om

l.c
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gm

UPPCS
07
03

SPECIAL SHORT NOTES

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Science Common GS
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Notes Code 1.6

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 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

INDEX
PART A – PHYSICS .................................................................................................................................. 4
MEASUREMENT AND UNITS ..................................................................................................... 4
KINEMATICS ................................................................................................................................. 8
LAWS OF MOTION ..................................................................................................................... 12
OSCILLATION AND WAVES .................................................................................................... 14
SOUND .......................................................................................................................................... 17
WORK, POWER AND ENERGY ................................................................................................ 20
HEAT ............................................................................................................................................. 23
HUMIDITY AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY ................................................................................ 38
UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM ........................................................................................... 39
UNIVERSE .................................................................................................................................... 39
THE SOLAR SYSTEM ................................................................................................................. 42
GRAVITATION ............................................................................................................................ 49
LIGHT AND ITS OPTICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................. 52
LIGHT ........................................................................................................................................... 60
PART B - CHEMISTRY .......................................................................................................................... 65
STATE OF MATTERS ................................................................................................................. 65
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS.............................................................................. 70
STRUCTURE OF ATOM ............................................................................................................. 74
DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 80
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODIC TABLE ................................................ 94
CHEMICAL REACTION ........................................................................................................... 100
CHEMICAL BOND .................................................................................................................... 105
COAL, PETROLEUM AND FLAMES ...................................................................................... 107
AIR, WATER, SOIL AND THEIR POLLUTION ...................................................................... 110
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE ......................................................................................... 113
PART C - BIOLOGY ............................................................................................................................. 120
BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION ..................................................................................................... 120
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION .................................................................................................... 121
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS .................................................................................. 122
CELL- FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE ................................................................................. 125
CELL DIVISION ......................................................................................................................... 129
TISSUES ...................................................................................................................................... 131

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CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS ....................................................................................... 135

HUMAN BODY .......................................................................................................................... 138
SYSTEMS OF HUMAN BODY ................................................................................................. 139
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 144
CIRCULATORY OR CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ............................................................ 145
LYMPHATIC OR IMMUNE SYSTEMS ................................................................................... 149
SKELETON SYSTEM ................................................................................................................ 150
MUSCULAR SYSTEM............................................................................................................... 152
URINARY OR RENAL SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 153
NERVOUS SYSTEM .................................................................................................................. 154
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 159
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.............................................................................................................. 162
HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES ........................................................................................ 164
IMPORTANT MEDICAL TESTS............................................................................................... 174
BOTANY ..................................................................................................................................... 178
BIOTECHNOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 185
AGRICULTURE ......................................................................................................................... 188

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PART A – PHYSICS

It is scientific study of matter and energy and the effect that they have on each other.

MEASUREMENT AND UNITS

Measurement refers to comparison of a physical quantity with its standard unit. The standard unit
should be easily reproducible and internationally accepted.
Physical Quantity – Quantities expressed in terms of laws of physics are called Physical Quantities.
There are two types of Physical quantities. They are:
 Scalars – The physical quantities which has only magnitude and does not depend on direction
is called Scalar quantities. For e.g. length, volume, speed, mass, density, temperature etc.

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 Vectors – Vector quantities has both magnitude and direction. For e.g. Displacement, velocity,
Acceleration, Momentum etc. [U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2014]
NOTE: A physical quantity which has both magnitude and direction but doesn’t obey vector law of

l.c
addition or subtraction is not a vector quantity. For e.g. Electric current, pressure, work etc.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. It is the amount of work needed to move a unit charge from a
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reference point to a specific point against an electric field.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]
gm

Systems of Units
Earlier three different systems of units were used called CGS, FPS, and MKS systems.
07

(i) CGS System

 Centimetre, Gram, and Second are used to express length, mass, and time respectively.
03

(ii) FPS System.

 Foot, Pound, and Second are used to express length, mass, and time respectively.
ar

 1 foot = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m

 1 pound = 453.592 g = 0.454 kg
m

(iii) MKS System.

 Metre, Kilogram, and Second are used to express length, mass, and time respectively.
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Today internationally, the SI system of units is followed.

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Fundamental Units and Derived Units

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The units which are independent of each other are known as Fundamental Units. Derived Units are
derived from Fundamental Units. For example, meter is a fundamental unit of length and second is a
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fundamental unit of time. However, meter per second (ms-1) is a derived unit of velocity. There are
seven fundamental units as given in the below table:
No. Quantity Fundamental Symbol
Length Meter M
1.
2. Mass Kilogram Kg
3. Time Second S
4. Temperature Kelvin K
5. Electric current Ampere A
6. Luminous intensity Candela Cd
7. Amount of substance Mole mol

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Apart from the above seven, there are two supplementary fundamental units viz. Radian and
Steradian. While Radian (Rad) is used to measure plane angle, Steradian (Sr) is used to measure Solid
Angle.
The derived units are derived from fundamental units. Examples of derived units are velocity
(meter/second), acceleration (meter /second²) etc. [U.P.P.S.C. (Pre) 2003]

Definition of Fundamental Units (Current Development)

Unit Quantity How it is/will be defines
Meter Distance Based on speed of light
Kilogram Mass Based on Planck constant
Second Time Based on radiation of Caesium-133 atom
Kelvin Temperature Based on Boltzmann Constant
Ampere Electric current Based on an electron’s charge
Candela Luminous intensity From efficacy of light of specific frequency
Mole Amount of substance Based on Avogadro Constant
The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) at BIPM held on 16 November 2018 has
unanimously adopted the resolution to redefine four of the seven base units. On the occasion of World
Meterology Day(20 May 2019), the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and National
Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL) introduced redefined International System of Units for the country.

Redefined systems are:

 Kilogram (SI unit of weight),
 Kelvin (SI unit of temperature),
 Mole (SI unit of amount of substance), and
 Ampere (SI unit of current).

Significance of decision:
 This decision has now enabled scientists to base the SI units entirely on fundamental properties of
nature, which will ensure their ongoing refinement and improvement for years to come.
 The fundamental constants are invariants of time and space and successfully replaced the
artifact-based units. This will enable world-wide coherence of measurements.
 It has opened up the new era for quantum world by linking all seven base units to fundamental
constants/quantum standards.

Other Important Units

Astronomical Unit
 The average separation between the Earth and the Sun is called one astronomical unit.
o 1 AU = 1.496 x 1011 m.
Light year
 The distance travelled by light in vacuum in one year is called a light year.
o 1 light year = 9.46 x 1015 m.
o The light year is a unit of distance and not time
o The astronomical distances are measured in light-years because, the speed of
light is constant throughout the universe and is known with high precision.

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Parsec
 The distance at which an arc of the length of one astronomical unit subtends an angle of
one second at a point is called parsec.
o 1 parsec = 3.08 x 1016 m
 For measuring large distances like distances of planets and stars etc., bigger units of
length such as ‘astronomical unit’, ‘light year’, parsec’ etc. are used.
Hertz
 A unit of time
 Frequency is measured in hertz.
 Frequency = 1/time = s-1 = Hertz

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Angstrom
 A unit of length
 Size of a tiny atom = 1 angstrom = 1 A = 10-10 m [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
Fermi
 A unit of length
 Size of a tiny nucleus = 1 fermi = 1 f = 10-15 m [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005]
Ampere
 S.I. unit of electric current.
 Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge across a surface.
 Electric current = Charge/time = Coulomb/second = C s-1 = Ampere [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)

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2017]
Ohm-meter

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SI unit of electrical resistivity of a conductor.
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 Electrical resistivity measures how strongly a material resists electric current.
 Symbol: ‘ρ’ = RA/l
gm

o Where ‘R’ is the electrical resistance of a uniform specimen of the material;

o ‘A’ is the cross-sectional area of the specimen;
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o ‘l’ is the length of the specimen

Height to inches
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 1 foot = 12 inches = 30.48 cm

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 1 cm = 0.393 inches [U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2010]

m

Dobson Unit

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Measurement unit for determining the thickness of the ozone layer, i.e. total amount of
ozone present in a vertical column of air above the surface of the earth.
av

 The ozone in a layer of ozone at atmospheric pressure of 1013 hPa(hectopascal = 100

Pascal) and temperature of 298 K which measures 1 mm in thickness and is equivalent to
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100 Dobson units.

 When chlorine and bromine atoms make contact with ozone in the stratosphere, they
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destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules
before it is removed from the stratosphere. Ozone can be destroyed more quickly than it is
naturally created.[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2017]
Cusec
 A unit of flow of water, (i.e. volume/time)
 1 cusec = 1 cubic feet / second = 28.32 litres/second
Barrel
 A unit of volume (Commonly used to measure oil)

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Notes Code 1.6

 1 barrel of oil = 159 litres [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009]

General Factors for conversion of units:

Types of Motion
 Rectilinear motion moving car on
horizontal road, motion under gravity
etc.
 Angular motion such as particle
going on a circle, projectile motion,
rotation of machine shaft etc.
 Rotational motion such as motion of
a fan.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
 If an object travels equal distances in
Dimensions of Physical Quantities equal intervals of time, then it is said
The dimensions of a physical quantity are expressed in terms of powers
to be inofuniform
Fundamental quantities.
motion.
For e.g. Velocity =L/T=[LT-1]=[M0LT-1].  If an object travels unequal distances
in equal intervals of time, then it is
said to be in non-uniform motion.
KINEMATICS

It is the branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects without reference to the forces
which cause the motion.

Motion
Motion is the phenomenon in which an object changes
Can displacement be greater than
its position over time if not then it said to be in Rest.
distance?
Motion is mathematically described in terms of
Kindly note that magnitude of
displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, speed,
displacement can NEVER be greater
and time.
than distance. This is because
Being is rest and motion are relative and depend on
displacement is the shortest route
reference frames. This implies that an object may be in
connecting two positions of the
rest in one frame of reference while in motion in another
particle.
frame of reference. For example, if I am standing on
ground, that is my frame of reference. Motion of
anything would be compared to reference point of ground. However, if I am in a moving Car, then
moving Car is my reference point. Any other person in Car will be in rest for my, while for anyone
seating on ground Car and everything within that will be in motion.

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One, Two- and Three-Dimensional Motions

 In one dimensional motion, only one out of three coordinates specifying the position of object
changes. Example: object falling under gravity.
 In two-dimensional motion, only two out of three coordinates specifying the position of the
object change. Example: Circular motion.
 In three-dimensional motion, all the three coordinates specifying the position of object change
with respect to time. Example: A flying bird, kite or airplane.

Distance and Displacement

Distance refers to the actual path traversed by an object. Distance is a scalar quantity and it can be
never zero or negative. Distance is measured by meter. Displacement is the shortest distance between
initial and final positions of any object during motion. Displacement is a vector quantity and can be
either positive or negative or zero. Displacement is also measured in meter.

Speed
 The distance covered by a moving body in a unit time interval is called its speed.
 Speed = Distance travelled/Time taken
 When a body travels equal distances with speed 𝑣1 and 𝑣2, then average speed is the harmonic
mean of the two speeds.
 2 = 1 + 1 ⇒ 𝑣 = 2𝑣1 𝑣2__
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣1+𝑣2
 When a body travels for equal times with speeds 𝑣1 and 𝑣2, then average speed is the arithmetic
mean of the two speeds.
 𝑣 = 𝑣1+𝑣2
2
Velocity
 The time rate of change of displacement of a body is called its velocity.
 Velocity = Displacement/Time
 An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it undergoes equal displacements in
equal intervals of time.
 An object is said to be moving with non-uniform or variable velocity if it undergoes unequal
displacement in equal intervals of time.
 Average velocity = Time displacement/Total time taken

Acceleration
 The time rate of change of velocity of a body is called its acceleration.
 Acceleration = Change in velocity/Time taken
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 𝑚𝑠−2.
 Acceleration at an instant of time is known as instantaneous acceleration.
 When the velocity of a body increases with time, then its acceleration is positive and if velocity
decreases with time, then its acceleration is negative called deceleration or retardation.
 If acceleration does not change with time, it is said to be constant acceleration.

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Equations of Uniformly Accelerated Motion (Along straight line)

 If a body started its motion with initial velocity u and attains final velocity v in the interval t.
The acceleration assumed to be uniform in motion is a and the displacement travelled is s, then
equations of motion:
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + ½𝑎𝑡
𝑣2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
 If anybody is falling freely under gravity, then a is replaced by g in above equations.
 If an object is thrown vertically upward, then in above equations of motion a is replaced by (-
g).
 For a body with zero acceleration or constant velocity, graph between velocity and time will
be a line parallel to time axis.
 Velocity–Time Graph For accelerating or decelerating body the graph will be a straight line

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inclined to time axis and velocity axis.
 Graph between position (displacement)-time for an accelerating or decelerating body is always
a parabola.

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 Acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerating body is a line parallel to time axis.
 In case of uniform accelerated, the graph between position and velocity is always parabola.
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 In case of uniformly accelerated motion, the graph between velocity and time is always a
gm

straight line.
 Slope of displacement-time graph gives velocity and slope of velocity-time graph gives
acceleration.
07

Horizontal Projectile Motion

When an object is thrown from horizontal at an angle θ except 90°, then it will follow a trajectory and
03

the motion is called projectile motion. A horizontally thrown ball and a bullet fired from a rifle held
horizontally are the examples of projectiles in the horizontal direction. For this type of projection there
ar

is an initial velocity u only in the horizontal or x-direction. But there is no initial velocity in the vertical
or y-direction.
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However, there is acceleration in the downward direction due to gravity. Since there is no acceleration
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or force in the x-direction after it is projected, the projectile moves in this direction with a constant
speed (u).
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As the object moves horizontally, it also falls in the downward direction due to gravity. In the
downward direction, the motion is the same as that of a dropped object.
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Examples:
 The motion of a bullet shot from the gun
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 The motion of a rocket after burn-out

 The motion of a bomb dropped from an airplane etc.

Properties of Projectile Motion

If we drop a ball from a height and at the same time thrown another ball in a horizontal direction, then
both the balls would strike the earth simultaneously at different places.

Circular Motion
When an object moves in circular path, it is called circular motion. If the speed of the object in
circular motion remains constant, then it is called uniform circular motion. If the speed is not
constant, then the motion is non-uniform circular motion. In circular motion, an acceleration acts on
the body, whose direction is always towards the center of the path. This acceleration is called

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 Science Common GS
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centripetal acceleration or radial acceleration. Further, the Centripetal force is the force which
makes the body to move in a circular path. Centripetal force is the force that is directed toward the
center of an orbital path/spinning object which keeps the revolving object in its orbit. This is in
opposition to the “centrifugal force” – a kind of fictitious force that appears to try to pull the object
away from the center of the orbit (due to inertia).

