Tool Engineering – Course Introduction

(ME23203)

ACADEMIC YEAR 2025-26, ODD TERM

Lecture Contents
• Mechanics of metal cuttings.
• Types of metal cutting process:Orthogonal and Oblique.
• Cutting Forces: shear angle and Merchant’s Circle
• Cutting tool geometry: Single point cutting tool and its tool signature.
• Cutting tool materials: Types, composition, properties and applications.
• Carbide inserts: Types, ISO -designation and Applications.
 Course Rationale: Need & Role
 First Line Supervisor-
 Automobile & Auto components
 Light & Heavy Engineering Sector  Selection of Appropriate Tools

 Indian Metal Cutting Machine Too  Machining Strategies

Industry: 42000 Cr
 Tooling Management
 10 Tool Rooms by MSME Ministry all over
India
 Machining Management
 Make in India & FDI What is my Role as  Technical Supervision & Execution
Diploma Holder?
 Productivity
 Initial Job Opportunities Associated?
Sales &
Supervisor in Press shop
Marketing of
Machine Supervisor
Tools
Shop

Supervisor in J & F / Press

Tool Room Careers Tool
Designer

Supervisor in
Tool Supervisor in
Manufacturing Supervisor in
Jigs & Fixture
Units Tool QC
Manufacturing
 Course Outcomes
Evaluate cutting tool geometry and its tool signatures.
CO1
Apply locating and clamping concept to a given component
CO2
CO3 Design a jig and fixture for a given component.
CO4 Analyze the press tool operation required for a specific component.
CO5 Compute parameters of bending and drawing dies.
Develop basic features of forging die for given simple component
CO6
Course Structure
Unit Title Instructional Hrs Marks Weightage
I Fundamentals of cutting tool. 12 10
II Locating and clamping devices 08 08
III Jigs and fixtures 09 08
IV Press Tools 12 12
V Bending and Drawing dies 11 12
VI Forging Dies 08 08
Total 60 60
Unit Outcomes
On completion of this unit, student will be able to:
1. Describe why newer tool materials are developed?
2. Describe the factors considered in tool material selection
3. Describe the various requirements (characteristics) of tool materials
4. Describe various tool materials and their applications.
5. Describe mechanics of metal cutting
6. Describe Orthogonal cutting and Oblique cutting.
7. Differentiate between Orthogonal cutting and Oblique cutting
8. Describe single point tool geometry
9. Describe significance of various parameters/elements of single point tool
10. Describe various cutting forces involved in metal cutting
11. Describe Merchant’s force Circle diagram
12. Describe types of Carbide inserts.
13.Describe ISO-designation of Carbide inserts. with types, and Applications
14.Describe Applications of Carbide inserts.
 Review of Manufacturing Processes
Metal Casting Processes
Metal Forming Processes
Fabrication Processes
Machining Processes Subtractive Process
Additive Manufacturing
Processes
Name various machining operations/ Cutting
Operations using hand tools you performed
during workshop practices?
Hand Operations
Machining Conditions
 Metal Cutting Action

 Forces & Velocities

 High Temperature at Interfaces

 Application of Cutting Fluid

 Tool-Workpiece Behaviour

 Continuous/ Intermittent Cutting

 Why do we need newer tool materials?
A. New work materials with different machinability are developed
B. New manufacturing technologies/ emergence of new applications of materials for tool
materials- PM, CVD, PVD etc
C. Requirement of more accuracy, surface finish
D. Specific requirements of aerospace sector, ordinance sector – difficult to machine materials
E. Higher speeds of machining required for high volume production
F. CNC technology
G. Cut throat competition at global level
Factors considered in Tool material
Selection
 Workpiece Characteristics
 Cutting Conditions: Speed, feed, DoC
 Dry/ Wet machining
 Temperature Generated
 Type of Operation & Machine Tool
 Economics of Machining
 Finished Product Characteristics & Production Requirements
 Process Plan: Previous & Post Operations
 Human Factors
 Basic Requirements of Tool Materials
HIGH TEMPERATURE HIGH TEMPERATURE
STABILITY (HTS) STABILITY (HTS)

