strength:
It is the measurement of the resistance to being pulled apart whenplaced in a tension load.
✓ Fatigue Strength:
It is the ability of metals to resist the rapidlychanging in stresses for a specified number of cycles.

✓ Impact Strength:
It is the ability of metals to resist suddenly appliedloads and measured in foot pound of force.
Hardness:
It is the resistance to deformation, penetration, abrasion and distortion etc… there are many
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
methods to measure the hardness of a metal the hardness of a material is always specified in the
terms of a particular test that is used to measure this property Rockwell Brinell Bickers are some of
the methods of testing these tests Rockwell is the most frequently used method for measuring the
hardness of a material the basic principle used in the Rockwell test is the harder material can
penetrate a softer one.
Toughness:

Toughness is the ability of metals not to break in pressure applied such as tearing, shearing,
stretching, bending and deforming. Toughness of metal should be able to absorb energy up to
fracture. It enables materials with stand shocks and to be deformed without rupturing when a rod is
bend its outer surface is stretches and the inside radius of the rod is compresses the more a material
is bends the more outer surface is stretches an inner radius is contracts a tough material is one that
gives relatively small changes in length when subjected to tension and compression in the other
words the small value of stress over strain. Tough materials are desirables to vehicles, machines and
large structures.

➢ Elasticity:

Physical or mechanical property of metals which makes it to able to return in to its original
shape after it has been deformed. Elasticity is the ability of the materials to return in to its
original shape after the load is removed theoretically the elastic limit of a material is the limit to
which material is loaded and still recovers its original shape after the load is removed.

➢ Plasticity:

It is the ability of the material to deform permanently without breaking or rupture by carefully
alloying of metals then combine the combination of plasticity and strength is used to
manufacture the large structures.

➢ Ductility:

It is the physical and mechanical property of metals that allows the metals to deform, drawn, bends
or twists in to different shapes by applying the tensile forces without fracture or breaking. Ductile
metals are vitals in creating wires or tubes because of its easy of forming. For example platinum,
copper and steel etc…
➢ Malleability:

It is the property of the materials that enables the materials to be deformed by compressive
forces without developing the defects like breaking cracking etc… malleable material is one of that
stress hammer forget rolls into thin sheets. The sheets of metals are then used to form shapes for
structures mechanically need for example gold, manganese and copper etc…
➢ Brittleness:

Brittle metals are one that breaks shatters before it deformed. While cast iron and cast aluminum
very hard steel and glass is the one of the best example of the brittle materials. Generally a brittle
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
metal are very high in the compression strength and in tensile strength. Brittle metals are not
suitable for the heavy loads as they could break easily and can cause the damage.

➢ Fusibility:

It is the mechanical property of the metals to be liquefied by heating this process is called welding.
Here metals are liquefied and then joined together when it becomes harden it becomes one piece.
Steel liquefy at 2500oF while aluminum alloy at 1110oF.

➢ Creep:

Creep is the tendency of metal to moves slowly or deform permanently under the influence of
stresses. It occurs as the result of the long term exposure to a high level of stress that are below the
yield point of the material. Creep is more swear in materials that are subjected to heat for the long
periods and near the melting points. Creep is always increases with the temperature the rate of this
deformation is a function of materials properties exposure times’ exposure temperature and applied
structural loads. Creep deformation is the time dependent deformation. The temperature ranges in
which the creep deformation may occur is different in various metals. As a rule of thumb the effects
of the creep deformation generally becomes more noticeable at approximately 30% of melting
points of the metals and 40%-50% of the melting points of ceramics.
Non Ferrous Materials

Introduction:

Ferrous materials are usually refers to the materials that have alow content of iron in them.

Some important non ferrous metals are aluminum, copper, lead, tinand zinc.

Aluminum:

Aluminum found its maximum use in every field of engineering due to its particular properties
softness, lightweight it has become very useful metal in all over the world. Modified metallurgical
processes have improved strength and durability of different metals to such an extent that it has
made maximum use of aluminum in engineering processes.

Properties:

✓ It is highly ductile.
✓ It is malleable.
✓ It is light in weight.
✓ It can withstand corrosion.
✓ It is the good conductor of heat and electricity.
✓ It is very soft in nature.
✓ It can be melted easily.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Uses:

✓ It is use in making door and windows.

✓ It is use in making pipes.
✓ It is use in making electrical cables.
✓ It is use in making panels.
✓ )t is use in making air craft’s.
✓ It is use in making automobile parts.
✓ It is use in making alloys.

Copper:

Copper is one of the most widely used metal but due to its highprice we use it with some
limitations in engineering work.

Properties:

✓ It is crystalline in nature.
✓ It has reddish brown color.
✓ It is highly ductile.
✓ It is highly malleable.
✓ It can be welded when red hot.
✓ It is the excellent conductor of heat and electricity.
✓ Its corrosion rate is low.
Uses:

✓ It is use as base in paint.