Important Observations on Circular Motion

1. Artificial Satellites: An artificial satellite orbiting around the earth does not fall down. This is
so because the attraction of earth provides the necessary acceleration for its motion. This
acceleration is “constant” in magnitude but “changing in direction”. By the launch rocket,
immediately before the satellite is established in the predetermined orbit, the speed given to it
is 30, 000 km/hr. The speed must be great enough so gravity doesn’t bring the satellite back to
Earth, but not so great that the satellite escapes gravity out into space. This means that the
speed, which is provided by the rocket is the source of the centrifugal force, and the attraction
of the earth holds it from moving away from this centrifugal force. Centripetal force is a real
force that counteracts the centrifugal force and prevents the object from 'flying out,' keeping it
moving instead with a uniform speed along a circular or elliptical path. Gravity is the
centripetal force that keeps planets moving around the sun and satellites moving around
planets. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]
2. Working of Washing Machines: Both Centripetal Force and Centrifugal Force play role in
working of a Washing Machine. The spin dryer of a washing machine removes excess water
from the clothing by rotating at a high speed. The high speed of rotation creates a high
centrifugal force for the water in the clothing which causes it to be pulled to the outside of the
spinning portion of the washing machine and away from the clothes. However, it is the
Centripetal force that keeps the clothes themselves away from the outer portion of the washing
machine. This is provided by the walls of the rotating spin dryer. Since there is insufficient
centripetal force affecting the water (only friction & surface tension holding it to the clothes),
it flows to the outer walls and is separated from the clothes, which removes the excess water.
Oil spreads on water surface because the surface tension of oil is less than water. Therefore,
when oil is poured over water, the greater value of surface tension of water pulls oil in all
directions, and as such it spreads on the water. Rain drops are spherical because water has
surface tension. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005][U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1994]
3. Other Important Observations
 Total work done by the centripetal force is always zero because the centripetal force and
displacement are at right angles to each other.
 During orbital motion of the planets, centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force
between planet and sun.
 During orbital motion of electron around nucleus in an atom, the centripetal force is
provided by Electrostatic force between electron and nucleus.
 When we swing a stone tied to a string, the centripetal force is provided by tension in the
string.
 Centrifugal force is in opposite direction to Centripetal force. On earth, it is minimum at
poles and maximum at equator.
 In centrifuges, heavier particles move away from the center while lighter particles remain
near axis of rotation.
 When a sample of blood is centrifuged, the red blood cells accumulate at the bottom,
because red blood cells are heavier than White Blood Cells.

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Notes Code 1.6

 Cream from milk is separated by centrifuges in dairy separators. Ultra-centrifuges with

speeds of the order of 5 x 105 rpm are used to concentrate viruses in solution.
 Centrifuges are used in Uranium enrichment.
 Sugar crystals are separated from molasses with the help of a centrifuge. Honey is also
separated from bees’ wax with the help of a centrifuge.

LAWS OF MOTION

Inertia
The property of an object by virtue of which it cannot change its state of rest or of uniform motion
along a straight line its own, is called inertia. Inertia is basically a measure of mass of the body. Thus,
greater is the mass, greater is its inertia and vice versa.
 When a bus or train starts to move suddenly, the passengers sitting in it falls backward. This is
due to inertia called inertia of rest.
 When a moving train stops suddenly, the passengers sitting in it jerk in forward direction. This
is due to inertia called inertia of motion.
 We are able to protect ourselves from rains using an umbrella because rain drops cannot change
their direction on their own. This is called inertia of direction.

Force
 It is an external push or pull with can change or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform
motion. SI unit is newton (N) and CGS unit is dyne. 1 N = 105 dyne.
 If sum of all the forces acting on a body is zero, then body is said to be in equilibrium.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Newton’s first law of motion says that a body continues to be in its state of rest or in uniform motion
along a straight line unless an external force is applied on it. This explains:
 Why when a beat a carpet with stick, dust particles separate out of it.
 Why passengers feel sudden jerk forward when a moving bus or train stops suddenly.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion says that the rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the
applied force and change in momentum takes place in the direction of applied force. This explains:
 Why it is easier to push empty cart than full cart
 Why adult is able to push or pull a cart easily than a child
The second law of motion is called real law of motion because first and third laws of motion can be
obtained by it.
𝐹 = Δ𝑝 = 𝑚Δ𝑣 = 𝑚𝑎
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Third law of motion says that “For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction and both acts
on two different bodies.” Swimming is possible because of this law. This explains why jerk is produced
in a boat when bullet is fired from it. A person is hurt on kicking a stone due to reaction only. [U.P.
R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2017]

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Page. 12
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Notes Code 1.6

Impulse
 A large force which acts on a body for a very short interval of time and produces a large change
in its momentum is called an impulsive force.
 Its unit is newton-second.
 A fielder lowers its hand when catching a cricket ball because by lowering his hands, he
increases the time of contact for stopping the ball and therefore fielder has to apply lesser force
to stop the ball. The ball will also exert lesser force on the hands of the fielder and the fielder
will not get hurt.
 Wagons of a train are provided with the buffers to increase the time of impact during jerks and
therefore, decreases the damage. The vehicles like scooter, car, bus, truck etc. are provided
with shockers.

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

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This law says that if no external force acts on a system, then its total linear momentum remains
conserved. In equation form, Momentum=mass*velocity. To increase the momentum of an object, we
need to either increase its mass or velocity or both.

l.c
Rockets work on law of conservation of momentum. As momentum in one direction is given to the
rocket’s exhaust gases, momentum in the other direction is given to the rocket itself. [U.P.P.C.S.
ai
(Mains) 2014]
gm

Weight (w)
 Weight refers to a force with which a body is pulled towards the center of the earth due to
gravity. It has the magnitude mg, where m is the mass of the body and g is the acceleration due
07

to gravity, thus w=mg

 When a lift is either at rest or moving with a constant speed, then apparent weight of a person
03

standing in it is equal to his actual weight. Thus, R = mg

 When a lift is accelerating upward, then apparent weight would be R1=M(g+a). Thus weighing
ar

machine would read the apparent weight more than the actual weight.
 When a lift is accelerating downward, then apparent weight would be R2=m(g-a). Thus, the
m

weighing machine would read less than actual weight.

 When the lift is falling freely under gravity then apparent weight R3=m(g-g) =0. In this case,
to

machine will read zero.

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 If lift is accelerating downward with an acceleration greater than g, then the person will lift
from floor to the ceiling of the lift.
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Friction
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Friction is force acting on the point of contact of the objects, and which opposes the relative motion.
Friction always works parallel to the contact surfaces. Frictional forces are produced due to
intermolecular interactions acting between the molecules of the bodies in contact. There are three kinds
of friction viz. static friction, limiting friction and Kinetic friction. Static friction is the opposing force
which works when one body tends to move over the surface of the other body but actual motion is not
taking place. This makes harder for two objects to slide alongside one another. Glass on Glass is an
example of static friction. Static friction results from the interlocking irregularities present on the two
surfaces in contact. This force will increase in response to an attempt to move the objects until it is
overcome at the threshold of motion. The maximum value of static friction when body is at the verge
of starting motion is called Limiting Friction. The friction that occurs after the point where motion is
achieved is referred to as kinetic friction.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]

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Common examples of Friction:

 We can hold a pen while writing due to the force of friction. Friction is needed in this case for
better grip. If there is no friction, it would be really difficult to write.
 If there was no friction, walking on the road would become impossible. It is friction that allows
us to walk.
 After a shower, it becomes difficult to drive a car at high speed on the wet road because friction
decreases.
 Angle of sliding or angle of repose is the minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the
horizontal in such a way that the body placed on it begins to slide down. It depends upon
limiting friction.
 Further, when a body moves on an inclined plane then several forces work on it viz. normal
reaction of plane, friction force acting in opposite direction of motion, gravitation force
vertically down etc.
 When a spacecraft re-entered in the earth's atmosphere, it experiences air drag creating friction.
This results in an increase of shuttle's temperature and ionizes the surrounding air. These
ionized particles disturb the radio signals and space shuttle loses radio contact with ground
station for a while during landing on the earth. [U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2002, U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 2003]
 The upper surface of the wings of an aeroplane is made convex and built concave at lower
surface. Such design of the wings makes the air velocity faster at the upper surface than the
lower surface, which creates low pressure at the upper side. This pressure difference provides
lift to the wings of the plane. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]
 Pycnocline is the cline or layer which shows density gradient in the body of water. Halocline
shows salinity gradient within a body of water whereas the Thermocline is a transition layer
between deep and surface water (or mixed layer). [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]

Pushing or pulling an object

To pull an object (such as lawn mower) is always easier than to push whenever the force is applied at
an angle to the object. This is because horizontal component of force will act to move the object. so:
 If we push, then the vertical component of force will press the object downward and the friction
will be more.
 If we pull then the Vertical component of force will act upward and the friction will be less.
 NASA made it clear by its experiment that gravitation is must for lighting up a candle. In the
case of microgravity in the spacecraft, we are able to light up the flame but it is not possible in
an actual vacuum. In fact, the flickering frequency of a flame is proportional to the square root
of the acceleration due to gravity to the diameter of the candle and due to the lack of
gravitational force in space, it is zero. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009]

OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Periodic Motion
A motion which repeats itself identically after a fixed interval of time is called periodic motion. e.g.,
orbital motion of the earth around the sun, motion of arms of a clock, motion of a simple pendulum
etc.

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Oscillatory Motion
A periodic motion taking place to and fro or back and forth about a fixed point, is called oscillatory
motion, e.g., motion of a simple pendulum, motion of a loaded spring etc.
Note: Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion but every periodic motion is not oscillatory motion.

Harmonic Oscillation
The oscillation which can be expressed in terms of single harmonic function, i.e., sine or cosine
function, is called harmonic oscillation.

Simple Harmonic Motion

A harmonic oscillation of constant amplitude and of single frequency under a restoring force whose
magnitude is proportional to the displacement and always acts towards mean Position is called Simple
Harmonic Motion (SHM).

Characteristics of SHM
When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean position:
 No force acts on the particle.
 Acceleration of the particle is zero.
 Velocity is maximum.
 Kinetic energy is maximum.
 Potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, then:
 Acceleration of the particle is maximum.
 Restoring force acting on particle is maximum.
 Velocity of particle is zero.
 Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
 Potential energy is maximum.

Simple Pendulum
 A heavy point mass suspended from a rigid support by means of an elastic inextensible string,
is called a simple pendulum.
 Time period of a simple pendulum is given by 𝑇 = 2𝜋√(𝑙/g)
 The time period of a simple pendulum of infinite length is 84.6 min. The time period of a
second’s pendulum is 2 s. Its length on the earth is nearly 100 cm.
 Acceleration due to gravity decreases with altitude (height) and therefore time period of a
pendulum clock will increase and clock becomes slow.
 If the bob of a simple pendulum is suspended from a metallic wire, then the length of the
pendulum increases with increase in temperature and therefore its time period also increases.
 A girl is swinging over a swing. If she stands up over the swing, then the effective length of
the swing decreases and therefore, the time period of oscillations decreases.
 A pendulum clock cannot be used in a spaceship.

Damped Harmonic Motion

When there is friction or any other force acting within an oscillating system, the amplitudes of the
oscillation decreases over time to this damping force. This is called damped harmonic motion.

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Page. 15
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Resonant Oscillations
When a body oscillates with its own natural frequency (V0) with the help of an external periodic force
also called forced harmonic motion. And if the frequency (v) provided by the external agent is equal
to the natural frequency of the body, the oscillations of the body are called resonant oscillations.

Wave
A wave is a disturbance which propagates energy from one place to the other without the transport of
matter. Waves are broadly of two types:
 Mechanical Wave
 Non-mechanical wave

Mechanical Wave:

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The waves which required material medium (solid, liquid or gas) for their propagation are called
mechanical wave or elastic wave. Mechanical waves are of two types.
 Longitudinal wave: If the particles of the medium vibrate in the direction of propagation of

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wave, the wave is called longitudinal wave.
 Transverse Wave: If the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of
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propagation of wave, the wave is called transverse wave.
Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water are examples of transverse waves.
gm

Non-Mechanical Waves Or Electromagnetic Waves:

The waves which do not require medium for their propagation i.e. which can propagate even through
07

the vacuum are called non-mechanical wave.

 Light, heat is the examples of non-mechanical wave.
03

 In fact all the electromagnetic waves are nonmechanical.

 All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
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 The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10−14m to 104 m.

m

Properties of electromagnetic waves

 They are neutral (uncharged).
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 They propagate as transverse wave.

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 They propagate with the velocity of light.

 They contain energy and momentum.
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 Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.

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Following waves are not electromagnetic

 Cathode rays
 Canal rays
 α rays
 β rays
 Sound wave
 Ultrasonic wave

Some Important discoverer

 γ-Rays - Henry Becqueral
 X-Rays - W. Rontgen [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018]

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Notes Code 1.6

 Ultra-violet rays - Ritter

 Visible radiation - Newton
 Infra-red rays - Hershel
 Short radio waves or Hertzian Waves - Heinrich Hertz
 Long Radio Waves – Marconi
 Meson particles - Hideki Yukawa
 Positron - C.D. Anderson and U.F. Hess
 Theory of energy production in the sun and stars- H. A. Bethe
 Synthesis of transuranic elements - Glenn T. Seaborg
 Hydrogen Bomb - Edward Teller [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]
 Bluetooth technology - Jaap Haartsen [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
Note: Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 m to 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 m are called microwaves.
The microwaves are high-frequency signals in the 300 MHz to 300 GHz range. The signals can
carry thousands of channels at the same time, making it a very versatile communication system.
Microwave is often used for point- to-point telecommunications. Today microwave is employed
by telecommunication industry in the form of both terrestrial relays and satellite
communication.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]
Important Definitions:
 Amplitude: Amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement of the vibrating particle on
either side from the equilibrium position.
 Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particles of the medium,
vibrating in the same phase. It is denoted by Greek letter lambda. (λ). In transverse wave
distance between two consecutive crests or troughs and in longitudinal wave, distance between
two consecutive compressions or rarefactions is equal to wavelength.
Velocity of wave = frequency × wavelength.
 Time period – The time taken by the vibration of the particles of the medium in completing
one oscillation is called Time period.
 Frequency – The number of oscillations executed by the particles of the medium in one second
is called frequency of wave. Its SI unit is Hertz.