C
A
RESISTANCE TO ABRASIVE WEAR RESISTANCE TO ABRASIVE WEAR
RUPTURE / BRITTLE FRACTURE RESISTANCE RUPTURE / BRITTLE FRACTURE RESISTANCE
(RBF) (AWR) (RBF) (AWR)
Requirements of Tool Materials
 Tool Hardness
 Wear & Abrasion Resistance
 Toughness
 Chemical Inertness with Work material & Cutting
Fluids
 Low Cost
 Low Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
 High Thermal Conductivity
 Low coefficient of Friction between work & Tool
Hardness & Hot Hardness
 Tool material must be harder than work material
 During Machining, Temperature at Tool- Work piece Interface
increases
 High strain rates at elevated temperatures make the
conditions severe
 .Tool materials loose the hardness at high temperature
 Tool Hardness shall be 35 to 50 % larger than work material.
 T. N. Loladze Hardness Ratio Condition
𝐻 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙
𝐻 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
] modified < 1.5
Wear and Abrasion Resistance
material shall have high wear and abrasion resistance so that tool
 Tool
does not wear out during machining and no frequent grinding is required
 Also the tool should not abrade and loose material due to friction with
work material or the hardened chip. This can reduce the mechanical
strength and can result in tool failure.
 This is due to formation of craters on rake surface of tool or flank wear
while rubbing against the job
 Certain additions (alloying can develop the wear and abrasion resistance
like W, V, Cr, Mo
Resistance to Rupture (Mechanical Strength)
 Machining involves feed force, cutting force
 High strain formation at high temperature
 Metal cutting can be continuous or intermittent
 Intermittent cutting develops impact stresses.
 Due to this, tool cutting edges, cutting point may chip out

 To avoid this chipping/ breakage, tool material must have

sufficient mechanical strength and toughness
CHEMICAL INERTNESS WITH WORK AND
CUTTING FLUIDS
 While machining, the tool material shall not have any chemical affinity towards
work material to avoid any adhesion or diffusion. If happens will reduce tool life
and will also affect on high temperature stability of tool.

 Also the tool material shall be inert with respect to cutting fluid to avoid any
chemical reaction.
LOW COST
LOW COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
 Necessary for high temperature dimensional stability

 Also important in coated inserts to avoid separation of coatings

 Important to face the thermal cycling (shocking) during machining i.e frequent
changes in temperature, to avoid induction of thermal stresses (and ultimately
breaking of tip)

 The coefficient of thermal expansion shall be low and match with the tool
holder if the inserts are used to avoid cracking of inserts.
HIGH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
 Tool material shall possess high thermal conductivity so that the heat
developed during machining can be carried away from point of cutting to avoid
tool failure
MACHINABILITY AND FORMABILITY
The tool material shall have ease of machining/ grinding to facilitate imparting
required shape/ form/ tool geometry to tool

Effect of addition of Vanadium in HSS?

Cast Alloy tools?

Cost of Tool Material
 The cost of tool material shall be low to attain machining economics

 Cost of materials + Cost of Technology decide the cost of tooling

 Appropriate tool material for appropriate application necessary, else

machining may not be economical

 Volume of production, regrind cost, tool life, type of operation, availability will
justify cost of the tool material
Hardness V/s Temperature and Hot Hardness,
Wear Resistance V/s Toughness, Strength
Chronology of Tool
Materials of
Development
Types of Cutting Tool Materials:
• Carbon Tool Steels (CTS)
• High Speed Steels (HSS)
• Cast Alloys (Stellites)
• Cemented Carbide
• Ceramic Tools
• Cermets
• Silicon Nitride (SiN) base Tool materials
• Diamond (Single Crystal – Natural)
• Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
• Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
• Whisker-Reinforced Tool Materials
• Coronite
 • 0.6-1.5% carbon + little amount of Mn, Si, Cr, V to increase
hardness.
Carbon Tool Steels : CTS • Low carbon varieties possess good toughness & shock resistance.
• High carbon varieties possess good abrasion resistance

Carbon Tool Steels :

 All tools manufactured from CTS upto 1870
 Tools of small sections operating at lower speed,
Hand tools, wood working, deburring, hand
tapping
 Low hot hardness
 Can not regain hardness after cooling
 Max working Temp: 250oC
 Max cutting velocity 9 m/min
 Low Hardenability, susceptibility to cracking
during quenching
 Low wear resistance
 Easy to grind
 Types of Carbon Tool Steels

