- Pertains to the process of extracting from the

CHAPTER 1 given data relevant and noteworthy

information and this uses statistical tools or
INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS techniques.

LESSON I. WHAT IS STATISTICS D. Interpretation of Data.

- Refers to the drawing of conclusions or
Statistics
inferences from the analyzed data.
- is a branch of applied mathematics which deals
with the collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data. TYPES OF STATISTICS
- has become the universal language of the
sciences. 1. Descriptive statistics

- The Former
As potential users of statistics, we need to master - relates to the gathering, classification and presentation
both “sciences” and the “art” of using statistical of data and the collection of summarizing values to
methodology correctly. describe group characteristics of data.

Statisticians Most used summarizing values to describe group;

- They develop and apply appropriate methods in 1. characteristics of data are percentage
collecting and analyzing data. 2. measures of central tendency and location
- They guide the design of a research study then 3. measures of variability, skewness, and kurtosis.
analyze the results.
2. Inferential statistics

- The Latter
Statistical methods include;
- estimates or predict about large set of data
1) carefully defining the situation using the information gathered.

2) gathering data Commonly used inferential statistical tools/techniques

for testing hypothesis:
3) accurately summarizing the data
1.) z-test
4) deriving and communicating meaningful conclusions.
2.) t-test
3.) simple linear correlation
A. Data gathering or Collection. 4.) analysis of variance (ANOVA)
- May be done through interview, 5.) chi-squares
questionnaires, tests, observation, registration, 6.) regression
and experiments. 7.) time series analysis.

WHY DATA ARE NEEDED?

B. Presentation of Data.
- Refers to the organization of data into tables, • Data is the basic unit in statistical studies. Every
graphs, charts, or paragraphs. It may be tabular, research is based on data which is analyzed and
graphical, or textual. interpreted to get information to make a more informed
decision in a situation.
C. Analysis of Data.
Six Main Reasons for Data Collection/Obtaining Data
 1. Data are needed to provide the necessary input 2.) Nominal provides the least amount of detail, ordinal
to a survey. provides the next highest amount of detail, and interval
2. Data are needed to provide the necessary input and ratio provide the most amount of detail.
to the study.
3. Data are needed to measure performance of an
ongoing service or production process. TYPES OF VARIABLES
4. Data are needed to evaluate conformance to
1. Qualitative Variables
standards.
5. Data are needed to assist in formulating -variables associated with people or objects are
alternative courses of action in a decision- qualitative in nature, including that the person or object
making process. belongs to a category.
6. Data are needed to satisfy our curiosity.
-referred to as attributes, typically involve counting how
many people or objects fall into each category.
Key Data Collection Sources 2. Quantitative Variables
1. Data may already be published by - Yield numerical responses representing an amount or
governmental, industrial, or individual sources. quantity.
Example: The Philippine Statistics Authority
2. An experimental may be designed to obtain the Examples: weight, height, number of children.
necessary data.
3. A survey may be conducted.
4. An observational study may be conducted. Two types of quantitative variables

2a.Discrete Quantitative Variables

TWO TYPES OF DATA COLLECTIONS -produces numerical responses that arise from a
counting process.
1. Primary Sources
- It is measured and gathered by the researcher Example:
that published it.
•number of children- it is a discrete numerical
-They are the data collectors.
variable because the response is one of a finite number
of integers (0,1,2,3….).
2. Secondary Sources
- It is republished by another researcher or
agency.
-They are the data compilers. 2b. Continuous Quantitative Variables

-produce numerical responses that arise from a

measuring process.
LESSON II. TYPES OF VARIABLES AND Example:
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT •Height (5’4, 157cm, 1.5m)
The scale of measurement of your variables is important •Weight (130.42 kilos, 210lbs, 432 grams)
for two reasons.
•Temperature (32.5° C, 112°F)
1.) Each of the levels of measurement provides a
different level of detail.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT CHAPTER 1
Measurement- process assuming numerical value to a
variable. ACTIVITY #1
FOUR LEVELS OF SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 1. What are the four fundamental processes that
1. Nominal Level deals with statistics?

- no ordering is implied. ANSWER: Collection, organization, presentation,

analysis, and interpretation of data.
-weakest form of measurement because no attempt
can be made to account for differences within a 2. Why data are needed or important?
category or to specify any ordering or direction across
ANSWER: It assist in formulating alternative
the various categories.
courses of action in a decision-making process.
2. Ordinal Level

- ordering is implied.

-Data are ranked from “bottom to top” or “low to high

manner. Statements of the kind “greater than” or “less
than” may be made.

3. Interval Level

-It is an ordered scale in which the difference between

measurements is a meaningful quantity that does not
involve a true zero point.