SOUND

Sound waves come from vibration of material objects. For example, vibrations of vocal cards in the
larynx, and the vibrating strings of the sitar produce sounds. The frequency of the sound wave is same
as the frequency of the vibrating source. A medium such as air, liquid or solid is required for
transmission of sound. Solids and liquids are good conductors of sound whereas air is a poor
conductor. Sound waves cannot travel in vacuum. Sound waves are longitudinal waves in gases and
liquids, but they can be either longitudinal or transverse waves in solids.

Key Features of Sound

1. Pitch and Frequency: The sensation of a frequency is referred as pitch of a sound. A high
pitch sound corresponds to a high frequency sound wave and a low pitch sound corresponds to
a low frequency sound wave.
 The human ears are sensitive detectors to sounds with frequencies between 16 and 20,000
Hz.

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 Any sound with a frequency below 16 Hz is known as infrasonic and above 20,000 Hz is
known as ultrasonic.
 Cats and dogs are capable of hearing sounds of frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
Dolphins can produce high pitched sounds of frequency as high as 1,00,000 Hz.[U.P.
P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
2. Loudness: Loudness of a sound wave depends on the amplitude of the wave. The bigger the
amplitude, the louder the sound. The loudness of a sound is measured in decibels (db).
Exposure to a noise level of 85 db or above can damage or impair hearing. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2011],[U.P.P.C.S.(Pre) 2013, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2008]
 In normal circumstances, the decibel level of the rustling of tree leaves is about 20
decibels. A decibel (dB) is 1/10 of a bell, which is a unit of sound intensity named in
the honour of Alexander Graham Bell. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018]
 Whenever there is a need to increase loudness of a sound, it can be achieved by setting a
greater mass of air into vibration.
 For example, instruments such as violin, guitar, sitar etc. have sound boxes attached to
increase the loudness. In a loudspeaker, the vibrating cone has a large surface area and a
large mass of air in contact with the cone is set into vibration to produce a loud sound.
The Speed of Sound
 The speed of a sound does not depend on its pitch and loudness.
 At 0°C in dry air, the speed of sound is about 331 m/s and at room temperature in air it is
344 m/s.
 Sound waves travel faster through warm air than cold air.
 It is calculated that for each degree rise in temperature, the speed of sound is increases by
0.61 meter per second.
 The speed in air slightly increases with presence of water vapour i.e. the speed of sound
increases with humidity.
 The speed of sound also depends on the medium. It is high in solids, less in liquids, and
the least in gases. For example, in steel the speed of sound is nearly 15 times as great as in
air. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018],[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002]
 The speed of sound is much less than the speed of light. This is the reason why thunder is
heard much after the flash is seen. Similarly, the sound from an airplane does not appear
to come from the plane at all, but from a point far behind it. Sound waves do not travel in
vacuum. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014]
 In order for sound to propagate from one place to another, it requires a medium or a fluid
to move through. The air on the earth allows sound waves to move from one point to
another. However, there is vacuum on the surface of moon. Thus, there is no sound on the
moon.[U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2002][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]

Reflection of Sound, Echo

Whenever waves meet an obstacle, they have the property of being reflected. When a sound wave
reflects after hitting a distant object such as a wall, an echo is heard. But the minimum distance of the
reflecting surface from the source of sound to hear an echo is 17 metros. If the distance is less than 17
metros, then the echo reaches us in less than 0.1 second and the echo cannot be distinguished as a
separate sound. It gives the impression of the original sound being prolonged. This is called
reverberation. Reverberation can also occur when a series of echoes are heard due to more than one
reflecting surface.

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Page. 18
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

The speed of sound can be measured by using an echo. For example, echoes of ultrasonic waves can
be used to measure depth of sea-beds or finding the location of submerged objects. Ultrasonic waves
are also used for finding faults in the interiors of solids and mapping of underground structures for oil
and mineral deposits. Bats produce ultrasonic waves and use echoes to determine distance of the
objects on their way. Ultrasonic waves are also used in medical diagnosis and treatment. Sound waves
pass through various tissues, and from the pattern of echoes, tumors, lesions and other defects are
detected.
The walls of the hall built for music concerts should absorb sounds. Most of the solid walls reflects
the sound. If the walls of concert hall reflect the sound, then audiences hear the echo sound. So to
avoid this, there is a need to built soft surface walls. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007]

Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency range; Audible waves
(20 Htz- 20,000 Htz), Infrasonic waves (< 20 Htz) and Ultrasonic waves (> 20,000 Htz). Ultrasonic
waves are used to destroy insects, clean clothes by removing dust, treat diseases, control automatic

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doors, detection of aircraft and submarine, determination of depth of sea etc. Bats are one of the few
mammals that can use ultrasonic sound to navigate. The heart vibrates at infrasonic sound. We can

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hear them with the help of stethoscope. [U.P.P.C.S.(Mains)2004],[U.P.P.C.S.(Pre)
2012][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005][U.P.PC.S. (Mains) 2002]
When T.V. is switched on, audio and video start simultaneously. In old models of television, audio
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was heard immediately but the video starts as it needs some warm up time. But modem televisions,
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audio synchronizer are used to correct this sync error.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007]

Refraction of Sound
07

The character of sound waves to travel faster in warm air than in cold air causes bending of sound
waves when they pass through successive layers of air that have different temperatures. This bending
03

property is called refraction. On warmer days, the air near the ground is warmer than the air above and
due to this the speed of sound waves near the ground is higher. It results in bending of the sound away
from the ground. On colder days, the reverse will happen and the sound waves bend towards the earth.
ar

This is reason for hearing of sounds over longer distances on a cold day.
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Resonance
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Depending on the factors such as the elasticity and shape of the object, each vibrating object has a
natural frequency. A resonance occurs when an object oscillates at its natural frequency, as a result of
av

impulses received from some other system vibrating with the same frequency. Resonance can happen
in different kinds of systems: acoustical, mechanical, electrical and optical. Resonance leads to
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increased amplitude of vibration. In some cases, the amplitudes that result from resonance can be
disastrous. This is the reason for ordering soldiers to break up while crossing a suspension bridge.
ga

The resonant vibrations caused by the marching may severely damage the bridge. Oscillations also
occur in an electrical circuit. A radio receiver is tuned to a particular frequency when the oscillating
electrical circuit inside the radio is set into resonance with incoming signals.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl)
(Pre) 2003, U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl) (Pre) 2002]

The Doppler Effect

 The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift), named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler,
who proposed it in 1842 in Prague, is the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic
event) for an observer moving relative to its source. It is commonly heard when a vehicle
sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. The received
frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at
the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession.

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Page. 19
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 The concept of expanding universe is based on Doppler Effect. It was named after Christian
Doppler, who first came up with the idea in 1942. Edwin Hubble used the Doppler Effect to
determine that universe is expanding. Hubble found that the light from distant galaxies was
shifted towards lower frequencies, to the red end of the spectrum. This is known as a red
Doppler shift or a red-shift. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
 An artificial satellite can be tracked very precisely from the earth by using Doppler effect. It is
done with the help of tracking transmitter. With the help of doppler effect, this tracking is
possible. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]

A Sonic Boom
A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created by an object traveling through the
air faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding
much like an explosion. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead is an example of a sonic
boom in miniature.

Musical Scale
A musical scale is a group of pitches arranged in an ascending order. The diatonic scale includes the
notes with frequencies: sa (256), re (288), ga (320), ma (341.3), pa (384), dha (426.7) and ni (480).
The next note denoted by ‘sa’ has a frequency 512, twice that of sa. The interval sa-sa’ is called an
octave (8). Phonemes are the basic unit of sound (phonology). It is the smallest unit of sound that may
cause a change of meaning within a language, but that does not have meaning by itself.[U.P. P.C.S.
(Mains) 2017]

Noise Reduction in Recording Media

Music recording company Dolby Laboratories Inc. has developed techniques to reduce noise levels in
recorded music. Dolby noise reduction works in tandem to improve the signal-to- noise ratio. Dolby
A, Dolby B, Dolby C, Dolby SR and Dolby S are the noise reduction systems developed by the
company.

WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work
Work is said to have been done when a force acts on an object and the object actually moves in the
direction of force. Work done is equal to the product of the force and the displacement of the object
in the direction of force.
Work = Force X Displacement
SI unit of work is Joule (J) which is equivalent to SI base units 1 kg.m2/s2. Thus, 1 Joule of work is
said to have been done when a force of 1 N causes a displacement of 1 m. Work is a scalar quantity.
Work done by a force is zero when
 Body is not displace actually, i.e. s = 0
 Body is displaced perpendicular to the direction of force i.e. θ = 90°.

Work done by a variable force

If we throw a ball upward, work done against gravity is given by, W = mgh
 where, m = mass of the body,
 g = acceleration due to gravity and
 h = height through which the ball is raised.

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Page. 20
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Work done in Circular Path

Work done depends only on the initial and final Positions and not on the actual path followed between
initial and final positions. When a body moves in a circular path no work is done. This is because
centripetal force acting on the body is always at right angles to the displacement of the body along the
circular path. Since cos 90° = 0, so W = F cos 90° × S = 0 × S = Zero.
Similarly, when a satellite revolves around the earth in a circular orbit, the work done by force of
gravity is also zero because it acts at right angles to the direction of displacement of the satellite.

Power
Power is the time rate of work done by a body. Thus, if work done is divided by time taken, we get
power.
Power =Work done / Time taken
The SI unit of power is Watt which is equal to 1 joule per second. 1 Horse power is equal to 746
watt. Power is a scalar quantity. [U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010]
1 Kilowatt hour = 1 (kilowatt) (1 hour)
= (1000 joule/sec.) (3600 sec.)
= 36 ×105 Joule = 3.6 × 106 Joule [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2006] [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2009]

Energy
 Energy of a body refers to its capacity of doing work. Energy is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit of Energy is Joule. Erg is CGS unit of Energy. 1erg=10-7 J [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005, U.P.
U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2001]
 There are several types of energies for example, mechanical energy, chemical energy, light
energy, heat energy, sound energy, nuclear energy, electric energy etc.

Mechanical Energy
Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy are called Mechanical Energy. The sum of kinetic and potential
energies at any point remains constant throughout the motion. It does not depend upon time. This is
known as law of conservation of mechanical energy.
1. Kinetic Energy
 The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy.
[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]
 Kinetic energy of an object is given by k = 1 / 2 mv2
 where m = mass of the object, and v is its velocity.
 So, it’s obvious that Kinetic energy is zero in stationary objects as v=0.
 When the velocity is doubled, the Kinetic energy would go up four times. If velocity is
tripled, kinetic energy would go up nine times. If velocity is increased by 1.5 times the
Kinetic energy would go up by 1.5×1.5=2.25 times.
 Further, since kinetic energy is a product of mass and velocity squared, a tennis ball and a
football don’t have equal kinetic energy if they have equal velocities. To get equal kinetic
energy, the tennis ball needs to have few times higher velocity than a football.
 Energy in a running horse, Speeding car, fired bullet, oscillating pendulum, flowing water,
flying bird are examples of Kinetic energy.

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Page. 21
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

2. Potential Energy
 The energy possessed by any object by virtue of its position or configuration is called its
potential energy. There are three important types of potential energies viz. gravitational,
elastic and electric.
 If a body of mass m is raised through a height h against gravity, then it has gravitational
potential energy. It would be equal to E=mgh
 If a spring of spring constant k is stretched through a distance x, then elastic potential
energy of the spring would be E=1/2 kx2
 Examples of Potential Energy include: a stretched bow and arrow system; a wound-up
spring of a watch; water stored high up in reservoirs; stone lying on the top of the roof.

Work-Energy Theorem

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Work energy theorem says that the work done by a force in displacing a body is equal to change in its
kinetic energy. When we move an object (i.e. we do work on it), we increase its kinetic energy.
When we bring a moving object to rest, we also do work on the object, but in this case we are

l.c
decreasing its kinetic energy. Regardless of whether we are increasing or decreasing an object’s kinetic
energy, the amount of work done is equal to the change in energy.
ai
gm

Mass-Energy Equivalence
Einstein showed us the way that mass can be transformed into energy. When Δm is converted into
energy, the energy produced is equal to E = Δmc² , where c is the speed of light in vacuum.
07
03

Conservative and Non-conservative forces

 Conservative forces are non-dissipative forces like gravitational force, electrostatic force etc.
 For the conservative forces, work done during a round trip is always zero.
ar

 Non-conservative forces are dissipative in nature like frictional force, viscous force etc.
m
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Law of Conservation of Energy

 Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed;
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 Only one type of energy can be transformed into other form of energy.
 Only for conservative forces, (total mechanical energy)
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 Initially(total mechanical energy) = Finally (total mechanical energy)

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 A dynamo, which is also known as an electrical generator produces direct current through a
commutator. It is basically a device which converts mechanical rotation into electric current
according to Faraday's law. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009][U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016, U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 1993, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1992]
 Electric motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Electric
motors involve rotating coils of wire which are driven by the magnetic force exerted by a
magnetic field or an electric current. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007][U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre)
2017]
 In the three-pin plug, there are three ends namely live, neutral and earth. The earth pin on
a plug is longer than the line and neutral pins. This means the earth pin is the first to connect
and last to disconnect for safety of electrical device. It provides an alternative and easy
path for leakage or fault current flow.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002,2007]

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Page. 22
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

HEAT
 Heat is the form of energy which produces the sensation of warmth. Its SI unit is joule and
other unit calorie (1 cal = 4.184 Joule).
 The transfer of heat is always from hotter to colder body.
 Heat transmits from hot body to cold body. Ice takes latent heat from the drink to melt and
makes drink cooler.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2009]
 Heat can be transferred from one place to another by means of conduction, convection and
radiation. It can be converted into other forms of energy.
 Thermos flasks have a vacuum gap between the inner chamber and the outer wall, so there
is no loss or gain of heat by conduction, convection and radiation. Thus, a liquid remains
hot or cold for a long time in thermos flask. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
 Thermostat is a device which automatically regulates temperature or provides a signal used
by another device to regulate temperature like refrigerator. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007]
 According to international standards, the recommended temperature of the refrigerator is
36°F to 38°F (1.7°C to 3.3°C).[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007]
 Most of the modem frost-free refrigerators use dehumidification process in which the
moisture or water vapour or the humidity is removed from the air by keeping its dry bulb
(DB) temperature constant. As water vapour or moisture condenses, it drips down into a
drain, which removes water to the bottom of the refrigerator. This is the main reason for
soggy biscuits turns into crisp in the refrigerator. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009]
 Ice collects in the freezer is the result of vapour and moisture which is expelled by the food
and ice tray. It adversely affects the cooling of the refrigerator, as ice is a poor conductor.
[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]
 Woolen clothes keep us warm in winter. It is just because woolen clothes have fibres and
between those fibres, air is trapped which reduces heat loss. Air reduces heat loss because
it is an insulator or poor conductor of heat. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2001]
 The cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights because the clouds prevent radiation of heat
from the ground and the air and they reflect back the heat.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre)
2008]
 Sun is the main source of heat energy for Earth. Fuels such as wood, petrol, coal and gas are
other sources of heat energy. For the survival of all living things, heat energy is essential.
 The temperature of a body is a measure of its hotness or coldness. It is a measure of the kinetic
energy of the particles of the body.

