Subsurface Investigation of Groundwater

Introduction to Groundwater Exploration: Groundwater exploration aims to locate and characterize

subsurface aquifers for water supply and to assess water-table conditions. This is essential in civil
engineering for wells, irrigation, dewatering, and foundation design. Traditional exploration uses
drilling and borehole logging, but geophysical surveys provide non-invasive insights. Geophysical
methods (e.g. resistivity, seismic) are often used in early investigation phases “to efficiently gain an
understanding of the overall subsurface conditions, including stratigraphy and the location and size of
potential anomalies”. Such surveys can guide optimal placement of boreholes and reveal continuous
subsurface profiles, saving time and cost in site characterization.
Geophysical Methods
Common geophysical methods for groundwater include: Electrical Resistivity, Seismic
(refraction/reflection), Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Electromagnetic (EM), and Self-
Potential (SP) surveys. These techniques exploit contrasts in physical properties of water-bearing
formations versus dry ground. They help map layer depths, identify aquifer zones, and detect
anomalies. Each method uses specialized instruments (e.g. electrodes or geophones) and data
processing to produce subsurface images or profiles.
Electrical Resistivity
 Principle: Injects electrical current into the ground via electrodes and measures the resulting
potential difference. The measured apparent resistivity (via a voltmeter/ammeter) reflects
subsurface materials.
 Procedure/Instruments: A resistivity meter with four electrodes (two for current, two for
potential) is used. Configurations like Schlumberger or Wenner arrays space electrodes over
the surface to sample different depths. By increasing electrode separation, deeper layers are
probed.
 Interpretation: Low resistivity (high conductivity) zones often indicate water-saturated or
clay-rich strata, while high resistivity corresponds to dry or rock layers. For example, a
conductive zone may mark an aquifer. Profiles or tomograms are generated (often via
inversion) to show layer geometry.
 Applications: Useful for delineating aquifer extents and estimating water-table depth in
unconsolidated sediments. It complements drilling by indicating where saturated zones exist.
Seismic Refraction

Figure: Seismic-refraction survey data. First-arrival travel-time curves (wiggles) show refracted head
waves from subsurface interfaces (red lines). The slope of these curves is used to determine seismic
velocities and layer depths.
Seismic refraction uses sound waves to image subsurface layers. A seismic source (e.g. hammer or
weight drop) generates compressional (P-) waves. An array of geophones (acoustic sensors) laid out
along the surface records the arrival times of seismic waves. The first-arrival (head) waves that travel
along layer boundaries (e.g. water-table or rock surface) produce distinct linear arrivals on the record
(see figure). By analyzing these travel-time curves, engineers compute layer thicknesses and wave
velocities. Key equipment includes geophones and a seismograph/data logger. In practice, seismic
refraction is excellent for mapping bedrock topography and the water table – for example, it can
resolve the interface between alluvium and bedrock and estimate aquifer depth.
Other Geophysical Methods
 Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR): Sends high-frequency EM pulses into the ground to
image shallow subsurface features (typically <10–30 m). GPR provides high-resolution
profiles of near-surface layers but is limited in clayey or conductive soils.
 Electromagnetic (EM) Induction: Measures natural ground conductivity by inducing EM
fields. EM surveys (often airborne) quickly identify conductive zones, which may correspond
to saline water intrusion or clay layers.
 Self-Potential (SP): Measures natural electric potentials in the ground, often caused by
groundwater flow through porous media. SP anomalies can indicate flow paths or seepage
zones.
 Others: Gravity or magnetic surveys are less commonly used for groundwater but can indicate
voids or dense rock.
Importance in Engineering
 Non-Invasive Site Characterization: Geophysical surveys are non-intrusive and can scan
large areas quickly, avoiding extensive initial drilling. They yield 2D/3D images of subsurface
geology (e.g. layer continuity, anomalies) that borehole data alone cannot provide.
 Cost and Time Efficiency: By covering broad areas with portable equipment, geophysics
saves time and money compared to dense boring programs. It helps target drilling to key zones,
avoiding redundant boreholes.
 Risk Mitigation: Early detection of high groundwater or voids informs design (e.g. foundation
depth, dewatering needs). Geophysics can reveal hazards like weak zones or perched water that
impact construction safety.