✓ It is used in lead batteries.
✓ It is used in lead joints in sanitary fittings.
✓ It is used for cable covering.
✓ It is used in lead alloying bullets.
✓ It is used in lining the instruments in metallurgicalinstruments.

Tin:

Tin is very common metal in the family of non ferrous metals. It is mostly use as a
protection layer for the protection of different metals.

Properties:

✓ It has silver white color.

✓ It is ductile.
✓ It is malleable.
✓ It is the good conductor of heat.
✓ Its melting point is 2300C.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
✓ Its specific gravity is 7.3

Uses:

✓ It is use to give coating to iron and steel sheets.

✓ It is used in making different alloys.
✓ It is extensively in electroplating.
Zinc:

Zinc is commonly use as a protective metal or in making alloys.

Properties:

✓ It has blue color.

✓ It is crystalline in nature.
✓ It is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable and ductile between
10C-1500C above the 2100C itbecomes brittle again.
✓ It is very good conductor of heat and electricity.

Uses:

✓ )t forms important alloys like brass and German silver etc…

✓ It is use in making fertilizers.
✓ It is use in making printing blocks in textile industry.
✓ It is use in making alloys making.
✓ It is use as a base in paints.
ALLOY
Alloys are usually the combination of metallic alloys is a metallic solution composed of two
or more materials alloying you to add one metal into other one or more metals or non
metals in molten state and then allow freezing. An alloy is generally prepared to increase
strength, hardness, toughness, resistance to corrosion, thermal conductivity, electrical
conductivity, tensile strength, shearstrength and young’s modulus.

For examples

Sr. Name Composition

no.
1 Brass Cu+Zn
2 Bronze Cu+Zn+Sn
3 Stainless steel Fe+Cr+Ni
4 Steel Fe+other elements usually carbon and traces
of otherelements
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Ferrous Alloys:

Ferrous alloys has iron as major component chromium, vanadium, nickel, tungsten,
molybdenum and manganese are metals that forms ferrous alloys with iron.

Types:

Nickel Steel Vanadium Steel Tungsten Steel Manganese Steel Stainless Steel

➢ Nickel Steel:

A steel containing up to 60% nickel sometimes with other metals added to assist hardening
during their formation is called nickel steel. The nickel increases the strength and the elastic
limit of the alloys usually nickel steel contains 0.5%-1% of carbon 3.5% of nickel and 93%-
95% of iron and a small amount of chromium. Ifthe percentage of nickel present in the steel
is increased through to 30%-40% then such steel is called as special steel which has very low
thermal expansion.

Properties:

✓ Presence of nickel in this steel improves the hardness, toughnessand strength of alloys.
✓ Presence of nickel in this steel reduces the corrosion rate.

Uses:

✓ It is use in the manufacturing of the automobile parts.

✓ Special steel is used for making dilatate sophisticated itemslike aero plane parts.

Vanadium Steel:

It contains 0.1%-0.2% of vanadium with small amounts ofimpurities.

Properties:

✓ It is strong and ductile.

✓ Capable of resisting shocks.
✓ Its elasticity is very high.

Uses:

✓ It is used in making different rods.

✓ It is use in making surgical instruments.
➢ Tungsten Steel:

It contains 14%-20% tungsten, 3%-8% chromium and very small quantities of carbon and
molybdenum. It is sometimes called high speed steel.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Properties:

✓ It is very hard at high temperatures and ability to retaintemperature.

✓ It has resistant to corrosion.

Uses:

✓ It is use in making drilling machines.

✓ It is used for making high speed cutting tools.
➢ Manganese Steel:

It contains 14%-15% manganese addition of manganese in the steel makes it very hard and
non magnetic.

Properties:

✓ It is very hard.
✓ It is non magnetic.

Uses:

✓ It is use in making different machine parts.

✓ It is use in making railway tracks.

➢ Stainless Steel:

Stainless steel is the name given to the group of alloys that contains minimum of 10.5%
chromium. Chromium has high affinity for oxygen and forms stable oxides films on the surface
of the stainless steel the film is called the passive oxide layer and form instantaneously in
ordinary atmosphere this films is self healing and rebuilds when it has been removed this film
that gives the stainless steel corrosion resistance in metallurgy stainless steel is also called inox
steel or simply inox.

Types:

The large group can be classified as…

Austenitic Stainless Steel, Ferritic Stainless Steel, Martensitic Stainless Steel, Duplex Stainless Steel and
Perception Hardening
❖ Austenitic Stainless Steel:

This group of stainless steel contains 0.15% carbon 17%-25% chromium 8%-20% nickel
with other additional elements to achieve the required properties corrosion resistance can
be enhanced by adding chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. The most widely useful
austenitic steel is 304 grade or A2 SS.