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Page. 23
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 Change in temperature, change of state and thermal expansion in a body, are some of the main
observable physical effects of heat energy. Heat energy plays a major role in determining the
climatic and weather conditions.
 When a glass rod is placed in steam, its length and width both will increase. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 1994]
 We use white clothes in summer because white clothes are good reflectors of heat. Thus,
we do not feel warm. In winter, gray or dull coloured clothes are used because gray or dull
coloured clothes are good absorbers of heat. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007][U.P. R.O./A.R.O.
(Mains) 2016]

Scale of Temperature
To measure the temperature of a body following temperature scales are used.
 Celsius scale of temperature freezing point is 0°C Boiling point of water is 100°C
 Fahrenheit scale of temperature ice point or freezing of water = 32° F, Boiling point of water
= 212° F
 -40° is the temperature, at which the readings are same in both degree Centigrade and in
Fahrenheit scale. Relation between degree Centigrade & degree Fahrenheit is
C F−32
=
5 9

Placing F= - 40 to verify
(−40−32)× −72×5
C= = = = -40
9 9

[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015, U.P. U.D.A/L.D.A. (Pre) 2003]
 Kelvin or absolute scale of temperature ice point of water = 273° K, Boiling point of water =
373° K
 The Kelvin scale has no negative values. The Kelvin scale is the best representation of
average kinetic molecular energy. When a substance has a temperature of OK (-273.15° C)
it is at 'absolute zero' and has no kinetic energy at all because its particles stop moving.
[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2017]
 Reaumur scale of temperature ice point of water is 0° R, Boiling point of water = 80°R
 Rankine scale of temperature Ice point /Freezing point of water 491.67°R, Boiling point of
water 671.641° R

Thermometers
The instruments used to measure temperature of a body is called thermometer. In thermometer,
mercury is commonly used through a wide range from –30°C to 300°C. Thermometer was developed
by Galileo who found that the gases expand on heating. Thermometers are of following three types
 Clinical thermometer: It is used to measure human body temperatures and ranges from 96°
F to 110°F or 35°C to 43°C.
 Electronic thermometer: Basic components of an electronic thermometer are thermistors or
thermo-resistors. Range of electronic thermometer is 40° to 450°F.
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Page. 24
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 Other thermometers: these include constant volume gas thermometer, platinum resistance
thermometer etc.
 Some alcohol has a very low freezing point of about -112°C and therefore is suitable to
record very low temperature. Thus, in cold countries, alcohol is preferred to mercury as a
thermometric liquid. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1997]
 Ethylene glycol is an organic molecule most widely used as antifreeze in automobile
engines and as an industrial solvent. When it is mixed with water, the freezing point of the
mixture is depressed, specifically a mixture of 60% ethylene glycol and 40% water freezes
at -45°C. That is why water is not frozen in the engine of cold countries. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.)
(Pre) 2008, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Mains) 2010]

Specific Heat Capacity

 We take three identical glass beakers and fill them with equal mass of water, kerosene and

om
coconut oil. We first note down their initial temperatures and then heat them one by one by
same lamp for 5 minutes each; we find that the rise in temperature of each of them is different.

l.c
 We take four cylindrical blocks of aluminum, lead, copper and iron of equal mass having the
same area of cross section. Now, we suspend the cylindrical blocks fully inside boiling water.
ai
After few minutes, take out the blocks simultaneously and place them on a thick paraffin cake
gm

side by side.

What we observe is that depths of sink are different for different materials.
07

 We take a stone and water of same mass. Place them in the hot sun for about half an hour. Now
touch the stone with one hand and water with the other hand. What we observe is that the stone
03

is hotter than water.

 When a substance is heated, it absorbs heat energy and its temperature rises. The amount of
ar

heat energy absorbed by the substance (Q) is directly proportional to mass of the substance (m)
and the change in temperature (Δt)
m

Q = m sΔt
to

 Here’s is a constant called Specific Heat Capacity. The value of the specific heat capacity
depends on the nature of the substance. In the above equation
av

If m = 1 kg and Δt = 1 K then Q = s.
 This implies that: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat energy
ur

required to raise the temperature of 1 kg mass of the substance by 1 K. Its unit is J kg-1 K-1.
ga

It is a measure of thermal inertia of a substance.

 The heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the substance through 1 K. Thus,
Heat capacity = mass x specific heat capacity.
 Its unit is J/K.

Thermal Expansion
 Thermal expansion takes place in all states of matter. The gases expand more than liquids and
liquids expand more than solids for the same amount of heat. Thermal expansion plays an
important role in many engineering applications.

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Page. 25
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 When an object is heated its molecules vibrate more violently because they have more kinetic
energy. They also need more space around them. This causes the material to expand.
 Increase in length due to heating is called linear expansion. Increase in area as superficial
expansion and that of volume as volume expansion or cubical expansion. The thermal
expansion is different for different substances.

Every day applications of thermal expansion of solids

 If we find difficult to remove the stopper from a glass bottle, we can heat the neck of the
bottle. Now the neck of the bottle expands and the stopper comes out easily.
 The principle of thermal expansion is used in fixing iron rim with the wooden wheel firmly.
 Rivets are used to hold steel plates together very tightly. A very hot rivet is pushed through
the two plates and its end is hammered over. When the rivets cools down it pulls the two
plates together very tightly.
 To avoid bursting of soft drink bottles containing gas, due to thermal expansion, their walls
are made very thick.

Thermal Expansion and Railway Lines

Rails are made of steel which expands on heating and contracts on cooling. A gap is left between two
ends of the rails at the joint. If no gaps are left, due to expansion in summer the rails get distorted
causing derailment. For the same reason, gaps are left in the concrete slabs of bridges and Highways.

Clock Pendulums
The period of oscillation of a pendulum in a clock depends on its length. When the temperature
changes, the length also changes. Hence the clock loses time in summer and gains it in winter. This
can be compensated by using a bimetallic pendulum against the effect of thermal expansion.

Change in State of Mater

Matter exists in three states viz., solid,
liquid and gas. The change from one state to
another can be brought about by the
application or withdrawal of heat.
The water can be in the form of solid ice or
liquid water or gaseous steam. The process
in which a solid change into liquid on
heating is called melting. For example, ice
changes into water. The change of a liquid
into a solid on cooling is known as freezing.
The process in which a liquid change into
vapour on heating is called vaporization.
e.g., water changes into water vapour or
steam. Some materials may change directly
from a solid to a gas. This is called sublimation. Solid carbon dioxide changes to carbon dioxide gas
as it warms up. Another substance which sublimes is Iodine. When vapour condenses to form a liquid
the change of state is called condensation. Steam changes to water as it condenses.

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Page. 26
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Latent Heat
Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a body or a thermodynamic system during a process
that occurs without a change in temperature. A typical example is a change of state of matter, meaning
a phase transition such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.

Working of Refrigerators
Refrigeration preserves foods by slowing down the growth and reproduction of microorganisms
or we can say that by refrigeration we can reduce the rate of biochemical reactions. When a liquid
evaporates it takes in heat energy and cools its surroundings. When the gas condenses back to a
liquid, the latent heat is released. This is used to take heat from inside a fridge, and release it
outside. A liquid which evaporates easily is called volatile liquid. Freon is a volatile liquid used in
most fridges. The liquid evaporates in the coils around the ice box or cold plate inside the fridge.
This causes cooling. The Freon gas formed is pumped away and pressurized in the condenser on
the back of the fridge. Here the Freon gas condenses back into liquid. As it condenses it releases
the heat energy it has taken in. So heat energy has been taken from food and other things inside
the fridge and released outside it. If we leave the fridge door open, the pump has to work hard and
more heat will be released into the kitchen which will eventually become hotter. [U.P.P.C.S.(Pre)
2013, U.PP.C.S (Pre) 2011]

Freezing Mixtures
A mixture of compounds that produces a low temperature is called freezing mixture. A freezing
mixture consists of powdered ice, common salt and ammonium nitrate. Temperatures lower than 0° C
can be produced by mixing certain salts such as Sodium Chloride, Ammonium Chloride, Magnesium
Sulphate etc. with ice. When salt is mixed with ice, some ice melts taking heat from the salt. The
temperature of the mixture decreases. Now salt gets dissolved in the water formed. The necessary heat
for this is extracted from the mixture itself and consequently the temperature of mixture falls below
zero. With the freezing mixture of salt and ice in the ratio 1 : 3, temperatures as low as -13°C can be
obtained

Latent heat of fusion

The latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to convert unit mass of the
solid at its melting point to the liquid state at the same temperature. The S.I unit of Latent heat is J kg-
1
. Ice at 0°C is more effective in cooling a substance than water at 0°C. This is due to the fact that for
melting at 0°C each kilogram of ice takes its latent heat of 3.34 x105 J from the substance and hence
cools the substance more effectively. On the other hand water at 0°C cannot take latent heat from the
substance. This concept is valid for most of the liquids and their solids.

Latent heat of vaporization

Latent heat of vaporization of a liquid is the amount of heat required to convert unit mass of a liquid
at its normal boiling point into vapour at the same temperature. The burns caused by steam are much
more severe than those caused by boiling water though both of them are at the same temperature of
100°C. This is due to the fact that steam contains more heat in the form of latent heat (2.26 x 106 J/kg)
than boiling water. Here we note that the latent heats of fusion is maximum for ice and latent heat is
maximum for steam. Hence steam and ice can be considered to be the best source and sink of heat
respectively in a heat engine.

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Page. 27
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Skates, Sledges and Snowballs

Since the edges of the skates are fine, the pressure applied on ice is sufficient to melt it. Water thus
formed due to melting acts as a lubricant and enables the skates to move freely over ice. Due to
regelation the water formed is again converted into ice. Thus free motion of skates with good grip is
achieved. The same explanation holds good for sledges and snow balls.

Impact of Impurities on Melting Points

We put some salt or other impurity into a beaker of water and heat it until it boils. Measure the boiling
point and observe that it is above 100°C. It shows that the boiling point of liquid is raised by adding
impurities. Again, we take some pieces of ice in a beaker and sprinkle some salt on the ice. Stir until
the ice melts and measure its temperature. We observe that it is less than 0°C. The presence of impurity
lowers the melting point.

om
Impact of Pressure on Boiling Points
 The boiling point of a liquid is lowered under reduced pressure and increased under increased

l.c
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is less on the top of a mountain and therefore water boils
at a lower temperature. This temperature is too low to cook food properly.
ai
 It means that a longer time is required for cooking in hill stations. The time required for cooking
gm

vegetables and other foods can be greatly reduced if the boiling point of water is raised.

 At higher altitudes of a mountain, the atmospheric pressure decreases due to lack of air.
07

Therefore, the boiling water pressure decreases and water boils below 100°C due to lowering
of boiling point. The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding
03

environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than that of
liquid at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when
ar

that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. This can be done by the use of a pressure cooker. A
pressure cooker consists of a strong vessel of an aluminum alloy or stainless steel sealed so
m

tightly that steam can be confined inside it with a pressure of about 2 atmospheres. The boiling
to

point of water at this pressure will be about 120°C. When foods are cooked under these
conditions there is a considerable saving of fuel and time. Since the cooking time is reduced
av

the food value (vitamins and minerals) is retained better. Any possible oxidation of food
material is also prevented because cooking takes place in an atmosphere of steam instead of
ur

air. The pressure cooker solves cooking problems at high altitudes also.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2007],[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]
ga

Thermodynamics
The branch of physics which deals with the study of relation of heat energy with different types of
energy is called thermodynamics.
1. Zeroth Law
 Zeroth law of thermodynamics tells about thermal equilibrium.
2. First Law
 As per first law about energy, heat given to a substance is equal to sum of change in internal
energy and work done.
3. Second Law

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Page. 28
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 In second law work can be converted into heat and vice-versa but conversion is not possible
with 100% efficiency.
 It is impossible for a machine operating in a cyclic process to convert heat completely into
work, it is kelvin’s statement.
 Heat by itself cannot transfer from a colder to a hotter body. It is Clausius statement.
Refrigerator is based on this statement.
 Heat engine is a device which converts heat into mechanical work. Internal combustion
and external combustion heat engine are two types of heat engine.
 Car engine uses coolant added with water to reduce harmful effects like corrosion, rusting
etc. Such as ethylene glycol, potassium dichromate etc.,
4. Carnot’s theorem tells about maximum efficiency of heat engine. It refers to Carnot cycle.
 Entropy measures the molecular disorder of a system and is a thermodynamic function
depending only on the temperature of the system.
 Evaporation is a process in which molecules escape slowly from the surface of a liquid.
 For a given liquid the rate of evaporation demands on the temperature and area of
evaporating surface.
 Refrigerator is a device used for cooling things by the evaporation and compression of a
volatile liquid inside a copper coil.
 The energy that causes the sensation of heat is called heat. The field of physics known as
thermodynamics studies the interactions between heat, mechanical energy, and other types of
energy. A few fundamental laws that have been established based on human experience with the
experimental behavior of macroscopic aggregates of matter gathered over a long period of time
form the foundation of the entire formulation of thermodynamics.

Gas Laws
The gases also expand when heated, just like solids and liquids do. The gas's volume of expansion
is influenced by both the pressure and temperature it is exposed to. Volume, pressure, and
temperature are the three variables for gases as a result. The third is held constant in order to
analyze the variation of any two variables. The gas laws describe how these variables interact with
one another.

Boyle’s Law
The pressure is inversely proportional to the volume at a constant temperature.
P ∝ 1/V
PV = constant

Charles’s Law
The volume of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure.

Gay- Lussac’s Law

The pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant volume.

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Page. 29
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Perfect Gas Equation

It is the relationship between the given gas mass's pressure, volume, and temperature. It is derived
from Boyle's and Charle's laws, which a perfect gas obeys. If only one mole of gas is taken into
account,
PV = RT

Here, P is the pressure

V is the volume
R is the universal gas constant
T is the absolute temperature

Methods of Heat Transfer

Conduction: Conduction is the process by which heat is transferred from a body's hotter to its
colder regions without any actual movement of the particles between them.