 Project Planning: Knowledge of aquifer depth and extent is crucial for water supply design,
seepage control in dams, and slope stability. For example, mapping a low-resistance (saturated)
layer can prevent foundation undercutting.
Note: Geophysical data often require skilled interpretation. Results can be non-unique and should be
calibrated with ground-truth (e.g. borehole logs). Nonetheless, when properly applied, geophysical
methods are a valuable complement to traditional site investigation.
Present Laws Regarding Water Management
International Frameworks
 UN Watercourses Convention (1997): This global treaty (entered into force 2014) provides a
framework for equitable use and protection of shared surface and groundwater between
nations. It emphasizes “the utilization, development, conservation, management and protection
of international watercourses” for “present and future generations”, promoting cooperation and
preventing harm.
  Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 6): The UN’s SDG6 (2015) commits countries to
ensure “availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.” It includes
targets like improving water-use efficiency, integrated management, and transboundary
cooperation.
Indian Laws and Policies
 Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974: Primary legislation to prevent water
pollution. Its objective is “the maintenance or restoration of wholesomeness of water” by
establishing the Central and State Pollution Control Boards. The Act empowers these boards to
set effluent standards and regulate industrial wastewater discharges.
 Water (P&CP) Cess Act, 1977: Imposes a cess on water-consuming industries to create a
water conservation fund. Revenues support the prevention and control of water pollution under
the 1974 Act.
 Environment (Protection) Act, 1986: Grants the central government authority to set
environmental standards. Under this Act, the government issues standards for sewage and trade
effluents, complementing the Water Act’s regulatory framework.
 National Water Policy (2012): A policy document guiding water resource planning and
management. It acknowledges India’s water scarcity and recommends treating water as an
economic good to encourage conservation and efficiency. The Policy prioritizes drinking
water, food security, and ecological needs, and calls for integrated basin-level management. It
underscores modernizing irrigation, rainwater harvesting, and water-use benchmarking
 (Recent Developments): The central government periodically updates regulations. For
example, recent amendments (2024) to water laws have increased central oversight (CPCB)
over State boards, and emphasis on stricter penalties for polluters. India’s legal framework also
includes the River Boards Act (1956) for inter-state rivers and various state-level acts.
Regulatory Bodies
 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Established under the Water Act 1974, CPCB sets
nationwide water quality standards and enforces pollution control. It approves effluent
treatment plans and advises on water pollution issues.
 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): State counterparts to CPCB, responsible for
monitoring and controlling water (and air) pollution within states under delegated powers.
 Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA): Constituted under the Environment Protection
Act, CGWA regulates groundwater withdrawal in critical areas. It issues permits for tube wells
and governs extraction to prevent overuse and depletion.
 Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): Provides technical guidance and data on
groundwater resources (recharge studies, aquifer mapping) to support sustainable management.
 Central Water Commission (CWC): Advisory body for water resources development;
allocates river waters between states and oversees national irrigation and hydropower projects.
 Ministry of Jal Shakti: Government of India’s nodal ministry (formed 2019) for water
resources, managing both drinking water (Drinking Water & Sanitation Dept.) and river
development (Water Resources Dept.). It formulates national policies, oversees implementation
of major programs (e.g. Jal Jeevan Mission for rural water supply), and coordinates among
agencies.
Governance in India is also influenced by judiciary rulings (e.g. right to water under Article 21) and
the National Green Tribunal’s orders on water bodies. Coordination between these bodies ensures that
national water laws and policies are implemented at all levels.
Water Footprints
Definition and Significance
The water footprint is a sustainability indicator measuring the total freshwater used (and polluted) to
produce a product, service, or supply a population. It includes both direct water (e.g. irrigation,
industrial use) and indirect water (embedded in inputs or supply chains). Formally, it is “an indicator
of direct and indirect appropriation of freshwater resources over the entire supply chain”.
The water footprint concept highlights hidden water demands of goods and activities, informing
conservation strategies. It accounts for water withdrawn from nature and provides a comprehensive
picture of demand on finite water resources.