4. Ratio Level

-It is an ordered scale in which the difference between

the measurements involves a true zero point as in
height, weight, age, or salary measurements.
 CHAPTER 2
KEY TERMS
SAMPLING & SAMPLING DISTRIBUTION
• Parameter - is a measurable characteristics of a
population mean denoted by “µ” (mu) and
LESSON I. SURVEY SAMPLING
population standard deviation denoted by “σ”
Survey Sampling (sigma).
• Statistic - is measurable characteristic of a
- refers to the process of choosing a sample of
sample such as sample mean denoted by “ẋ” (x-
elements from a total population of elements.
- process of selecting a subset of a population of
bar) or sample standard deviation, denoted
items for the purpose of making inferencesabout by “s”.
the whole population. • Sampling distribution - is a probability
Population distribution of statistics. Sampling distribution of
the mean it refers to the mean values of every
- totality of items or things under consideration. possible samples that can be obtained from the
It is also the large set of data. population.
- Target Population – population that is being • Sampling with replacement - used when a
studied. population element can be selected more than
- Population Size – denoted by “N” one time.
• Sampling without replacement - used when a
Finite Population population element can be selected only once.
- is µ which consists of a finite or fixed number of
• Standards error - refers to the standard
objects.
deviation of the sampling distribution. The
- Example: The number of students in a
standard error of the mean is the standard
university.
deviation of the sampling distribution of the
Infinite Population mean.
- has no limit, it’s size cannot be determined.
• Variable - noted by the letter X and Y, is a
- Example: The number of stars in the universe.
characteristic of interest for each person or thing
Sample in a population. It may be qualitative or
- is a subset of a population; it must possess the quantitative.
same characteristics of a population.
• Data - are the actual values of the variable. May
- denoted by “n”.
be numbers, or they may be in words. Datum is a
Survey single value.
- is a collection of information from the
elements of a population or a sample. QUALITY OF SURVEY RESULTS
- to conduct a survey, we select a sample and
collect the required information from the 1. Accuracy
elements included in that sample. - refers to the closeness of the parameter of
- we then make decisions based on this sample sample statistics to a population.
information. - Example: if the sample mean is 99 and the real
Census population mean is 100, then the sample mean
- a survey that includes every element of the is accurate with gap of 1unit.
2. Precision
target population.
- refers to the closeness of the estimates and the
Sample Survey
different samples.
- a survey conducted on a sample.
 - when the standard error is large, then the Where:
sample estimates are less precise.
• n is the sample size
3. Margin of Error
• N is the population size
- The maximum expected difference between
• e is the sampling error
the true population parameter and a sample of
that parameter us expressed by the margin error.
- The larger the margin of error, the less
confidence.

SAMPLING DESIGNS
1. Sampling Method
- is the process of selecting a part from a given
whole.
- make a generalization about the (unknown)
characteristics of a whole.
- rules and procedures by which some of the TYPES OF SAMPLING METHODS
elements of the population are included in the
sample. PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD
2. Estimator
- refers to the process of calculating sampling 1. Simple Random Sampling
statistics. - It is the simplest form of random sampling.
One in which every individual or item from a
Survey objectives and survey resources are two factors
frame has the same chance of selection as
where the “best” sampling design depend.
every other individual or item.
• Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling - the
Advantage of Sampling over Population process of assigning a unique number
1. Economy or reduced cost relative to doing a code to each of the N population
complete enumeration ofthe population. members. Blindly selects “n” mixed
numbers from a thoroughly mixed bowl.
2. Timeliness - with fewer observation to gather
• Using the Table of Random Numbers -
and process, the timeneeded to finish the study For large population sizes N, using a
is shorter. table of random numbers, which
3. Provides greater scope and coverage – for a includes rows and columns generated
given period, more itemscan be covered with manually or by a computer.
fewer observation. • Electronic Drawing of Lots - A
4. May generate more accurate results. computerized list of members can be
generated to generate a sample size n,
used by telecommunication companies
LESSON II. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES and media for raffle promotions.
DETERMING THE SAMPLE SIZE OF 2. Systematic Random Sampling
THE POPULATION -selects every kth element from an ordered
Slovin’s Formula population, differing from simple random
- is popularly use for determining the sample sampling as not all n-element combinations
size for a survey research have equal chances.
- it is easy to use and the computation is based
almost solely on the population size.
- Formula: n= N/1 + N e2
 Disadvantages

1. Risks omitting important respondents through

chance.
2. Must be able to list or identify individuals in a
3. Stratified Random Sampling target population.
divides a population into homogeneous 3. Representative Requires random number
subgroups and selects a simple random generator and understanding of processfor
sample from each. It ensures representation randomization.
but is complex and costly, requiring a complete 4. Time intensive.
population list. 5. May be costly to conduct or implement the
research.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

1. Quota Sampling
sampling selects participants based on
specific criteria.
2. Purposive Sampling
involves deliberately choosing participants
based on predetermined criteria, common in
market research.
4. Cluster Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
-selects entire groups, unlike stratified
selects readily available participants, often called
sampling, which samples from each group. It "man on the street" sampling.
is less precise but useful for natural groupings
like cities or districts Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Probability
5. Multistage Sampling Sampling
-combines multiple sampling techniques
Advantages
across stages, such as cluster sampling first,
then stratified sampling, and finally simple 1. Control over selection process.
random sampling. 2. Can use when individuals within a target
population cannot be listedor specifically
Advantages and Disadvantages of Probability Sampling identified.
3. Possible to describe details of the sample.
Advantages
4. Possible to reflect on the comments or data
1. Avoid selection bias. generated by the sample.