Convection: Convection is the term used to describe the transfer of heat caused by the medium
itself moving.

Radiation: The method of heat transmission between two points without the use of a medium in
between is known as radiation.

Terminologies:

Thermodynamic System: A specific amount of material is contained within a physical or conceptual

boundary. When a system will exchange energy but not matter, it is said to be closed. If a system
allows for the exchange of both energy and matter, it is said to be open.

Surrounding: The part of the universe other than the system which will interact with it

Boundary: The actual or imaginary surface that separates the system and the surrounding

Thermodynamic Coordinates: Measurable quantities such as pressure, volume and temperature.

Thermodynamic State: The condition in which the system exists.

Equation of State: It is the mathematical equation that relates the thermodynamic coordinates of the
given system. For example, PV = RT

Extensive Properties: The characteristics of a system that are solely dependent on its mass. For
instance, consider volume, pressure, temperature, and entropy.

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Page. 30
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Intensive Properties: System characteristics that are independent of the system's mass. pressure,
density, temperature, etc.

Thermodynamic Process: The process in which there is a change in the thermodynamic coordinates.

Isothermal Process: The process that takes place at a constant temperature.

Adiabatic Process: The process in which the heat will neither enter the system nor leave the system.

Isobaric Process: The process that takes place at a constant pressure

Isochoric Process: The process that takes place at constant volume

om
Reversible Process: A process that can be reversed so that the system and its surroundings

l.c
experience each stage exactly as they would in the direct process is referred to as reversible.
ai
Irreversible Process: A process that cannot be reversed by reversing the controlling variables.
gm

Cyclic Process: In this process, the system comes back to its initial state after undergoing a series
07

of changes.
03

Quasistatic Process: The system is always in thermal equilibrium and the process is very slow.
ar

Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A system that is in thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium is called the thermodynamic
m

equilibrium.
to

Thermal equilibrium: When all of the system's components are at the same temperature as their
av

surroundings, a thermodynamic system is said to be in thermal equilibrium.

ur

Mechanical equilibrium: If no unbalanced force is acting on any portion of the system or the system
ga

as a whole, the thermodynamic system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.

Chemical equilibrium: When a system's chemical composition is consistent throughout the entire
system, it is said to be in chemical equilibrium.

Internal Energy
Internal Energy is the sum total of the kinetic energy and potential energy of the atoms/molecules
due to the internal factors.
Kinetic energy refers to the energy that atoms or molecules have due to their motion.

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Page. 31
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The law states that “two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system, are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.

Modes of Energy Transfer

Heat and work are the two ways to change the system's internal energy.

Heat: The energy that is transferred as a result of the temperature differential between a system and
its surroundings is known as heat. The internal energy of the molecules increases with heating
because of the molecules' increased kinetic energy.

Work: The energy expended to resist an outside force is known as work. In contrast, when the
system contracts as a result of the external pressure, the internal energy tends to increase. When the
system works against an external pressure, it tends to decrease internal energy.

Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a conductor to conduct heat is called thermal conductivity. It is defined as the quantity
of heat flowing per second through the unit area of the block of unit thickness when the temperature
difference between the two faces is 1K.

First Law of Thermodynamics

When a system that can perform external work is exposed to a certain amount of heat, the amount
of heat that the system absorbs is equal to the total of the increase in internal energy and the external
work that the system performs.

dQ = dU + dW

Here, dQ is the amount of heat given to the system

dU is the increase in the internal energy
dW is the external energy done by the system
Applications of First Law of Thermodynamics
1. Isothermal Process
2. Adiabatic Process
3. Isobaric Process
4. Isochoric Process

Work done in an Isothermal Process

Work done by an ideal gas when it expands from volume V1 to volume V2 isothermally at
temperature T is given by
W = RTloge(V2/V1) (for one mole of the gas)
Also W = RTloge(P2/P1) (Since P1V1 = P2V2)
Some of the examples of isothermal processes are

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Page. 32
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

a. Melting
b. Boiling
Work done in an Adiabatic Process
Work done by an ideal gas in an adiabatic process is given by

T1 and T2 are the temperatures in the initial and final states of gas.
Some of the examples of the adiabatic process
a. Propagation of sound waves in a gas
b. Bursting of an automobile tube inflated with air

Work done in an Isobaric Process

Work done in an isobaric process is given by W = P(V2 – V1)

Heating of water or any liquid at atmospheric pressure is an isobaric process

Work done in an Isochoric Process

Work done in an isochoric process, W = 0

The process of melting in which a solid is converted into a liquid is nearly isochoric, as the change
in the volume due to melting is negligible.
Heat Added or Removed
(a) For an isothermal process
Q = nRTloge (V2/V1)
(b) For adiabatic process
Q=0
(c) For isobaric process
Q = nCp△T
(d) For isochoric process
Q = nCv△T
Limitations :
The first law of thermodynamics leaves open the possibility for the change to take any direction.
The law does not indicate the extent to which the change can take place.

Specific Heat Capacity

The specific heat capacity of a substance can be defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of the substance through 10C.

(a) Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Volume: The specific heat capacity at constant volume is
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature 1 g of the gas through 10C keeping the volume
of the gas constant.

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Page. 33
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

(b) Specific Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure:

The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is the heat required to increase the temperature of 1
g of substance through 10C keeping the pressure constant.

Mayer’s Formula
Mayer’s formula is given by the difference between the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure
and specific heat capacity at constant volume. Mayer’s formula is expressed as

Cp – Cv = R

Here, Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure.

om
Cv is the specific heat capacity at constant volume
R is the universal gas constant

Mayer’s relation is valid only for perfect gases

l.c
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Latent Heat
gm

The amount of heat needed to change the state of a substance's unit mass at constant pressure and
temperature is known as latent heat.
07

L = ΔQ/m
03

Latent heat of fusion: It is the amount of heat required to change the state from solid to liquid.
ar

Latent heat of vaporization: It is the heat required to change the state from liquid to gas.
m

Newton’s Law of Cooling

to

If the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings is small, the rate of heat loss
by a body is directly proportional to that difference.
av

[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]

ur
ga

Degrees of Freedom
The total number of independent variables which are necessary to specify the position of the object
are called the degrees of freedom.

Law of Equipartition of Energy

The law of equipartition of energy states that the total energy is equally shared by all the degrees
of freedom and the average energy of a molecule in a gas associated with each degree of freedom
is (½) kT, where
k is the Boltzman constant and T is its absolute temperature.

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Page. 34
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Ratio of specific heats

The ratio of specific heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure to that at constant volume (Cp/Cv)
is an important constant.

It has a value between 1 and 1.67

The knowledge of helps in finding the atomicity of gas as well as the molecular structure
of the gas.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Kelvin- Planck’s Statement:

It is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to a temperature lower
than that of the coolest of its surroundings.

Clausius Statement
It is impossible to make heat flow from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature without doing any external work on the working substance.

Heat Engine
A device that transforms heat energy into mechanical energy is called a heat engine. The working
substance, the hot body known as the source, and the cold body known as the sink make up the heat
engine. A cyclical procedure is used to take the active ingredient. The process involves the working
substance doing work while absorbing heat from
the source at a higher temperature. then sends the
heat rejection to the lower-temperature sink.

Efficiency of the Heat Engine

The thermal efficiency of the heat engine is the
ratio of the heat that gets converted into work to
the total heat absorbed from the source during a
complete cycle. The working substance absorbs
a certain amount of heat Q1 during isothermal
expansion. It rejects an amount of heat Q2 into
the sink during the isothermal compression.

Efficiency, η = Work done/Heat Supplied

= (Q1 – Q2)/Q1
= 1 – Q2/Q1
Q2/Q1 = T2/T1
η = 1 – T2/T1

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The efficiency of the Carnot’s engine depends only on the temperature of the source and sink. It
will not depend on the working substance.

Enthalpy
Enthalpy is given by the sum of the internal energy and the product of the pressure and volume of
a thermodynamic system. It is measured in joules or ergs since it has the dimension of energy.
H = U + PV

Here, H is the enthalpy

U is the internal energy
P is the pressure
V is the volume

Factors Affecting a Reaction's Enthalpy

a) Temperature
b) Physical states of reactants and products
c) Allotropic forms of elements
d) Pressure and Volume

Entropy
The thermal energy per unit temperature that is not available for doing useful work is called entropy.
The ordered motion of molecules will result in useful work. The amount of molecular disorder or
randomness of the system is called entropy.

Facts about Entropy

a) Entropy of the universe increases in all-natural processes
b) Change in the entropy depends only on the initial and final states of the system
c) Entropy is not conserved
d) Entropy can be created but not destroyed

Clausius Clapeyron Equation

It relates the rate of change of pressure with temperature to latent heat. It can be applied to any
equilibrium between two phases namely solid and liquid, liquid and water etc. According to the
Clausius Clapeyron Equation.

Here, L is the latent heat

V1 is the volume of the first state
V2 is the volume in the final state into which the substance changes

Clausius Clapeyron Equation Application

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Solid-Liquid Equilibrium – Freezing Point

The melting point or the freezing point of a substance is the temperature at which the solid and
liquid phases of the substance co-exist in equilibrium. For this equilibrium, the Clapeyron equation
can be written as

Here, T is the melting point or the freezing point of the substance

VL is the molar volume of the liquid phase
Vs is the molar volume of the solid phase
ΔHf is the molar latent heat of fusion
i.e.,

om
dT/dP represents the rate of change of freezing point with external pressure P.

l.c
For substances like ice that contract on melting, the value of VL – VS becomes negative. As a
result, dT/dP is negative. Meaning, the melting or freezing point of ice decreases with increases in
ai
pressure.
gm

For substances like sulphur that expand on melting, the value of VL – VS becomes positive. As a
result, dT/dP is positive. Therefore, the melting or freezing point of ice increases with increases in
pressure.
07

Liquid-Vapour Equilibrium- Boiling Point

03

The boiling point temperature is the temperature at which the liquid and vapour phases of the
substance co-exist in equilibrium. For this equilibrium, the Clapeyron equation can be written as
ar
m

Here,
to

VV and VL are the molar volumes of the vapour and liquid phase, respectively
av

T is the boiling point of the substance

ΔHv is the molar latent heat of vaporization of the substance
ur

dT/dP is the rate of change of boiling point with pressure

The volume Vv of the vapour phase of the given mass of a substance is always much greater than
ga

the liquid phase of the same substance. That is dT/dP is always positive.

Carnot Engine

The Carnot Engine is the name given to the theoretical thermodynamic cycle that Sadi Carnot
proposed in 1824. He employed a heat engine that carried out an entirely reversible cycle. A
Carnot reversible engine running between the same two temperatures can operate between a
source and a sink more efficiently than any other engine. This is referred to as the Carnot
principle.In a Carnot's engine, the working material undergoes a reversible cycle of operations
made up of two isothermal and two adiabatic processes.

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Refrigerator is a device that is used to keep bodies at a temperature lower than that of the
surrounding
Coefficient of performance

The amount of heat removed per unit of work done is called the coefficient of performance of a
refrigerator.

Gibbs free energy (G)

A new thermodynamic state function G, the Gibbs free energy is defined as
G = H – TS or ΔG = ΔH – TΔS (at constant temperature and pressure)
For a spontaneous reaction, ΔG must be negative. The use of Gibbs free energy has the advantage
that it refers to the system only.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

The third law of thermodynamics states that ‘At absolute zero, the entropy of a perfectly
crystalline substance is taken as zero” which means that at absolute zero every crystalline solid is
in a state of perfect order and its entropy should be zero.
The absolute value of entropy for a pure substance can be determined at room temperature thanks
to the third law.

HUMIDITY AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY

Humidity
 Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in atmosphere. The amount of water vapour in
atmosphere changes with time and weather. The air containing water vapour is called humid
air.

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 The amount of vapour present per unit volume of air is called the humidity of air. Humidity is
generally measured in kg/m3.
 The knowledge of humidity helps us to predict weather. When the amount of water vapour in
the air is small, the air appears to be dry and the humidity is low. When the amount of water
vapour in the air is large, the air appears to be wet and the humidity is high. The degree of
wetness of air is expressed in terms of its relative humidity.
 Loss of water from the body through perspiration depends on both atmospheric temperature
and atmospheric humidity. Perspiration or sweating allows the body to regulate its
temperature. The rate of sweating depends on many factors and is increased in proportion
to the work rate and the environmental temperature and humidity. [U.P. B.E.O. (Pre)
2019]

Relative Humidity
The ratio of the mass of water vapour actually present in certain volume of air (m) to the mass of water
vapour (M) required to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature is called relative
humidity (R.H)
If the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour its R.H is 100%. In such a case, water on earth
cannot evaporate at all. If the relative humidity is less than 100% but still high, the rate of evaporation
will be slow and the clothes do not dry up easily in such weather. The relative humidity varies from
season to season. During rainy season, as the amount of water vapours in air increases, the relative
humidity becomes more (R.H = 100%) More R.H is a permanent feature of coastal areas. Due to more
R.H perspiration from our body does not evaporate and we feel sultry.The wet clothes will dry earliest
at minimum humidity & maximum temperature.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2008]
 Air conditioner and Air-cooler both maintains temperature and the motion of air. But the
Air conditioner also having the ability to maintain humidity, while air cooler doesn't have
the ability to maintain humidity.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
 Xeric condition refers to low humidity. Xeric condition is characterized by an inadequate
supply of water. These conditions exist in arid habitats, extremely cold habitats, and in salt
marshes. [U.P.R.O/A.R.O. (Pre) 2014]

UNIVERSE AND SOLAR SYSTEM

Universe
 Pythagoras, who was an Ionian Greek philosopher and mathematician, first used the term
“COSMOS” for the order of the Universe.
 Cosmology is the discipline that describes the large-scale properties of universe as a whole.
 The distance covered by light in one year is known as “Light Year.” The Velocity of light is
300,000 km/s. Light year is not a unit of measuring time, but a unit of measuring
distance.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
 The distance between the Sun and the Earth is known as “Astronomical Unit.” One
astronomical unit is (roughly) equal to 149.6 million kilometers.
 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) is Explorer Mission of National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). It is launched for the study and measurement
of cosmology.