Properties:
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
✓ Standard A2SS are resistive to stress corrosion cracking.
✓ Higher nickel austenitic steel has increase resistance to stresscorrosion cracking.
✓ It is normally non magnetic but exhibit some magnetic response depending up [on
the composition and the hardening of the steel.
❖ Ferritic Stainless Steel:

They are usually contains 10.5%-27% chromium 0.08%-2% carbonand a very small amount
of the nickel in any types but some types may contain lead also most composition includes
molybdenum, aluminum and titanium. Increases the chromium a parts increases the
resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures. Ferritic steel have better engineering
properties then austenitic steel. Series 400includes many Ferritic steels.

Properties:

✓ It is usually limited in use to relatively thin sections due to lack of toughness in

welds.
✓ They cannot be hardened by heat treatment.
✓ Ferritic steel are also chosen for their resistance to stresscorrosion cracking
✓ They are not as formable as austenitic steels are.
✓ They are magnetic in nature.

❖ Martensitic Stainless Steel:

This group contains 12%-14% chromium 0.2%-1% molybdenum less than 2% nickel and
about 0.2%-1% carbon. These steels are not corrosion resistance as austenitic steel and
Ferritic steels but are extremely strong and tough. The high carbon content of this steel
allows them to response well to the heat treatment to gives various mechanical strength
such as hardness. 400 series includes many Martensitic steels.

Properties:

❖ These are extremely strong and tough.

❖ These are highly machined able.
❖ They cannot be hardened by the heat treatment.
❖ They have generally low welding and forming ability.
❖ They are magnetic in nature.

❖ Duplex Stainless Steel:

They are characterized by the high chromium content 19%-32% molybdenum contents and small
amount of nickel contents then austenitic stainless steel. They have mixed microstructure of the
both austenitic stainless steel and Ferritic stainless steel. The aim is usually to produce 50/50 mix
although in commercially alloy duplex stainless steel has roughly 2 times strength compare to
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
austenitic steel. Lean duplex stainless steel is formulated to have comparable corrosion resistance to
the standard austenitic stainless steel but enhanced strength and resistance to stress corrosion
cracking. Super duplex stainless steel have enhanced strength and resistance to other forms of
corrosion compared to the austenitic stainless steel. S32750 is a super duplex stainless steel desire
to resistance to pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion. For resistance to stress corrosion cracking
and for very high strength application include oil and gas industry, offshore, petrochemical plants,
desalination plants and mechanical and structural components demanding high strength combine
with high corrosion resistance.

Properties:

✓ They are weldable but need care in the section of welding.

✓ It has moderate form ability.
✓ They are magnetic in nature but not so much as ferritic stainless steel and
austenitic stainless steel.
✓ They have resistance to the stress corrosion cracking, pittingcorrosion and crevice
corrosion.

❖ Perception Hardening:

These steels can develop very high strength by adding elements such as copper and aluminum
etc… with suitable heat treatment very fine particles from the matrix of steel which imparts
strength. The most common (17-4) perception hardening contains 17% chromium and 4%
nickel.
Properties:

✓ They have corrosion resistance comparable to austeniticstainless steel.

✓ They have highest strength then other Martensitic grades.
✓ These steels can be machines to quit delicate shapes.

Non Ferrous Alloys

Introduction:

Non iron alloys over 90% ferrous alloys are based on metals manganese, copper, nickel, aluminum,
manganese and titanium etc… these elements are more expensive then iron but each element has
specific applications due to its unique properties.

There are 4 types of non ferrous alloys as follows…

❖ Brass, Bronze, Duralumin and German Silver

❖ Brass:

It is an alloy containing about 30%-40% zinc and 60%-70% copper. The hardness of this alloy
depends upon the amount of zincpresent.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Properties:

✓ It is ductile.
✓ It is malleable.
✓ It has good corrosion resistance.
Uses:

✓ It is used in household utensils.

✓ It is used in making water pumps.
✓ It is used in making machine parts.

❖ Bronze:

These alloys contain 90% copper and 10% tin and some quantity ofzinc and silicon.

Properties:

✓ It has good corrosion resistance.

✓ It has good thermal resistance

Uses:

✓ It is used in household utensils.

✓ It is used for making coins.
✓ It is used for making the radio signal antenna.
✓ It is used for making certain other instruments.

❖ Duralumin:

It is alloys that contain 94% aluminum 4% copper 2% manganeseand sometimes

manganese and silicon.

Properties:

✓ It has resistant to corrosion due to the presence of aluminum.

It is the good conductor of heat and electricity.

Uses:

✓ It is used for making surgical instruments.

✓ It is used for making aero plane and automobile parts.

❖ German Silver: It is an alloy containing 20%-35% zinc and 40%-60% copper and a small amount of
nickel.

Properties:

✓ It is good in corrosion resistance.

MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
✓ It has very high tensile strength.