Cold Working Tool Steel -Used for cold working of metals- may or may not contain small alloying, so cheap

Water Hardening steels (W series) Oil Hardened Steels (O series)/Oil Air Hardening Steels
Hardening, non-shrinkage steels
 Plain Carbon steel: 0.6-1.4%C, 0.1- (OHNS)  Have high hardenability due to Mn,
0.4%Si, 0.1-0.4%Mn Cr, Mo, W
 Contain small amount of W, Mn, Cr,
 Applications: Low production volume Mo, V  Minimum distortion, high wear
blanking dies, hand threading dies, resistance, good hardening depth
hand drills, form tools, hammers,  Better hardenability than W series
chisels, wood working tools, shear  Applications: Thread rolling dies,
 Less distortion
blades drawing dies, gauges, punches
 Blanking, forming dies, shear
 Limitations: Low Hot hardness, cracking blades, master tools, gauges
during hardening, distortion/ warpage,
oxidation, decarburization, grain  E.g.1%C, 0.95%Mn, 0.5%W,
coarsening tendency 0.75%Cr, 0.2%V
 Hot Working Tool Steels
 Used for hot working of metals
 Stamping, drawing, forming, piercing, extruding, upsetting, swaging
 Good strength, toughness, hardness and WR at higher temperature

Cr-Type W-Type Mo-Type

 3-7%Cr, 0.35-,55%C with small  9-18%W, 0.3-0.5%C, 2-12%Cr-  14-20% alloying of Mo, Cr, V,
amount of W, Mo- ductile & W, 0.55-0.65% C
tough
 High red hardness, WR
 Al & Mg die casting dies,  Intermediate in properties
extrusion dies, forging dies, hot  Forging dies, extrusion dies for between Cr type and W type
sheers brasses, hot punches with a balance between hot
hardness and toughness
 High Speed Steel (HSS)
• High carbon+ little amount Tungsten, Molybdenum, Cr, V
& cobalt to increase hardness, toughness and wear
résistance.
• Two types of HSS i.e, is T-type and M-Type
• Vanadium increases abrasion resistance but higher
percentage will decreases grindability.
• Chromium increases hardenability
• Cobalt is added to HSS to increase red hardness.

 HSS is suitable for high volume, low cutting speed (with respect to carbide tools)
operations
 Suitable for machining on aged machine tools with less rigidity, vibrations
 Good for machining heat resistant steels, tough alloys
High Speed Steel
Alloying is maintained so that the material gives maximum response to
hardening (63-70 Rc), High wear resistance, High Temperature stability
and toughness---- required for industrial metal cutting
Depth of hardening can be controlled. Hardening is followed by multiple
tempering
Can retain hardness upto 550oC while machining at 45-108 m/min (4-10X
higher speed than Carbon Tool Steels- so called High Speed Steels)
Because of their toughness and high resistance to fracture, HSS are especially
suitable for (a) high positive rake-angle tools, (b) interrupted cuts, (c)
machine tools with low stiffness that are subjected to vibration and chatter,
and (d) complex and single-piece tools.
HSS
Two basic types of HSS: molybdenum (M-series) and tungsten (T-series)
 M-series: up to about 10% molybdenum, with chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and cobalt as
alloying elements
 M-series generally has higher abrasion (rubbing) resistance than the T-series, undergoes less
distortion during heat treating, and is less expensive. About 95% of all HSS tools are made of the M-
series
 T-series: 12% to 18% tungsten, with chromium, vanadium, and cobalt as alloying elements
 Basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe
 Such HSS tool could machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speed only upto 20 ~ 30 m/min
 HSS is still used as cutting tool material where- • the tool geometry and mechanics of chip
formation are complex, such as helical twist drills, reamers, gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools,
broaches etc. • brittle tools like carbides, ceramics etc. are not suitable under shock loading • the
small scale industries cannot afford costlier tools • the old or low powered small machine tools
cannot accept high speed and feed. • The tool is to be used number of times by resharpening.
 Cast Alloys (Stellites)
 Non ferrous tool material, casted in required form , developed in 1915 (Elwood
Haynes)
 Objective is to obtain the tool material superior in hot hardness than HSS
 General composition: 40-50% Co, 27-32% Cr, 14-29% W, 2-4% C
 Example: 45% Co, 32% Cr, 21% W, 2% C
 Can not be heat treated & easily brazeded with steel shank due to same coefficient of
thermal expansion
 Used upto 800oC
 Hard (58-64 Rc) & Brittle & 25-30% higher cutting speed than HSS
 High abrasion resistance
 Not tough and hence sensitive to impact
 Less used due to “hard to grind”, after invention of carbide tool materials
 Available as inserts, round bars, square bars
 Used only for special applications that involve deep, continuous roughing cuts at
relatively high feeds and speeds -- as much as twice the rates possible with HSS.
Useful in machining scaly materials with hard inclusions
Cemented Carbide
• These are carbides of W, Titanium and tantalum with small amount of
cobalt produced by means of powder metallurgy route.
• Two types i.e, Straight Tungsten Carbide Cobalt Grade and Alloyed
Tungsten Carbide Grade