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 Professor Sir Fred Hoyle, who was an English astronomer, coined the term “Big Bang” to
explain a scientific theory on the creation of cosmos.
 Galaxy is a huge collection of stellar and interstellar matter, which are bound together by its
own gravity in Space. There are several galaxies in universe, for example, Milky Way.
 The name galaxy where we live is ‘Milky Way.’
 The largest galaxy is ‘Andromeda Galaxy.’ It is also the closest to Milky Way. Milky Way
is the second largest galaxy.
 The radius of Milky Way is about 50,000 light years.
 The Solar System is a part of Milky Way.
 The Sun takes 225 million light years to complete one circuit.
 The collapsed stars, which are immeasurably dense and having huge gravitational force (even
light cannot escape rather get absorbed) are known as “Black Holes.” [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]

om
A black hole is an object which is so compact that its gravitational force is strong enough to
prevent light or anything else from escaping. By this reason, one can't see it by telescope.
[U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2001]

l.c
Quasar is a massive and extremely remote celestial object that keeps emitting remarkably large
amounts of energy. Typically, it has a star like image, which can be seen through the telescope.
ai
 Constellation is a group of stars being arranged in a pictorial configuration. It was basically
gm

observed by the ancient astronomers. For example, Sirius (Canis Major), Canopus (Carina),
Turus (Bootes), etc.
 Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) is the British Astronomy center, located at
07

Chajnantor (at an altitude of about 5,000 meters), in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile.
 Edwin Hubble, who was an American astronomer, first studied galaxies in detail. Based on
03

Shape, Edwin classified galaxies as Elliptical, Spiral, and Barred Spiral.

o The colour of the stars reflects the age and temperature of stars. Colour is reflected from the
ar

fusion reaction which indicates the temperature. If the temperature is high, then the star is
m

young. The star will be blue during young stage which indicates high temperature. If star is
red the temperature is low. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2008, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005, U.P.P.C.S.
to

(Mains) 2003]
av

 At the end of life-cycle, when a star loses its light and the density increases (very high), by this
time, it is largely composed of neutrons and hence known as ‘Neutron Star.’
ur

 Most likely, the rotating neutron star emits intermittent radio signals, is known as ‘Pulsar.’
 A star with low temperature and small mass (glowing feebly) is known as ‘Red Dwarf.’
ga

 A star that suddenly increases its brightness (greatly) because of a catastrophic explosion and
ejects most of its mass is known as ‘Supernova.’
 Satellites (or Moons) are the bodies that keep revolving around their respective planets. For
example, Moon revolves around the Earth, etc.
 The Sun is the closest star to the Earth (at the distance of about 149,600,000 km).
 Located at the distance of about 4.24 light-years, Proxima Centauri is the second closest star to
the Earth.
 The Sun is made up of extremely hot gasses and its glowing surface is known as the
‘Photosphere.’ The layer immediately above the photosphere is known as ‘Chromosphere’
(sphere of color).

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 The Chromosphere is 10,000 km thick transparent shell of plasma.

 The Outermost layer of the Sun is known as the ‘Corona.’
 Temperature of the outer surface is 6,0000 C and interior temperature is 15,000,0000 C.
 The rotation period of the Sun is 25 days, 9 hours, and 7 minutes.
 The traveling speed of the Sun’s Rays is 30,000 m/s.
 The time taken by Sun’s Rays to reach the Earth is 8 minutes and 16.6 seconds.
 The Sun is largely composed (chemically) of Hydrogen (71%), Helium (26.5%), and some other
elements (2.5%).
 Sometimes, in the photosphere, some patches of gas, which is cooler that its surrounding (gas)
are known as the ‘Sunspots.’
 The Planets are the celestial bodies that revolve around the Sun as well as (at the same time)
rotate on their imaginary axis.

Asteroids
 Asteroids, also known as small planets or planetoids, are the rocky debris largely found between
the planets Mars and Jupiter. These are too small to have their own atmosphere (as shown in
the following image).
 The Asteroids revolve around the Sun, which varies from 3 to 10 years.
 By the time, more than 450,000 Asteroids are discovered; the largest Asteroid is Ceres, which
diameter is about 1,025 km.

Meteors
 Meteors, also popular as ‘Shooting Star’ or ‘Falling
Star,’ is the passage of a comet, asteroid, or
meteoroid into the Earth's atmosphere. It is heated
(because of the collisions with air particles) and
normally seen in the upper atmosphere (as shown in
the following image).
 Meteoroids are the small rocky or metallic bodies that normally travel through outer space.
Meteoroids are expressively smaller than asteroids, and its size ranges from small grains to 1-
meter-wide objects.

Comets
Comets are the icy small Solar System body; normally while
passing close to the Sun, heats up and starts to outgas,
displaying a visible atmosphere (i.e. basically coma) along with
a tail (as shown in the following image – in the INSAT
view).Radiation from the sun pushes dust particles away from
the coma (nebulous envelope around the nucleus of a comet), forming a dust tail, while charged
particles from the sun convert some of the comet's gases into ions, forming an ion tail. Since comet
tails are shaped by sunlight and the solar wind, they always point away from the sun.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2011]

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The Solar System

There are eight planets namely (arranged in the order of increasing distance from the Sun) −
 Mercury
 Venus
 Earth
 Mars
 Jupiter
 Saturn
 Uranus
 Neptune
The largest planet is Jupiter and Mercury is the smallest planet of the system.

Mercury
 Mercury is the nearest to the Sun.
 Mercury takes 58.65 Earth days to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 88 days to
complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Mercury is the fastest planet and it has no moon (satellite).

Venus
 Venus, which is also popular as an evening star and morning star, is the brightest celestial body
in the universe after Sun and Moon.
 Venus is the Hottest Planet of the solar system. It is closest to the Earth.
 Venus takes 243 Earth days to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 224.7 days to
complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Venus has no satellite and it spins in the opposite direction of the Earth’s spin.
 Venus is named after the Roman goddess of Beauty.

Earth
 Earth is the third planet from the Sun.
 By the time, Earth is the only planet where life exists.

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 Earth takes 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 40 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes
365.26 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Mass of the Earth is 5.98 x 1024 kg and its diameter is 12,756 km.
 Escape Velocity of the Earth is 11,200 m/s.
 Obliquity (i.e. tilt of axis degrees) of the Earth is 23.40.
 Mean density of the Earth is 5.514 g/cm3 and the surface is 510,072,000 km2.
 Mean surface temperature of the Earth is 281 K; the mean maximum surface temperature is 310
K and the mean minimum surface temperature is 260 K.
 The major atmospheric components of the Earth are Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20.95%), Argon
(0.930%), and Carbon Dioxide (0.039%).

Moon

om
 Moon is the only known satellite of the Earth.
 Moons rotation time (on its axis) and revolution time (around the Earth) is same (i.e. 27 days,
7 hours, 43 minutes, and 11.47 seconds. This is the reason that we always see only one side of
the Moon.
 Moon revolves around the Earth l.c
ai
once in every 27.3 days, which
gm

is known as ‘Sidereal Month;’

however, it takes 29.5 days to
return to the same point on the
07

celestial sphere in reference to

the Sun (due to revolution
03

motion of the Earth around the

Sun) and it is known as
‘Synodic Month.’
ar

 When two full Moons occur in

m

the same month, it is known as ‘Blue Moon.’

 A Full Moon is basically the lunar phase that occurs when the Moon is completely illuminated
to

as seen from the Earth.

av

 As shown in the following image, the Lunar Phase or phase of the moon, is the shape of the
illuminated portion of the Moon that is visible from the Earth. As Moon revolves, the lunar
ur

phases change cyclically and we can see from the full moon (full visible) to the new moon (not
at all visible)
ga

Mars
 Mars is known as the ‘Red Planet’ of the solar system.
 Mars takes 24 hours, 37 minutes, and 30 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes
687 days to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Mars has two satellites namely Phobos (means fear) and Deimos (means terror).

Jupiter
 Jupiter takes 9 hours, 50 minutes, and 30 seconds to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes
12 earth years to complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).

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 Jupiter has 63 natural satellites/moon, significant of them are Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, etc.
Among all, Ganymede is the largest satellite in the whole solar system.
 The first evidence of methane in the atmosphere of Mars was measured by ESA's Mars Express
Orbiter. NASA's Curiosity rover also detected methane presence in the atmosphere of Mars.
Jupiter’s atmosphere contains mainly Helium and Hydrogen with a trace amount of Water,
Ammonia, Methane and other Carbon compounds.[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2010]

Saturn
 Saturn is the largest planet after Jupiter in the solar system.
 Saturn is popular for its spectacular rings system.
 The rings system of Saturn is made up of a variety of separate particles that rotate in circular
orbits independently.
 Saturn takes 10 hours and 14 minutes to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 30 years to
complete its one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Saturn has total 47 satellites/moons; among them, Titan is the biggest satellite.

Uranus
 Uranus is first identified as planet by William Herschel in 1781.
 Like Saturn, Uranus also has a system of five faint rings.
 Uranus takes 16 hours to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 84 years to complete its
one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Uranus has 27 satellites; significant of them are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, etc.

Neptune
 Neptune is the farthest planet which appears greenish through a telescope.
 Neptune is discovered by Berlin scientist J. G. Galle in 1846.
 Neptune takes 18 hours to complete its rotation (on its axis) and takes 165 years to complete its
one revolution (i.e. in its orbit around the Sun).
 Neptune has 13 satellites/moons; significant of them are ‘Triton’ and ‘Nereid.’
 Until 2006, there were nine planets (including Pluto), but in 2006, the ninth planet Pluto is
categorized as the dwarf planet by International Astronomical Union (IAU).

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

Introduction
A force is needed to change the speed or the direction of motion of an object.
According to Sir Isaac Newton, gravity, also called gravitation or gravitational force is the
universal force of attraction acting between all matter.
- It is the weakest known force among the four fundamental forces in nature –
Gravitational force, electromagnetic force, weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force.
Examples of gravitational force include:

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- The force that binds us to the earth

- An object dropped from a height falls towards the earth.
- Motion of the planets around the Sun.
- Motion of the moon around the earth.
- Tides due to the moon and the Sun

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion [U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010]

- Johannes Kepler, a German astronomer propounded three laws of planetary motion
around the Sun. They are:
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one of the focal points
2. The radius vector drawn from the Sun to a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
o This follows from the fact that the force of gravitation on the planet is central and
hence angular momentum is conserved.
3. The square of the orbital time period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-
major axis of the elliptical orbit of the planet.

- According to the above Fig. Kepler’s third law in the equation would be:
T2 ∝ a3
‘T’ is the Orbital Time period and ‘a’ is the semi-major axis,

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Newton’s law of gravitation

- Newton used the third law of Kepler to calculate the gravitational force of attraction.
- Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational force of attraction ‘F’,
between any two particles of masses ‘m1’ and ‘m2’ separated by a distance ‘r’ has the
magnitude:
F = G m1 m2/r2
o ‘G’ is the universal gravitational constant = 6.674 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2
 The value of G was found out by Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810)

Gravitational acceleration of the Earth (g)

- g is called acceleration due to the gravitational force of the earth or acceleration due to
gravity.

om
g = GM/r2
o where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the attracting body, and r

l.c
is the distance from the centre of that mass.
- On or near the surface of the Earth:
ai
g = G Me/Re2 = 9.8 ms-2
gm

o G = 6.674 × 10–11 N m2 kg–2

o Me = Mass of the Earth = 5.972 × 1024 kg;
o Re = Radius of the Earth = 6400 km
07

- The value of g becomes greater at the poles than at the equator.

03

- The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is a geoid, i.e. the radius of the earth at the poles is
lesser than at the equator [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009]
ar

Two different masses dropped from the same height

- Both masses experience acceleration during free fall.
m

- This acceleration experienced is independent of their masses.

to

- This means that all objects hollow or solid, big or small, should reach the ground at the
same time during free fall (provided there is negligible air resistance).
av

- Time taken to reach the ground for the objects:

t = Square root of √(2h/g)
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o ‘h’ is the height from which the masses are dropped;

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o ‘g’ is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 ms-2

g on the Moon
- Weight of the object on the Moon = (1/6) × its weight on the Earth
gMoon = (1/6) × gEarth
-Moon has no atmosphere because the value of acceleration due to gravity 'g' on the surface of the
moon is small. Therefore, the value of escape velocity on the surface of the moon is small. The
value of root mean square velocity of the molecules of different gases is much above the value of
escape velocity on the moon. That is why all the molecules of gases escaped and there is no
atmosphere on the moon. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]

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Circular motion of satellites

The satellite revolving around the Earth in an orbit is under the effect of centripetal force.
Centripetal Force
- It is the force that keeps the body moving along the circular path, acting towards the
centre.
- The motion of the moon and other satellites around the earth is due to the centripetal
force.
o The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of attraction of the
earth.
o If there were no such force, the moon would pursue a uniform straight-line motion.
For a satellite of mass ‘m’, orbiting the Earth at a radius ‘r’ and orbital velocity ‘vo’, the
centripetal force(F) is:
F = mvo2/r
Since the centripetal force for the satellite is provided by the gravitational force of attraction of
the Earth, we get:
GMem/r2 = mvo2/r
=> vo = Square root of √(GMe/r) … Equation 1
=> vo = Re × Square root of √(g/r) … Equation 2
o where G is the gravitational constant, Me is the mass of the Earth, r is the radius
of the satellite’s orbit, g is the acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s surface,
and Re is the radius of the Earth
Circular motion and escape velocity relation
- If the orbital velocity of a satellite is vo and the escape velocity from the Earth is ve, then:
vo = (√2)ve = 1.414 × ve
Escape velocity
- Escape velocity is the minimum velocity required to escape the gravitational attraction of
a body.
- The escape velocity from the surface of the Earth is 11.2 km s–1.
- vesc = Square root of √(2GM/r)
o where G is the gravitational constant, M is the mass of the attracting body, and r
is the distance from the centre of that mass.
- vesc = Square root of √(2gRe)
o where g is the acceleration due to gravity at Earth’s surface, and Re is the
radius of the Earth
o g = 9.8 m s-2 ; Re = 6400 km = 6.4 * 106 m
- Escape velocity decreases with altitude.
Why don’t we feel the earth’s high velocity?
- Earth’s orbital velocity is nearly 30 km s-1
- Earth’s rotational velocity is nearly 1674 km h-1
- We do not feel these high speeds because we spin and move through space along with the
Earth.
- Hence, our relative velocity with respect to the Earth along the Earth’s orbit is zero.