Uses:

✓ It is used in household utensils.

✓ It is used for making valves.
✓ It is used for making parts of typewriter.
✓ It is used for making musical instruments.
✓ It is used for making automobile parts.

Corrosion:

Corrosion is the disintegration of a material into its constituent’s atoms due to chemical
reaction on it by its surroundings. In the most common use of the world this means
electrochemical oxidation of the metals with an oxidant such as oxygen formation ofoxide of
iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms it is a well known example of electrochemical
corrosion commonly known as rusting.
This type of damage typically produces oxides salts of organic metals corrosion can also
refer to other materials than metals such as ceramics and polymers etc… but usually the
term degradation is used.

Types:

Uniform General Attack Corrosion, Galvanic Corrosion, Pitting Corrosion, Crevice Corrosion, Intergranular
Corrosion, Stress Corrosion, Erosion Corrosion, Cavitations Damage, Fretting Corrosion and Selective
Leaching
➢ Uniform General Attack Corrosion:

Uniform general attack corrosion is characterized by corrosive attack proceeding evenly over the
entire surface area of a large surface area of the total area. It is simply oxidation and reduction
occurring uniformly over the surface it results from the direct chemical attack and involve majorly
the metal surface in natural environment.
Prevention: Corrosion occurs uniformly over the entire surface of the metal component. It can be practically
controlled by the cathode protection use for coating or paints.

➢ Galvanic Corrosion:

It is also known as dissimilar metal corrosion or wrongly electrolysis. Galvanic corrosion is refer to
the corrosion damage include when two dissimilar metals are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte.
When a galvanic couple is forms one of the metals in a couple become anode and corrodes faster
than it would by itself while other becomes the cathode slower than it would alone.

For galvanic corrosion to occur three conditions must be present…

✓ Electrochemically dissimilar metals.

✓ These metals must be in the electrical contact.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
✓ The metal must be exposed to the electrolyte.

Prevention: It can be prevented by insulating the metals keeping metals dry or sheelted from ionic
compounds coating, electroplating and choosing metal of similar potential.

➢ Pitting Corrosion:

It is the form of extremely localized corrosion that leads to creationof the small cavities in metal. The
driving path or pitting corrosion is due the presence of oxygen around a small area. It can occur in
any metal but its most common metals that form the protective oxide film such as aluminum and
magnesium alloys. It is first noticeable as a white or gray powder deposit

Prevention: It can be prevented by controlling the alloys environment proper selection of materials with
known resistance to environment. A cathodic or anodic protection service using higher alloys for increased
resistance.

➢ Crevice Corrosion:

It is a localize form of the corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on a micro
environmental level. Crevice corrosion is a corrosion occurring in species to which the access of
working fluid from the environment is limited. These species are generally called as crevices.

Prevention: It can be prevented by the liquid removal increasing contents by controlling alloys
environmental design vessel from which complete drainage of the liquid may be possible. Used weld joints
instead of nuts and bolts. Use known absorbent gas kit such as Teflon.

➢ Intergranular Corrosion:

It occurs between the grains that form when a metal is solidified. The composition of the ores
between the grains differ from the grains themselves. The grain boundary and the grain centre react
with each other as an anode and cathode when in contact with an electrolyte. It is difficult to detect
the Intergranular corrosion in its early stages when the overall lose of thickness remains
minimum.

Prevention: It can be controlled by using high temperature solution after heating and welding and also using
lower carbon contents to 0.03%.

➢ Stress Corrosion:

Stress corrosion cracking is a sudden failure of normally ductile metals due to the corrosion.

It is caused by the simultaneous effect of tensile stress and corrosive environment.

Prevention: It can be prevented by the proper selection of material, remove corrosive environment and use
carrion inhibitators.
➢ Erosion Corrosion:
It is also called as fatigue corrosion. It is a combination ofmechanical erosion with chemical or
electrochemical reaction. Erosion corrosion is acceleration in the rate of corrosion attack inthe
metal due the relative motion corrosive fluid and metal surface.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Prevention: It can be prevented by using the appropriate lubricant.

➢ Cavitation Damage:
It is caused by the formation and collapse of air bubbles filledcavities near the metal surfaces.
When a liquid is subjected to rapidly changes pressure causing the formation of cavities in low pressure
region of liquid. This phenomenon is very common in pump impellers.

Prevention: It can be prevented by controlling turbulence and using corrosion inhibitators.

➢ Fretting Corrosion:

It occurs between two highly loaded surfaces which may not besupposed to move against each other.

It is associated with the welding and heat treatment problems.

Prevention: It can be prevented by using high temperature solutions afterwelding and heat treatment and
by using corrosion inhibitators.
➢ Selective Leaching:

This type of corrosion is usually caused in alloys by the galvanicmechanism of the removal of one metal
component from the alloy.