 Tungsten Carbide particles bound (cemented)

together by cobalt matrix (Straight /Plain Grade)
 Carbide Tools exist in the form of inserts (with
multiple cutting edges) of various shapes and
grades as per suitability to cut different materials
 Hard (90-93 Rc), brittle
 High Hot Hardness (more than 900oC)
 High cutting velocity (200-500% more than HSS)
 High Compression Strength
 Low thermal expansion (compared to steel),
Low specific heat, High stiffness
 • Aluminium Oxide, Silicon Carbide, Boron Carbide,

Ceramic Tools Titanium Carbide, Titanium Boride

• High speed, longer tool life, superior surface finish, No
coolant is required.
 Non metallic cutting tool material
 Available in the form of indexable Inserts of fine grained Alumina,
Al2O3 Particles
 Hard at high temperature but brittle
 High compressive strength but poor tensile and bending strength
(Low TRS)
 High wear resistance, Low thermal conductivity
 High hot hardness, Chemically inert with many work materials
 High cutting speeds (3-4x than carbides)
 Requires negative back rake angle
 Expensive processing but close monitoring required
 Ceramic Tools
 Ceramic tools can be used for machining steels, cast iron, and nickel-base
super alloys, even in their hardened condition, many nonferrous alloys and
composites
 Titanium alloys, aluminium alloys, and some stainless steels cannot be
machined with most ceramic tools (presently available) due to chemical
interactions between the ceramic tools and these work materials
 Ceramic tools, being brittle (low strength and fracture toughness), require
rigid, high precision machine tools for best performance. This is because even
the smallest amplitude of vibration of the machine tool system can lead to
chipping and failure of the tool,
 Many of the older machine tools not designed for ceramic tool applications,
as a result, they are inadequate in terms of cutting speed capability, power,
precision, and rigidity requirements for this application
 Not suitable for interrupted cutting applications due to brittleness
Cermets
 Cermets (ceramic and metal) were first used in the early 1950s
 consist of ceramic particles in a metallic matrix.
 Typical cermet consists of 70% aluminum oxide and 30% titanium carbide;
 Some other cermets contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide, and
tantalum carbide.
 Although they have chemical stability and resistance to build-up edge
formation, the brittleness and high cost of cermets have been a
limitation to their wider use.
 More strength than hot pressed Ceramic tools
Silicon Nitride (SiN)
 Developed in the 1970’s,
base Tool materials
 Silicon-nitride (SIN- Si3N4) base ceramic tool materials consist of silicon nitride with various
additions of aluminium oxide, yttrium oxide, and titanium carbide. [Si-Al-O-N]
 These tools have high toughness, hot hardness and good thermal shock resistance.
 SiAlON are high-temperature refractory materials, with high strength at ambient and high
temperatures, good thermal shock resistance and exceptional resistance to wetting or
corrosion by molten non-ferrous metals, compared to other refractory materials such as, for
example, alumina.
 They also are exceptionally corrosion resistant . Have high wear resistance, low thermal
expansion and good oxidation resistance up to above ~1000 °C.