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Simple periodic motion

- Simple periodic motion is a motion repeated in equal intervals of time.
- For example: A simple pendulum, a bouncing ball, a vibrating tuning fork, the motion of
planets around the Sun, etc.
Simple pendulum
- The simple pendulum executes Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) which means, the
acceleration of the pendulum bob is directly proportional to its displacement from the
mean position and is always directed towards it.
Time period of a simple pendulum
- It is the time taken by a pendulum bob to complete one oscillation.
T = 2 π √(L/g)
- The time period is T, where L is the length of the pendulum, and g is the acceleration due
to gravity at the place.
- The time period of a pendulum depends only on the length of the pendulum.
- It does not depend on the mass of the pendulum bob
- Time period is directly proportional to the square root of the length of the
pendulum.
o When the length is increased four times, the time period will be increased by two
times.
- Time period is inversely proportional to the square root of ‘g’
o On top of a mountain the ‘g’ value decreases and hence the time period increases,
making the clock slow.
- Seconds pendulum has a time period of 2 seconds.
- Maximum time period of a simple pendulum is 84.6 minutes.
o It is the time period of a pendulum whose length tends to infinity.
Pendulum clock in different seasons
- During summer, the length of the pendulum increases due to which the time period
increases and the pendulum takes more time to complete one oscillation. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 2012, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1994]
- Thus, it becomes slow in summer or they lose time in summer.
- The reverse happens in winter when it becomes fast or gains time in winter.

Equations to remember
The equations are:
v = u + at
S = ut + (1/2) at2
v2 = u2 + 2aS
where u and v are the initial and final velocities and S is the displacement covered in time, t.
- In applying these equations, we will take acceleration, ‘a’ to be positive when it is in the
direction of the velocity, that is, in the direction of motion.
- The acceleration, ‘a’ will be taken as negative when it opposes the motion.

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GRAVITATION

Each and every massive body attracts each other by virtue of their masses. This phenomenon is called
gravitation.

Newton’s Law of Gravitation

The gravitational force acting between two-point objects is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational force ((F) = 𝐺𝑚1𝑚2
𝑟2
where, G is universal gravitational constant.
Its value is 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁 –𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2.

om
Gravitational force is a central as well as conservative force.

Acceleration Due to Gravity of Earth

l.c
The uniform acceleration produced in a freely falling body due to the earth’s gravitational pull, is called
acceleration due to gravity, g = 𝐺𝑀
ai
𝑅2
gm

where, M = mass of the earth, R = radius of the earth.

The value of g changes slightly from place to place but its value near the earth’s surface is 9.8 𝑚𝑠−2.
07

Gravitational force is the weakest force in nature. It is 1036 times smaller than electrostatic force and
1038 times smaller than nuclear force.
Factors Affecting Acceleration due to Gravity
03

Shape of Earth - Earth is not completely spherical its radius at equator is approximately 42 km greater
than its radius at poles. The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at equator. There is no effect
ar

of rotation of the earth at poles and maximum at equator.

m

Effect of Altitude - g decreases with altitude.

Effect of Depth - g decreases with depth and becomes zero at center of the earth.
to
av

Mass and Weight

 The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit
ur

is kg.
 Mass is measured by an ordinary equal arm balance.
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 Mass of a body does not change from place to place and remains constant.
 The weight of a body is the force with which it is attracted towards the center of the earth.
Weight of a body (w) = mg
 The center of gravity of a body is that point at which the whole weight of the body appears to
act.
 The center of gravity of a body can be inside the material of the body or outside it.
 It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is newton (N). It is measured by a spring balance.
 Weight of a body is not constant, it changes from place to place and maximum at poles
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2006]

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Page. 49
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Weight of a Body in a Lift

 When lift is rest or in uniform motion. The weight recorded in spring balance (i.e. apparent
weight) is equal to the real weight of the body w = mg.
 When lift is accelerating upward The weight recorded in spring balance is greater than then
real weight of the body w’ = m(g + (a))
 When lift is accelerating downward The weight recorded in spring balance is smaller than the
real weight of the body w’ = m(g – (a)).
 When lift is falling freely under gravity The apparent weight of the body
w' = m (g – g) (∵ a = g)
w’ = 0
Therefore, body will experiences weightlessness.

Weight of a Body at the Moon

As mass and radius of moon is lesser than the earth, so the force of gravity at the moon is also less than
that of the earth. It’s value at the moon’s surface is 𝑔/6.

Satellite
A heavenly body revolving around a planet in an orbit is called a satellite. Moon is a natural satellite
of the earth. The satellite may be artificial. Artificial satellites are of two types: .
1. Geostationary Satellites: When the object moves around the earth with the velocity
commensurate with the velocity of the earth such that it maintains a fixed position in relation to
some place on the earth, it is called geostatic position. All the geostationary satellite works on
the same principle.It revolves around the earth in equatorial orbits which is also called
Geostationary or Geosynchronous orbit. The time period of these satellites is 24 hours.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005]
2. Polar Satellites
 These satellites revolve around the earth in polar orbits at a height of approximately 800
km.
 Weather monitoring which is predicted on the basis of information about moisture present
in air, atmospheric pressure etc., obtained through a polar satellite.
 We are able to see a live telecast of cricket world cup match or other programme with the
help of a communication satellite which is a geostationary satellite.
 Patterson divided the atmosphere into five layers - (1) Troposphere (0-18 km.), (2)
Stratosphere (18-30 km.), (3) Mesosphere (30-80 km.), (4) Ionosphere (80-400 km.), (5)
Exosphere (400 km and above). Air in the Exosphere is extremely thin in many ways. It is
almost the same as the airless void of outer space and in this, the communication satellites
are located. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004]
 Launching vehicles – PSLV & GSLV.
Time Period of a Satellite
 It is the time taken by a satellite to complete one revolution.
 If satellite is near the earth's surface, then T = 2π√𝑅/𝑔 ≈ 84.6 min.

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Escape Velocity
Escape velocity: Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a body should be projected
from the surface of earth so as it goes out of gravitational field of earth and never return to earth. Escape
velocity is independent of the mass, shape and size of the body and its direction of projection.
 Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity. For earth, escape velocity = 11.2 km/s.
 For moon, escape velocity = 2.4 km/s.

Orbital Velocity
 Orbital velocity of a satellite 𝑉0=√𝑔𝑅 and escape velocity 𝑉𝑒=√2𝑔𝑅 where R = Radius of earth.
i.e. 𝑉𝑒=√2𝑉0 i.e. escape velocity is √2 times the orbital velocity.
 There if the orbital velocity of a satellite is increased to √2 times (increased by 41%), the
satellite will leave the orbit and escape

Kepler’s Law of Planetary motion

Kepler gave three laws regarding motion of the planets. They are:
 First Law- Also known as Law of Orbits. According to this law “Each planet move in an
elliptical orbit around the sun, the sun being at one of the foci of the ellipse”.
 Second Law – According to this law “A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times. This law is also known as law of areas”.
 Third Law – It states that “the square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of
the semimajor axis of its orbit”.

OPTICS
The visible light spectrum is absorbed and emitted as tiny energy packets known as photons, just
like all other types of light. These photons exhibit both wave like and particle like characteristics.
The study of light in the field of physics is called optics, and this kind of property is known as
wave-particle duality. The field of physics known as optics is concerned with the behavior and
characteristics of light. A subfield of physics known as optics studies how light behaves and how it
interacts with objects in the physical world as well as with the devices that are used to detect it. In
a straightforward way, optics is used to explain how visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light
behave. Imaging is accomplished with the aid of a device known as an image-forming optical

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system. Geometrical optics is another name for ray optics. It is a field of science that uses "rays" to
describe how light travels.

Light and Its Optical Properties

Light is a type of energy that appears almost everywhere around us as an electromagnetic wave.
Wavelengths for visible light range from 400 to 700 nanometers. Due to its very small wavelength,
the light appears to travel in a straight line.The main source of light that plants use to generate their
energy is the Sun. Whether or not it is visible to the unaided eye, electromagnetic radiation of
various types of wavelengths is referred to as light in physics. As a result, by this definition, radio
waves, microwaves, X-rays, and gamma rays are also forms of light. [U.P.P.C.S.(Mains) 2005]
[U.P.P.S.C. (R.l.) 2014]

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l.c
ai
gm
07
03

Gamma rays
ar

The electromagnetic spectrum is the collection of all frequencies of electromagnetic radiation,

m

which includes radio waves, gamma rays, infrared rays, and visible light. Applications for
electromagnetic radiation from the spectrum range from communication to manufacturing. High
to

frequency (or shortest wavelength) electromagnetic radiation with a large amount of energy is
known as gamma rays. They can go through most materials. They can only be stopped by something
av

solid, like a thick concrete block or a lead block.

Gamma rays have frequencies above 10 Hz and wavelengths below 100 pm. They represent the
ur

most powerful type of electromagnetic radiation above 100 keV. Although Paul Villard, a French
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chemist studying radium, first noticed gamma rays in the 1900s, Ernest Rutherford gave them the
name "gamma rays" (following the order after alpha rays and beta rays - other particles from nuclear
radiation).Nuclear Fusion,Nuclear Fission,Alpha Decay,Gamma Decay

Uses of Gamma Rays

1.Clean medical supplies
2.Irradiated food used as tracers in medicine that has been sterilized
3.In oncology, radiotherapy is used to kill cancerous cells.
4.Astronomy of Gamma Rays

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Microwave
Our forefathers would spend hours boiling food over smoky wood fires, but today all we need to
do is press a few buttons and throw some food into a microwave, and our meal is ready in a matter
of seconds. Because they direct the heat to the food's molecules, microwave ovens are quick and
effective. Learn more about microwaves in this article, including their various characteristics and
uses. The definition of a microwave is an electromagnetic radiation with a frequency between 300
MHz and 300 GHz. The wavelength, on the other hand, varies from 1 mm to about 30 cm.
Microwaves are a common name for electromagnetic radiation. In the electromagnetic spectrum,
they are located halfway between radio waves and infrared radiation. Here are a few characteristics
of microwaves
Microwaves reflect off of metal surfaces. Information can be transmitted to and from satellites in
orbit using microwaves with a specific wavelength that can pass through the earth's atmosphere.
The satellite dishes are made of metal because it effectively reflects microwaves. Water absorbs
certain frequencies of microwaves. This feature of microwaves is helpful in the kitchen.
Microwaves are absorbed by the water in the food, heating it up and thus cooking the food. Wave
effects such as refraction, reflection, interference, and diffraction have an impact on microwave
transmission. Both glass and plastic are transparent to microwaves. This is the rationale behind why
we never use a metal container in a microwave because metal reflects microwaves.

Applications
Radio waves and microwaves both have similar applications. They are used in radio astronomy,
remote sensing, radar, communications, and, of course, cooking due to their heating application.
Why are microwaves used by mobile phones? Mobile phones don't need to be large because
microwaves can even be produced using tiny antennas. The use of microwaves to discover the first
signs of the Big Bang is something that is not widely known. Two scientists who just so happened
to be using specialized low-noise antennae in the 1960s noticed something extraordinary. They
could hear noise coming from all sides and then they noticed something strange. There was constant
noise coming from every direction. The two scientists, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, assumed
that the direction would be fairly specific if it originated from anywhere on earth, but it wasn't!
They realized they had unintentionally discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation.
This microwave radiation permeates the entire electromagnetic spectrum and served as our initial
indicator of the Big Bang's occurrence.
During rain, radio waves collide with raindrops partly or completely and converted into thermal
energy absorbing the energy of radio waves. Rain drops are also capable of disturbing the basic
direction of energy of the radio waves. Due to this reason, there is difficulty in receiving satellite
signals during rain. Radio signals become weak during rain which cannot be received by small
antenna.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]

X-rays
X-rays and X-radiation are both types of electromagnetic radiation. They are potent electromagnetic
energy waves. Most of them have a wavelength between 0.01 and 10 nanometers, which
corresponds to energies between 100 eV and 100 keV and frequencies between 3 × 1019 Hz to
3×1016 Hz. Although it is not believed that he was the first to have observed and understood their
effects, German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen is typically credited with discovering X-Rays in 1895
because he was the first to study them in detail. They are created when fast electrons collide with
metal plates, releasing energy that is then absorbed by the metal plate as X-Rays.

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Page. 53
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An image is created on a metal film as the X-Ray beam passes through the air and makes contact
with the body tissues.Organs and skin are examples of soft tissue that cannot be penetrated by high-
energy rays. Radiation is absorbed by our bodies' dense tissues, such as our bones. The X-Ray film
develops based on the areas that were exposed to the X-Rays, much like a camera. Black areas on
an X-Ray represent areas where the X-Rays have passed through soft tissues, while white areas
show denser tissues, like bones, that have absorbed the X-Rays.
CT scan or computed tomography is special X-rays tests that produce cross-sectional images of the
body using X-rays and a computer. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
Shorter the wavelength, greater is the energy. In reference to energy, the sequence of the energy of
electromagnetic rays is as follows : Radio waves < Microwaves < Infrared < Visible light <
Ultraviolet rays < X-rays < Gamma rays.
[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018, U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2005]

Properties
The characteristics of X-rays are listed below
Their electromagnetic spectrum wavelength is shorter.High voltage is necessary to produce X-
rays.They are employed to record flaws in the human skeleton.They don't carry an electric charge
with them and move in a straight line.They are able to move through a vacuum.
Different X-Ray types are recognized by medical science. The points below list a few significant
X-Ray types.

Standard Computed Tomography

Kidney, Ureter, and Bladder X-ray
Teeth and bones X-rays
Chest X-rays
Lungs X-rays
Abdomen X-rays

Uses
Medical Science
Security
Astronomy
Industry

Radio Waves
In the electromagnetic spectrum, radio waves have the longest wavelengths. These waves, which
fall under the category of electromagnetic radiation, range in frequency from 300 GHz to 3 kHz,
though they are sometimes referred to as microwaves if their frequency is higher than 3 GHz. The
wavelength varies between 1 mm at 300 GHz and 100 km at 3 kHz. The same as all other
electromagnetic waves, they move at the speed of light. The waves that have naturally occurred
have all been caused by lightning or astronomical objects. Radio communication, radar, computer
networks, broadcasting, various navigation systems, and other applications all use artificially
created radio waves.