Types of Water Footprint
 Blue Water Footprint: The volume of surface or groundwater consumed (evaporated or
incorporated) in production. For example, irrigation water withdrawn from rivers or aquifers
that does not return to the catchment contributes to the blue footprint.
 Green Water Footprint: The volume of rainwater consumed (evaporated or transpired)
during production. This is relevant mainly for agriculture (soil moisture used by crops) and
forestry.
 Grey Water Footprint: The volume of freshwater required to dilute pollutants and maintain
water quality standards. It is defined as the amount of water needed to assimilate a given
pollutant load to acceptable levels. Grey footprint thus represents water pollution impacts (e.g.
the volume needed to dilute agricultural runoff or effluent to meet quality norms).
Applications in Sustainability and Planning
Water footprint analysis is applied to promote sustainable water use and inform infrastructure
planning. It helps identify high-water-use products/sectors, guides water-saving strategies, and sets
benchmarks. For example, businesses can calculate the blue, green, and grey footprints of their
products to improve water efficiency. Governments and planners use national or regional water
footprint accounts to gauge demand versus availability.
A Water Footprint Assessment can determine if water use is sustainable, efficient and equitable. It
supports setting water-use benchmarks and incentives for conservation. In civil infrastructure, water
footprinting can evaluate the impact of projects (e.g. reservoirs, manufacturing plants) on regional
water supply and quality. For instance, comparing the water footprint of alternative building materials
or crops can influence design choices. By quantifying all components of water use and pollution, the
water footprint aids integrated resource management and helps ensure that developments do not
exceed local water availability.
Reducing Water Footprint
Engineering Solutions:
 Water-efficient technologies (e.g., drip irrigation, low-flow fixtures).
 Closed-loop systems in industries.
 Recycling and reuse of wastewater.
 Cleaner production techniques.
Policy Measures:
 Water footprint labeling.
 Incentives for water-efficient crops.
 Stricter pollution control standards to reduce grey water footprint.
Sustainability Assessment
Sustainability in Water Resource Management
Sustainability in water management means meeting current water needs without compromising future
generations. It involves balancing environmental, social, and economic factors (the “triple bottom
line”) in managing water resources. Key principles include maintaining ecological flow regimes,
ensuring long-term aquifer recharge, and providing equitable water access. Integrated approaches (e.g.
Integrated Water Resources Management, IWRM) are emphasized to coordinate land and water use,
involving stakeholders in decisions. Global initiatives like the UN SDG6 (Clean Water & Sanitation)
reflect these goals.
Indicators and Assessment Methods
Effective sustainability assessment uses quantitative indicators and standardized methods:
 Key Indicators: Water availability (renewable supply per capita), water use efficiency (e.g.
GDP or crop yield per m³), water stress (withdrawal/availability ratio), access to safe water
(population coverage), and environmental indicators (river health, groundwater depletion
rates). Water quality indicators (BOD, heavy metals) and compliance with standards also
measure sustainability.
 Evaluation Methods:
o Integrated Models: Tools like WEAP or SWAT simulate basin water balance under
various scenarios.
o Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA): Extends water footprint idea to full life-cycle of
products/infrastructure.
o Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA): Balances economic, social, and environmental
criteria (often with stakeholder input).
o Sustainability Indices: Composite indices have been developed (e.g. a water
sustainability index) incorporating water availability, demand, and governance aspects.
o Regulatory Frameworks: Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) include
sustainability checks (e.g. assessing if water demand exceeds renewable supply).
These tools help determine if water projects meet sustainable limits. For example, comparing the
projected blue-water demand of a new city against available supply assesses resource efficiency. The
EPA recommends using an augmented analysis for water projects that explicitly weighs
environmental, economic and social benefits in decision-making. This inclusive approach ensures that
water infrastructure is cost-effective over its lifecycle while supporting community and ecological
goals.
Key Takeaways: Geophysical methods (resistivity, seismic, etc.) offer non-invasive groundwater
exploration tools that complement drilling, improving resource mapping. Current water management
laws – from the Water Act (1974) and National Water Policy to international conventions – create the
framework for conservation and quality control. Water footprints (blue, green, grey) quantify water use
and pollution, guiding sustainable water use planning. Sustainability assessments (using indicators and
integrated planning) are crucial in civil engineering to balance human needs with environmental
protection.