2. Enables generalizations from the sample to wider 5. Usually less costly to conduct or implement.
population.
3. Representative of and can make inferences Disadvantages
regarding a total targetpopulation.
1. Control over selection process.
4. Ability to calculate many of the factors that lead
to sampling error to show validity of results. 2. Greater scope for selection bias.
5. Enable Sample size required can be calculated 3. Not representative of an entire target population.
prior to initiation of data collection.
4. More difficult to generalize study results.
5. Cannot measure sampling error factors to show
validity.
6. Research judgement used in forming a sample
may lead to bias.
7. Limited potential to generalize from the sample to
the widerpopulation
 - compares two or more quantities with an area
CHAPTER 3 chart
- Trends can be emphasized effectively because
STATISTICAL PRESENTATION AS it illustrates the magnitude of change over
AN AID TO REPORTING time

INFORMATION B. Bar
- composed of bars or rectangular prisms of
LESSON I. DIFFERENT FORMS OF equal widths.
- can be horizontally or vertically
PRESENTATION OF DATA
-the length of each rectangle is proportional to
1. Textual. This form of presentation combines text and the frequency of observed item being studied
numerical facts in paragraphs to explain the summary - can be drawn in opposite directions to
of data gathered. It usually discusses the highlights of illustrate contrasting situations.
the data. - makes comparisons among individual items
with two-way reading.
2. Tabular. This form of presentation uses statistical
table that shows the data in a more concise and C. Column
systematic manner. The table facilitates the analysis of
- represented by a rectangle, with the height of
relationships of data.
the rectangle being proportional to the values
Advantages of Tabular Presentation being plotted.
- also known as vertical bar charts
A. It provides the reader a good grasp of - Shows changes over a period. It has the same
the meaning of the quantitative function as with the bar chart.
relationship of the data presented in
the report. D. Pie Chart
B. The systematic arrangement of - represents relationships of the different
columns and rows makes the table components of a data.
understandable by the reader. - It is the ideal graph if you want to show the
C. The rows and columns facilitate partition of a whole.
comparison. - The angles or sectors should be proportional
D. It gives a vivid picture of the whole to the percentage components of the data.
data; thus, decision-making will be - applicable if there is only one kind of data to
easier. be analyzed.
E. It saves time for the reader to analyze
and interpret data
E. Doughnut
3. Graphical. This form of presentation is the most -built-in chart type
interesting and the most effective means of organizing - express a part-to-whole relationship, where
and presenting statistical data. The important all pieces together represent 100%.
relationships of data can be easily seen merely looking -work best to display data with a small number
at colorful figures that are creatively designed. of categories (2-5).
- show more than one set of data

Different types of graphs/charts F. Line Graph

- relationships between two sets of quantities
A. Area
- based on the line chart
 - used to predict growth trends such as sales STEPS IN INTERPRETING GRAPHS, CHARTS, AND
and population for a long period of time. TABLES
- illustrates the trends in data with equal
1. Read the title of the graph, chart, or table. The title
intervals.
tells what information is being displayed.
- It is two-way reading.
2. Look at the legend of the graph, chart, or table. It will
G. Scatter explain symbols and colors used in the graph or chart.
- relationships between two variables, points
3. Read the label of the graph, chart, or table. The labels
are plotted in a Cartesian plane.
tell you what variables or parameters are being
-It is like making a line graph except that there is
displayed.
no need to connect the points.
4. Draw conclusions based on the data. You can reach
conclusions faster with graphs or charts than using a
data table or a written description of the data.
LESSON II. CREATING AND EVALUATING
GRAPHS AND TABLES
STEPS IN CREATING CHARTS ON EXCEL

1. Select the range A1:A7. Hold down the Ctrl key and
then select the range B1:B7. (Both ranges of data will
appear on the chart)

2 Click the Insert button on the formulating toolbar.

Then click the recommended charts box will open as
shown in figure 2.1.

3 Click the All Charts if you want to view all the types of
charts. Click the Column or any type of chart you want
to use in the Chart type list, and then select the first
chart sub- type in the second row. Click the Press and
Hold to View Sample button inbox will open as shown in
the dialog box. At this point you will see how your chart
will look like.

4. Release the mouse button and click OK. You can see a
preview of the chart. You are free to edit and improve
the chart by selecting the Quick Layout, Change Colors,
and Change Chart Types. You can also edit or delete the
chart title if you want.
LESSON III. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION ANSWER

Frequency distribution- the arrangement of data in

tabular form.

•The data that list individual values are called

ungrouped data.

•The data presented in a frequency distribution table

are called grouped data.

STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

EXAMPLE

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION STEPS

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

- it is the sum of the class and all classes below it in a

frequency distribution.

-another useful technique in tabulating data.

-It provides information about sets of data that cannot

be obtained from the frequency distribution itself.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY STEPS