 Used with negative rake and heavy hone

 Used for roughing, heavy cuts and interrupted cuts while machining steels and CI.
SiAlON is also recommended for machining nickel base super alloys at intermediate cutting
speeds.
Diamond (Single Crystal – Natural)
 Hardest material
 Low coefficient of friction
 High compression strength
 Extremely high wear resistance
 Produce very high surface finish at high speed with accuracy
 Diamond tools are used for light continuous finishing cuts using low
rake angles, low feed rate and high speed
 Diamond is not recommended for machining plain-carbon steels or
titanium and cobalt- based alloys, because of its strong chemical affinity at
elevated temperatures.
 Low coefficient of thermal expansion
 Brittle (Low TRS)
 Available in the for of Small tips bonded to insert base (carbide)
 Machine tool must be rigid to avoid vibration- Tool failure
Diamond (Single Crystal – Natural)
 High precision machining operations requiring reflective surface finish as optical machining,
computer memory discs, plastic lenses, lens mounts, parts of guiding systems in military
applications.
 No further grinding/ lapping required
Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
 Polycrystalline diamond is made of diamond micropowder and metal catalyst in high
temperature and high pressure environment, with excellent wear resistance and high
hardness
 Synthetic diamond manufactured under high pressure, high temperature conditions
 Densification technique used to form sizable mass of particles 2-25 micron and is bound on
substrate (carbide)
 High productivity, large tool life
 Limited to applications of machining nonferrous and non metallic materials (Al, Cu, Mg etc),
Ti-alloys, softer grade carbide tools, 12% Si alloys, aerospace composites, silica filled resins,
FRP
 Not recommended for Ni-alloys and high speed machining of steels
Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
 Cubic boron nitride (CBN)- similar to diamond in its polycrystalline structure (1962)
 Cutting tip bonded to a carbide base. [Made by bonding a 0.5-1-mm layer of polycrystalline CBN to a
carbide substrate by sintering
under high pressure and high temperature]
 CBN tools are also made in small sizes without a substrate.
 At elevated temperatures (1400oC), CBN is chemically inert to iron and nickel, and its resistance to
oxidation is high, so suitable for cutting hardened ferrous and high temperature alloys.
 Because CBN tools are brittle, stiffness of the machine tool and fixturing is important in order to avoid
vibration and chatter.
 To avoid cracking due to thermal shock, machining should generally be performed dry, particularly in
interrupted cutting operations such as milling.
 With the exception of titanium, or titanium alloyed materials, CBN will work effectively as a cutting
tool on most common work materials.
 However, the use of CBN should be reserved for very hard and difficult-to-machine materials due to
cost
 CBN will run at lower speeds, around 600 SFPM, and will take heavier cuts with higher lead angles than
diamond.
 Still, CBN should mainly be considered as a finishing tool material because of its extreme hardness and
brittleness.
 Whisker-Reinforced Tool Materials
 Developed for better performance & wear resistance to machine new work materials and composites
 High fracture toughness
 Resistance to thermal shock
 Cutting-edge strength
 Creep resistance. 9 Hot hardness.
 Whisker-reinforced materials include silicon-nitride base tools and aluminium-oxide base tools, reinforced with
silicon-carbide (SiC) whiskers
 (a) silicon-nitride-based tools reinforced with silicon-carbide whiskers, and (b) aluminium-oxide-based tools
reinforced with 25% to 40% silicon-carbide whiskers.
 Effective in machining composites and nonferrous materials (Not suitable for machining irons and steels)
 Silicon-carbide whiskers are typically 5 to 100 μm long and 0.1 to 1 μm diameter,
 Silicon carbide has high reactivity with ferrous metals makes SiC-reinforced tools unsuitable for machining irons and
steels.
Coronite
 Coronite has been developed for making the tools like small and medium size drills and milling
cutters etc. which were earlier essentially made of HSS.
 Coronite is made basically by combining HSS for strength and toughness and tungsten carbides for
heat and wear resistance.
 Microfine TiCN particles are uniformly dispersed into the matrix.
 Coronite based tool is made of three layers-
a) Central HSS or spring steel core
b) A layer of coronite of thickness around 15% of the tool diameter
c) Thin (2 to 5 μm) PVD coating of TiCN.
 The coronite tools made by hot extrusion followed by PVD-coatring of TiN or TiCN outperformed
HSS tools in respect of cutting forces, tool life and surface finish.
Single point Cutting tool geometry
 Single point Cutting tool geometry
1. Shank: The main body of the tool is known as the shank. It is the backward part
of the tool which is held by tool post.
2. Face: The top surface tool on which chips passes after cutting is known as a
face. It is the horizontal surface adjacent of cutting edges.
3. Flank: Sometime flank is also known as cutting face. It is the vertical surface
adjacent to the cutting edge. According to cutting edge, there are two flank side
flank and end flank.
3. Nose or Cutting Point:

The point where both cutting edge meets known as cutting point or nose. It is in
front of the tool.
4. Base: The bottom surface of the tool is known as the base. It is just the opposite
surface of the face.
5. Heel: It is an intersecting line of face and base.
6. End Cutting Edge Angle:

•The angle between the end cutting edge or flank to the plane perpendicular to the side
of the shank is known as the end cutting angle.
•This angle usually varies from 5 to 15 degree
7. Side Cutting Edge Angle:

The angle between the side cutting edge or flank to the plane parallel to the side of the
shank known as side cutting edge angle.
8. Back Rake Angle:

•The angle form to smooth flowing of chips from the face, known as rack angle. It allows
to smooth flow of chips.
•The back rack angle is the angle between the face and the plane perpendicular to the
end cutting edge.
•Softer the material, greater should be the positive rake angle.
•The back rake angle may be positive negative or neutral.
9. Side Rack Angle: The angle between the face and plane perpendicular to the side
cutting edge is known as the side rack angle. It allows chips to flow smoothly when
material cut by side cutting edge.
•The amount by which a chip is bent depends upon this angle. When the side rack
angle increases, the magnitude of chip bending decreases. Smoother surface furnish is
produced by a larger side rake angle.
10. End Relief Angle: It is also known as a clearance angle. It is the angle that avoids tool
wear. It avoid the rubbing of flank with a workpiece.
•End cutting angle made by end flank to the plane perpendicular to the base.
•This angle may vary from 6 to 10 degrees.
11. Side Relief Angle:It is the angle made by the side flank to the plane perpendicular
to the base. It avoid rubbing of side flank with a workpiece.
•This angle allows the tool to fed sideways into the job in order to cut the work
material without rubbing.
•When the side relief angle is very small, the tool will rub against the job and
therefore it will get overheated and become blunt and the surface finish obtained
will be poor.
12. Nose Radius:

The intersecting area of both cutting edges is known as the nose of the tool.
 Single point cutting tool signature.
The tool signature or tool designation is used to denote a standardized
system of specifying the principal tool angles of a single-point cutting tool.
Some common systems used for tool designation or tool nomenclature are
the following-
1. American or (ASA) System. It defines the principle angles like side rake, back
rack, nose, etc. without any reference to their location concerning cutting edge. As
such, this system of nomenclature does not give any indication of the tool behavior with
regard to the flow of chip during the cutting operation the three reference planes
adopted for designating different tool angles are similar to those used in conventional
machine drawing i.e, x-x,y-y, and z-z the last one containing the base of the tool and
the two plane being normal to this plane as well as mutually perpendicular. Thus, this
system is a coordinate system of tool nomenclature.
2. British system:
3. Continental systems:
This category of tool nomenclature systems includes the German or DIN System
(DIN-6581), Russian Systems (OCT-BKC 6897and 6898), and Czechoslovakian
System (CSN-1226).
4. International system:
Single point cutting tool signature.

American Standards Association (ASA)/ ASME System

 Single point cutting tool signature.

Example: A tool with 8, 10, 6, 6, 6, 10, 0.2, signature in the A.S.A system is
having the following specification.

• Back rake (αy) =8º

• Side rake (αx)=10º
• End relief angle (βy) =6º
• Side relief angle (βx) =6º
• End cutting edge angle (φe) = 6º
• Side cutting edge angle (φs) = 10º
• Nose radius = 0.2mm

Identify Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16- 0.8