Prevention: It can be prevented by de-zincification of such as brass (Zn+Cu).

Non Metallic Materials

Introduction:

The term ceramics comes from a Greek word ╉keramikos╊ which means burnt stuff indicating
desirable properties of these materials are normally achieved through a high temperature heat
treatment this process is called as firing.

Ceramics can be defined as Solid compound that are formed by the application of heat and sometimes by
heat and pressure comparing at least two elements provided one of them is a non-metal and other is a metal
or non-metallic elemental solid in other words what is neither a metal, semi-conductor or a polymer is a
ceramic in simple ceramicsmaterials are inorganic material that may be a crystalline or partially crystalline
they are formed by the action of heat and subsequent cooling-ceramics are usually associated with mixed
bonding a combination of ionic, covalent and sometimes metallic bond. Some melting points of ceramics
compounds are given in the table given below…

1 Hafnium Carbide HfC 4150

2 Titanium Carbide TiC 3120
3 Tungsten Carbide WC 2850
4 Magnesium Oxide MgO 2798
5 Silicon Carbide SiC 2500
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
6 Boron Carbide B4C3 2450
7 Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 2050
8 Silicon Dioxide SiO2 1715
9 Silicon Nitride Si3N4 1900
10 Titanium Dioxide TiO2 1605

Types:

Traditional Ceramics and Advanced Ceramics

Traditional Ceramics: Traditional ceramics includes high volume atoms bricks tiles toilet bowls and pottery.
Traditional ceramics usually based on clay and silica there is sometime tendency to equate traditional
ceramics with low technology however advanced manufacturing techniques are used. Examples are clay,
Al2O3.2SiO3.2H2O, silica SiO2, feldspar K2O.Al2O3.6SiO2
Advanced Ceramics: Advanced ceramics are often referred to as special ceramics, technical ceramics and
engineering ceramics. They exhibit superior mechanical properties like corrosion, oxidation, resistance,
electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Advanced ceramics includes newer materials such as LASER host
materials piezo electric ceramics ceramic for dynamic RAM. Examples Al2O3, SiC and Si3N4.

Clay:

Clay is a major and basic component of ceramic materials. Clay consists mainly of hydrated
aluminum silicates with small amounts of other oxides such as iron oxide, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O,
titanium oxide Ti2O.

Types:

Kaolin, Tenn Ball Clay and Key Ball Clay

Ceramic Melting Point % Covalent % Ionic

Compound ° character character

Magnesium Oxide 2798° 27% 73%

Aluminum Oxide 2050° 37% 63%
Silicon Dioxide 1715° 49% 51%
Silicon Nitride 1900° 70% 30%
Silicon Carbide 2500° 89% 11%

Composite Materials:

It is a material composed of the mixture or combination of the two or more constituents that differ
in the form and chemical composition which are essentially insoluble with each other i.e. remains
separate and distinct at microscopic and macroscopic scale with in a finished structure. The
engineering importance of the composite materials is that two or more distinctly different
materials are combined together to form a composite material which posses the properties that are
superior to the properties of the individual components some of the composite materials are
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
concrete, bath tubes and wood etc…

Types:

Natural Composite Material and Synthetic Composite Material

➢ Natural Composite Material:

The examples of natural composite materials are wood, teeth, plant leaves, bones, silk and bird
finger.

➢ Synthetic Composite Material:

Most of the composite materials are synthetic plastic compositematerials they are further sub divided in
to three main types…

Fiber Glass Carbon Fiber Aramid Fiber

✓ Fiber Glass:

Fiber glass are produced by monofilaments of glass from a furnace containing molten glass. A large
number of these filaments are fluidized and greater to form a rope. These ropes are also called as
strands.
✓ Carbon Fiber:

Carbon fiber is a composite material made by using the carbon fibers for reinforced plastic resins
such as epoxy resins are characterized by having a combination of light weight and increase the
properties of the materials for example the adhesive property; very high strength and elasticity.
These properties make use of the carbon fiber composite material especially attractive for
aerospace. The relative high cost of the carbon fiber restricts its use in auto industry.

Resources of Carbon Fiber:

Carbon fibers are mainly produces from two sources as follows…

✓ PAN (poly acrylo nitrile)

✓ Pitch

Carbon Fiber Process Stages:

Stabilization, Carbonization and Graphitization

• Stabilization:

In the stabilization state PAN fibers are first stretched to align hence the fiber network within
the each fiber parallel to each otheris formed then they are oxidized in air at 200oC-220oC
which are held in tension.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES

• Carbonization:

In the second stage of carbonization the high strength carbon fibersare achieved in this
process the stabilize PAN fibers are heated until they will come transform in carbon fiber
with the elimination of the hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. Carbonization treatment is usually
carried out in an inert atmosphere 1000oC-1500oC most of the carbon fibers are completed in
the second stage.

• Graphitization:

It is used if an increase in the properties such as elasticity is desire. It is done in the carbon fibers at
expense of the high tensile strength. Graphitization is usually done above 18000C in an inert
atmosphere of a gas such as argon after the graphitization carbon fiber is produced and sends to the
market for sale.

✓ Aramid Fiber:

It is a generic name for the poly amide fibers Aramid fibers are available under the trade name of
Kevlar and that present time there are two commercial types of the Kevlar that are available…

• Kevlar 29
• Kevlar 49

Properties of Kevlar 29:

It is a low density high strength Aramid fiber which is design for applications such as ballistic missiles
ropes cables etc…

Properties of Kevlar 49:

It makes its fibers useful as reinforcement for plastic and aerospace, automobile and other
industrial applications. In general words Kevlar is used as a high performance composite material
application where light weight, high strength, high stiffness, damage resistance, fatigue resistance
and stress rupture areimportant. Kevlar 49 is mostly used in the industrial equipments.
Comparison between Glass Fiber/CarbonFiberandAramid Fiber:

✓ Carbon fiber provides the best combination of high strength, high stiffness, low density and low
elongation.
✓ Aramid fiber is the best combination of high strength, high stiffness, low density and high
elongation.
✓ Glass fiber has low strength and elasticity then Aramid fiber but they are very cheap therefore
more widely used in the engineering applications.

Polymeric Materials:
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
The word polymer means the many units polymeric solid material may be consider to be one of that
contain many chemical bonds or units which themselves are bounded together to form a solid the
chemical reaction in which high molecular mass molecules are formed from monomers is called as
polymerization.

➢ Addition Polymerization
➢ Condensation Polymerization

Methods of Polymerization:

✓ Continuous Method
✓ Batch Method

✓ Continuous Method:

In this process the monomers and the activators are continuously fed in to the reactor from
where the catalyst is present and the continuous product is received at the other end.

✓ Batch Method:

There are 4 types of batch method as follows…

• Bulk
• Suspension
• Emulsion

• Bulk:

Monomers and the activators are mixed in a reactor which is heated and then cooled as
required this process is used experimentally for condensation polymerization. Where one
monomer may be charged in to the reactor and the other added slowly. The bulk can be used for
the many reactions due to its low heat of reaction. The monomers is dissolved in a non reactive
solvent which contains a catalyst the heat released by the reaction is absorbed by the solvent
and so the reaction rate is slow.

• Suspension:

The monomers are mixed with a catalyst and then dispersed as a suspension in to the water in
this process the heat release by the reaction is absorbed by the water after the polymerization
the polymeric product is separated and dried.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
for the thermoplastic materials some of the product is manufactured by the extrusion
process are pipes, rods, sheets and many other kinds of shapes extrusion machine is also
used for making compounds plastic materials for the production of the raw shapes such as
pallets in the extrusion process the thermo plastic material is fed in to a heated cylinder and
the melted plastic is formed y a rotating screw through an opening in to a mold to get a final
shape after ejecting from a die the extruded part must be cooled the cooling is usually done
in the presence of air or water.

✓ Blow Molding:

In blow molding a cylinder or tube of the heated plastic is paste between the jaws of mold and
compresses where is blown which forces he plastic against the walls of the mold.

Polyethylene:

The structural formula of polyethylene is [-CH2-CH2]n. Polyethylene is clear to whitish

thermoplastic material and it is often fabricated in to thin film and has a waxy appearance with the
use of proper color agent a wide variety of color product is obtained.

It has two types…

• Low Density Polyethylene

• High Density Polyethylene

Low density polyethylene has a branched chain structure and high density polyethylene has a
straight structure.

Production of Low Density Polyethylene:

Unipole process for the production of the low density polyethylene is one of the important methods.
In this process ethylene monomers with some co monomers are fed continuously in to a fluidized
bed reactor in fluidized bed reactor a special catalyst is also added the advantages for this process is
the low temperature for the polymerization i.e. 1000C and 100 Psi low pressure. From the top of the
reactor the polyethylene gas is passed through a compressor and through a cooler where nitrogen is
passing to cool down the product and granular polyethylene is received after the cooling process.

Properties:

✓ Polyethylene is extensively used as a plastic material andaccounts 32% of the total plastic
produced in the world.
The main reason for its prime production is that it is low in cost and has many industrially
important properties such as high toughness at room temperature sufficient strength and flexibility
over a wide range of temperatures down to -730C.
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
✓ Other properties include excellent corrosion resistance and insulating properties.

Uses:

✓ It is used for the electrical insulation.

✓ It is used in chemical tubing.
✓ It is used in house wears.
✓ It is used in blow molding bottles.
✓ It is used in film and film packing.

Polyvinylchloride:

Its structural formula is [-CH2-CHCl-]n. Polyvinylchloride is widely used synthetic plastic

that has second largest sale in the world and wide spread use of polyvinylchloride is due
to its high chemical resistance and unique activities to produce a large number of
compounds with a wide range of physical and chemical properties. Polyvinylchloride can
be used for a few applications without the addition of the number of compounds which
can be added in polyvinylchloride to makes its application versatile are plasticizer, heat
stabilizers, lubricants, fillers and pigments.

✓ Plasticizer:

Plasticizers are additives that increase the fluidity and plasticity of the materials to which
they are added. These are high molecular compounds which are selected to be completely
miscible and compatible with the basic material for example phthalate esters are
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
commonly used plasticizers. Dioctile phthalate (DOP) is the main plasticizer for
polyvinylchloride.

✓ Heat Stabilizers:

Heat stabilizer are added to previously to prevent the thermal degradation during
processing and also help to extend the life ofthe finished product typical heat stabilizer
used are organic and inorganic metallic compounds based on tin, lead, calcium and zinc.

✓ Lubricants:
Lubricants help the polyvinylchloride to flow during processing and prevent
addition to met6al surface waxes fatty esters and metal soaps are commonly
used as lubricants.
✓ Fillers:

For polyvinylchloride calcium carbonate is the main filler to reduce the cost of
finished product.
✓ Pigments:

Organic and inorganic pigments are used give color and weather ability to
polyvinylchloride compounds.

➢ Uses of Rigid Polyvinylchloride:

•
Polyvinylchloride alone can be used for some applications but is difficult to
process rigid polyvinylchloride is used for pipes, window frames and
electrical conduits.
➢ Uses of Plasticizer Polyvinylchloride:
• The addition of plasticizer to polyvinylchloride produces softness
flexibility and extensibility. Plasticizer polyvinylchloride is used for
furniture, auto industry, shoes, luggage, transportation, electrical
insulation, floor tiles, refrigerator and house wears.

Polypropylene:

Its structural formula is [-CH2-CH-CH3]n . Is the third largest plastic from the production
point of view. It is one of the low cost plastic materials. Because it is produce from the low
cost petrochemical materials. It has a good resistant to moisture chemical and heat it has
low density and good surface hardness. The major applications are house wears,
electrical appliances, bags, rugs, mats, packing’s; laboratory wears bottles of various
types and transportation of delicate items.

Teflon:

It has structural formula [-CF2 – CF2-]. Teflon is completed fluorinated polymer formed by
the free radical chain polymerization of Teflon gas to produce linear chain polymer of
CF2 the original discovery of the polymerization of tetrafuoroethylene in to Teflon is made
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
by R.J Plunbelt Teflon is a crystalline polymer with a melting point of 3270C. it has high
density and exceptional resistance to chemical it is insoluble to all organic compounds.
Teflon is slippery and waxy to touch and has low friction it is used for low chemical
resistant pipes high temperature applications, cable insulation, laboratory wears and
insulating tapes etc… it is also used in packing seals, gear and other composite materials.

Special Materials

Introduction:
Refractory:

A refractory material is one that retains its strength at high temperature. It is defined as
the non metallic materials having those physical and chemical properties that make them
applicable for structures or as a component of a system that are exposed to environment
about 10000F. a material can be described as a refractory if it can with stand the action of
abrasive or corrosive solids, liquids and gases at high temperatures. Refractory materials
are used in the lining of the kiln, furnaces, incinerators and reactors. They are also used to
made crucibles. Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and shapes
depending on their applications.

General Properties:

✓ They can withstand high temperature.

✓ It can withstand sudden change in temperature.
✓ It can withstand sudden action of molten metal slag like glass
and hot gases etc…
✓ It can withstand load at severe conditions.
✓ It can withstand abrasive forces.
✓ It can conserve heat.
✓ They have low coefficient of thermal expansion.
✓ They should not contaminate the material with which itcomes in to contact.

Types:

On the basis of Chemical Composition

Acidic Refractories, Basic Refractories, Neutral Refractories and Special Refractories
On the basis of End Use
Casting Pit abd Blast Furnace
On the basis of Methods of Manufacturing
Dry Press Process, Fused Cast, Hand Molding, Fired Chemically Bonded, Formed Normal and
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
Unformed
GLASS:

Glass is a form of ceramics. It is distinct from other ceramics materials in that of its
constituents are heated to fusion and then cooled to rigid states without crystallization
chemically.

Glass can be defined as the combination of silicates and various oxides. It is an inorganic fusion
which is cooled to rigid conditions without crystallization glass is a hard material normally fragile
and transparent it is mainly compose of sand and an alkali these materials at high temperature
fused together then they cooled rapidly to form rigid structure the composition of glass and grade
of cooling depends upon the final use and application of glass.

GENEREL COMPOSITION:

The most common component of glass is sodium per oxide silicates boron oxide alumina
and others.

PROPERTIES:

✓ Glass is a solid and hard material.

✓ Glass has a disordered and amorphous structure.
✓ Glass is fragile and easy breakable.
✓ Glass is transparent to visible light.
✓ Glass is corrosion and strain resistance.
USES:

✓ It is used for making utensils.

✓ It is used for making windows.
✓ It is used for making furniture.
✓ It is used for making optics.
✓ It is used for making various decorating objects
✓ It is used for illuminations.

TYPES:

There are basically 11 types of glass as follows…

Fused silica glass, 96% silica glass, Soda lime glass, Lead silicate glass, High lead glass, Boro-silicate
glass
Low electrical glass, Alumina boro-silicate glass, Low alkali glass, Alumina silica glass and Glass
ceramics
❖ Fused silica glass:

It is also called as 99.5% silica glass it is most important single component glass it has
high spectral transmission and it is not subjected to radiation damage therefore it is
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
an ideal glass for space technology and for optical system in spectrometric devices
silica glass is difficult to process therefore it is very expensive.

❖ Soda lime glass:

It is the most commonly used glass which accounts for almost 90% of the all
glasses produced in the world in these glass basic constituents are…

Sr name percentage%
no.
1 SiO2 71%-73%
2 Na2O 12%-14%
3 CaO 10%-12%

Sodium per oxide and calcium oxide decrease the softening point of the glass from 1600%
to 730% so that soda lime glass is easier to form and addition of 7.4% of magnesium oxide
in soda lime glass is to prevent it from cracks and then an addition of 0.5% to 1.5% of
alumina can increase the durability of this glass this will improves the properties of soda
lime glass it is easily fabricated and used where chemical durability and heat resistant are
not needed. It is used for glass containers pipes lightening products.

❖ Boro silicate glass:

Replacement of alkali oxides by boron oxides in the silica network produces a low
expansion glass when boron oxide enter in the silica network it weaken its structure
and considerably lower its softening points however addition of this oxide also improves
the chemical resistivity of these glass boro silicate glass also called as pyrex glass and due
to its chemical stability it is extensively used in lab equipments and Owen wears due to its
low expansion, good thermal shock resistance and chemical stability.

❖ High lead glass:

It is also called as 58% lead glass this is formally called lead glass it is a very common type
of glass lead oxide is usually used as modifier in silica network which changes and
improves its properties lead glass with lead oxide contents lowers the melting points of
glass it can be easily fabricated lead oxide increase the strength and durability of the glass
lead glass has found its maximum use as decorating glass it is also used in radiation
windows flouresent lamps and TV bulbs.

GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESSES:

Glass product are formed by heating the glass to a high temperature to produce a viscous
liquid and then molding and drying to desired shapes there are two methods which are
commonly used for the glass processing…
MATERIAL SCIENCE BY ENGR. JOHN ADUMA JAMES
➢ Sheet forming method
➢ Fload glass method

About 85% of that glass is produced by the Fload glass method in this process a ribbon of
molten glass is moves out of the melting furnace and floats on the surface of the tin bath
this glass ribbon is then cooled by moving across the tin bath under chemically controlled
atmosphere when its surface is sufficiently hard the glass sheet is removed from the
furnace and passed through a long annealing furnace which is called as ╉lehr╊.

SHAPING OF THE GLASS:

When working with a glass in its plastic state (easily moldable, flexible structure or state)
five basic steps are applied to produce almost limitless variety of shapes these five
methods are given as follows…

Casting, Glass blowing, Pressing, Drawing and Rolling

➢ Casting:

In this process molten glass is simply poured in to a mold and allow to cool and solidify in
molten time centrifugal casting process have been developed in which glass is forced
against the sides of rapidly rotating molds this is capable of forming precise light weight
shaping such as TV tubes furnishes etc…

➢ Glass blowing:

This is one of the important technique used in glass shaping in glass blowing process a
hollow iron pipe about 4 feet long with a mouth piece at one end is used the glass blow
commonly known as jaffer connects a small amounts of molten glass commonly known as
gather on the other end of blow pipe the jaffer then blows into the pipe causing bubbles in
the gather by blowing air jaffer controls its forms and thickness different types of molds
are used now a days to make this gather useful products for furnished word and polishing
of glass the gather is transferred to solid iron mold since 1903 a fully automated blow
machine has been invented which isextensively used in now a days.

➢ Pressing: Pressing is the technique used for shaping the glass people used simple hand
pressing for this process in ancient days but now a day’s modern glass are used for this purpose
in this process a gather of glass is dropped into a ,old and plunger then squeeze the glass
between itself and outer mold and forms the final shape.

➢ Drawing: Molten glass can be drawn directly from the furnace tomake sheets fibers and
different rods.

➢ Rolling: Sheet glass in particular walls are originally produced by pouring molten glass in a flat
surface by a roller which smoothesit between in the two surfaces.