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Page. 54
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As a result of an object's permittivity and permeability, radio waves are slowed down while passing
through it, traveling at a speed that is comparable to that of light. The term "wavelength" refers to
the distance between the electric field peaks of a wave, which is inversely proportional to the wave's
frequency. To pick up radio signals from AM or FM radio stations, a radio antenna is needed. A
radio tuner is needed to tune to a specific signal because this antenna picks up a lot of radio signals.
A resonator, or you might say an inductor, a circuit with a capacitor, or a crystal oscillator, can all
be used to accomplish this. The resonator is set up correctly to resonate at a frequency that enables
the radio tuner to amplify sine waves at a specific frequency while avoiding other sine waves.
Frequency modulation is used to transmit audio signals in television broadcasts. Frequency
modulated signals have larger bandwidth so that FM signals on the adjacent bands have neither
noise nor interference issue. Television signals cannot be received beyond a certain distance
because the surface of the earth is curved, due to this the signals moves further without hitting the
earth's surface. [U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1994][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007]

om
Reflection

l.c
One of light's fundamental properties is reflection. The reflections you notice in mirrors are all that
exist. Reflection is defined as a shift in the direction of light at a boundary between two different
ai
media that causes the wavefront to reenter the original medium. Sound waves and water waves are
common illustrations of how light can be reflected.
gm

Land covered with fresh snow reflects back more sunlight. Fresh snow and ice reflect 80 - 85% of
the sunlight. The skin of skiers is irradiated by sunlight from all sides, since the snow does not take
up the light but reflects it and remains cold. 'Albedo' (Latin meaning whiteness) is the name given
07

by the scientists to this ability of surfaces to reflect light. The albedo is particularly high for snow
and ice. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
03

The minimum height of a plane mirror to enable a person to see full image is 1/2 of his height.
According to the principle of reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. When
ar

the ray of light travels from bottom to top of a person and reaches his eyes then he is able to see
the clear image. The ray from the foot strikes the mirror at its bottom and reaches his eye after
m

reflecting from the mirror. Thus, the height of the mirror must equal to half the height of the person.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2011, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl)
to

(Mains) 2010] [U.P.P.S.C. (R.I.) 2014]

av

Speed and Colour of light

 The speed of light is the rate at which light moves through empty space. For instance,
ur

compared to vacuum, light moves through water 30% more slowly. The speed of light in a
ga

vacuum is maximum (c = 3 × 108 ms-1). The speed of light decreases gradually in optically
denser mediums like water or glass. It is least in diamond. The sunlight takes about 499
second or about 8.3 minutes to reach to the earth. [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2002] [U.P.P.S.C.
(R.I.) 2014] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2006]
 Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. The light waves can travel through a
vacuum. The sound waves cannot travel through a vacuum. The speed of light is maximum
in a vacuum. Most galactic cosmic rays have energies between 100 MeV (corresponding to
velocity for protons of 43% of the speed of light) and 10 GeV (corresponding to 99.6% of
the speed of light). The speed of highest energy cosmic rays could be extremely close to but
still below, the speed of light in a vacuum. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2003]

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 The colour of light is determined by its wavelength. Different colours have different
wavelengths. In the visible spectrum of light, the wavelength of red colour is largest and
violet colour has the shortest wavelength. [U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2014] [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]
 Speeds of different colours of white light are same in a vacuum but differ in different
matters. Thus, the refractive index of any matter differs for different colours of light. The
speed of violet light is minimum and the speed of red light is maximum in the glass. So the
refractive index of glass is maximum for violet light and minimum for the red light and the
violet light is most deviated and red light is least deviated by the glass prism. [U.P.
R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2016]
 The wavelength of red colour is highest while of violet colour is lowest. Dispersal is inverse
to wavelength so red light can be seen from far away more clearly. That's why the red colour
is used in traffic signals. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]
 The wavelength of red colour is highest while of violet colour is lowest. Dispersal is inverse
to wavelength so red light can be seen from far away more clearly. That's why the red colour
is used in traffic signals. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007] [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1995]
 The colour of the sky for an astronaut is black. It is because of the fact that in the space there
is no atmosphere. In space, there are no air particles against which the sunlight can strike,
get reflected or scattered. Hence, astronaut sees everything black. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2005] [U.P.P.S.C. (R.I.) 2014]
 The colour we see on the surface of an object is not actually the colour in that surface. If a
surface looks green, it means that it absorbs all colours of the spectrum except green. It
looks black to our eyes in case no colour is reflected. If an object is white, it reflects all
light. [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]

Refraction
 Refraction is the term used to describe the bending of light as it moves through different
media. Numerous tools, including magnifying glasses, corrective lenses, and microscopes,
make use of this property of refraction. According to this property, as light travels through
a medium, electrons become polarized, slowing down the speed of light and changing its
direction. The sun and the moon appear elliptical near the horizon because of
refraction.[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Pre) 2008]
 An air bubble in water, whose surface is convex will act like a concave lens (divergent lens).
The refractive index of water is more than that of air. Thus, the nature of lens of submerged
water bubble is changed. [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2013, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl) (Pre)
2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Pre) 2008] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002]

Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

The phenomenon which occurs when the light rays travel from a more optically denser medium to
a less optically denser medium.
Think about the following circumstance. A light beam travels from a water-based medium to an
air-based one. At the intersection of the two media, light will be refracted. The refracted light ray
bends away from the normal as it travels from a medium with a higher refractive index to one with
a lower refractive index. The incident light ray is refracted at a specific angle of incidence so that
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Page. 56
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it travels along the water's surface. The critical angle is the name given to this specific incidence
angle. Here, the refraction angle is 90 degrees. The incident ray is reflected back to the medium
when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle. This phenomenon is referred to as total
internal reflection.

Formula of Total Internal Refraction

n1/n2 = (sin r)/(sin i)
Critical angle θ
Sin θ = n2/n1
r is the angle of refraction,i is the angle of incidence,n1 is the refractive index in medium 1,n2 is
the refractive index in medium 2,θ is the critical angle
Following are the two conditions of total internal reflection
● From a denser medium to a less dense one, the light ray travels.
● The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
Examples

Diamond
When the incident ray creates an angle on each face of
the diamond, it is greater than the critical angle. The
diamond's critical value is 23°. The total internal
reflection that gives a diamond its shine is caused by this
phenomenon. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017, U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2015][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012, U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 1996]

Mirage

At close ranges in a desert or on a road, the water layer appears to

be present due to an optical illusion. Total internal reflection, which
is brought on by atmospheric refraction, can be seen in Mirage as
an example. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre)
2013, U.P. Lower Sub. (Mains) 2013][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012,
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1995]

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Page. 57
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Optical Fibre
Due to the incident ray's angle being greater than
the critical angle, when it hits the cladding, it
suffers from total internal reflection. The speed
at which signals are transferred has been
revolutionized by optical fibers, making
telecommunication one of the fastest methods of
information transfer not only across cities but
also across countries and continents. In
endoscopy, optical fibers are also utilized.
Dispersion The splitting of white light into its individual colors is a property of light. A prism can
be used to visualize dispersion. Diffraction and interference are two of light's additional
characteristics. What do you see when you gaze out at the lovely scene, then? whether the light is

om
refracted, internally reflected, diffracted, dispersed, or reflected. [U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2010,
U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Pre) 2008] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015][U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)

l.c
2003, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2002, U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2001]
ai
gm
07
03

Applications of Optics
ar

Convex and concave lenses use the refraction phenomenon in order to create an image of the
m

target object. Studies of how images form in an optical system use geometrical optics. It is
employed in medical applications to aid in the optical diagnosis of the human body's mysteries. It
to

is employed in the surgical and therapeutic treatment of human tissues.

av
ur
ga

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Page. 58
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Notes Code 1.6

Geometric Optics
It is said that a light beam is rebounded when a barrier in its path causes it to reflect at an angle,
and this process is known as reflection of light.The path of the light beam slightly changes as it
transitions from one medium to the next. The medium through which the light is passing is the pivot
point for this deviation. The refraction of light is the technical term for this process.
Snell’s Law
When light is refracted or reflected, one can check the basis of procedure for refraction and
reflection along with the things linked to them.

Laws of Reflection
Based on the laws of reflection, the behavior of a light beam reflected by a smooth mirror is
assessed. But first, one must understand the fundamental concepts.

A beam of light that is approaching a mirror is referred to as an incident ray, and the beam of light
that the mirror reflects is referred to as a reflected ray. The perpendicular that is drawn is referred
to as normal at the location of reflection. The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident
ray and the normal, whereas the angle between the reflected ray and the normal is the angle of
reflection.

According to the laws of reflection, the angle of incidence and angle of reflection are always equal.

The ratio between the sine of the angle of incidence and sine of the angle of refraction in two
separate mediums wherein the light travels equal to the ratio of the mediums phase velocities.

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Page. 59
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Refractive index of the medium

The refractive index is denoted by ‘n’ and described as a dimensionless number which shows that
the light or any radiation travels through a medium. It is mathematically expressed as
n = c/v
Where,
‘v’ indicates the phase velocity of light in a medium, and
‘c’ indicates the speed of light in a vacuum.

Refraction through a Glass Prism

 The light ray, also known as white light, has a variety of colors. White light is split into its
constituent colors, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, when it passes through
a prism. Because the wavelengths of each color differ, a process known as dispersion takes
place. The dispersed ray from the prism refracts into different angles as a result of these different
wavelengths, displaying all the colors present in white light. This color is consistently present
in the VIBGYOR configuration.
 In normal lighting conditions, photo receptor cells in human eye are most sensitive to colours
between the wavelengths of 530-570 nanometer. The sensitivity of our eyes is most for
yellowish-green colour. [U.P.PC.S. (Mains) 2008] [U.P R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2021]

LIGHT

Reflection of Light (Law of Reflection)

 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 The incident ray, the normal, point of incidence and reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1994] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]

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Page. 60
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Spherical Mirrors & their Uses

Uses of concave mirrors
 Concave mirrors are commonly
used in torches, search-lights and
vehicles headlights to get powerful
parallel beams of light. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2009]
 They are often used as shaving
mirrors to see a larger image of the
face. The dentists use concave
mirrors to see large images of the
teeth of patients. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2009] [U.P.P.C.S.(Pre)

om
2013, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam)
2015]

l.c
 Large concave mirrors are used to concentrate sunlight to produce heat in solar furnaces.
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Uses of convex mirrors
gm

Convex mirrors are commonly used as rear-view (wing) mirrors in vehicles, enabling the driver to see
traffic behind him/her to facilitate safe driving. They always give an erect, though diminished, image.
Also, they have a wider field of view as they are curved outwards. Thus, convex mirrors enable the
07

driver to view much larger area than would be possible with a plane mirror. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]
[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2011, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
03
ar

Refraction of Light
When a ray of light passes from one medium to another, it suffers a change in direction at the boundary
m

separating the two media. This phenomenon is called refraction. The following are the laws of
to

refraction of light.
 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at
av

the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

 The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle refraction is a constant, for the light
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of a given colour and for the given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of
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refraction.
If ‘I’ is the angle of incidence and ‘r’ is the angle of refraction, than,
Sir i/Sin r = constant
This constant value is called the refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first.

Laws of Refraction of Light

 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent media at
the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
 The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to sine of angle of refraction is a constant, for light of a
given color and for given pair of media. This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
 The constant value of second medium with respect to first is known as the refractive index.

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Refractive Index
Material Medium Refractive Index
 In a given pair of media, the extent of the change
Air 1.0003
in direction is expressed in terms of the refractive
index. Ice 1.31
Water 1.33
 For a given pair of media, the value of the
refractive index, depends upon the speed of light Alcohol 1.36
in the two media. Kerosene 1.44
 The aptitude of a medium to refract light can be Fused Quartz 1.46
also expressed in terms of its optical density. Turpentine Oil 1.47
 Table illustrates the absolute refractive index of Rock Salt 1.54
some significant material media− Diamond 2.42
Refraction of Light Through a Prism
 Prism is a triangular glass, which has 2 triangular
bases and 3 rectangular lateral surfaces
 The unique shape of prism makes the emergent
ray bend at an angle to direction of incident ray
and this angle is known as the angle of deviation.
 The angle between two lateral faces of a prism is
known as the angle of the prism.

Dispersion of White Light by a Glass Prism

 As shown in image given above, prism has split the incident white light into a band of seven
colors. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]
 Various colors seen through prism are arranged in order; this order is named as ‘VIBGYOR’
 VIBGYOR is constituted after taking first letter of all the following colors −
V − Violet
I − Indigo
B − Blue
G − Green
Y − Yellow
O− Orange
R – Red
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012] [U.P. Lower Sub. (Mains) 2015]
 The band of the colored components of a light beam is known as spectrum and VIBGYOR is
the sequence of colors that you can see in the above image.
 The splitting of light into different colors is known as dispersion.
 All the colors have different bending angles in respect to the incident ray; the red-light bends
list whereas the violet bends the most .
 Because of having different bending angles, all the colors become distinct.
 Newton was the first scientist who used a glass prism to obtain the spectrum of sunlight and he
concluded that the sunlight is made up of seven colors.
 A rainbow is a natural spectrum that most likely appears in the sky after a rain shower.

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 Rainbow after the rain is normally result of dispersion of sunlight by the tiny water droplets.
 The tiny water droplets present in the atmosphere act like small prisms.
 A rainbow always forms in the opposite direction of the Sun.

Atmospheric Refraction
 The deviation of light rays from a straight path in
atmosphere is known as atmospheric refraction.
 Atmospheric refraction nearby the ground
produces mirages, which means, distance objects
appear elevated or lowered, to shimmer or ripple,
stretched or shortened.
 In the night, the stars appear twinkling, it is also
because of the atmospheric refraction.
 Because of atmospheric refraction, Sun remains
visible and about 2 minutes after the actual sunset
and about 2 minutes before the actual sunrise.

Tyndall Effect
The earth’s atmosphere is largely constituted of a heterogeneous mixture, such as tiny water droplets,
suspended particles of dust, smoke, and molecules of air. When a beam of light strikes through such
fine particles, the path of the beam gets scattered. The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal
particles gives rise to Tyndall effect.
 The scattering of light makes the particles visible in the atmosphere.
 Very fine particles scatter largely blue light whereas particles of larger size scatter the light,
which has longer wavelengths.
 The red light has a wavelength 1.8 times larger than the blue light.

Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that occurs when light travels from a more optically dense
medium to a less optically dense one, such as glass to air or water to air. Examples -
 Mirage – Hot air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air. On hot
summer days, the air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher levels noticed that
while moving in a bus or a car during a hot summer day, a distant patch of road, especially on
a highway, appears to be wet. This is also due to mirage.
 Diamonds - Their brilliance is mainly due to the total internal reflection of light inside them.
 Optical fibers uses total internal reflection. Light undergoes repeated total internal reflections
along length of fiber there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal.

Defects of Vision and Their Correction

 Nearsightedness: If eyeball is too long or lens too spherical, the image of distant objects is
brought to a focus in front of retina and is out of focus again before the light strikes the retina.
Nearby objects can be seen more easily. Eyeglasses with concave lenses correct this problem
by diverging the light rays before they enter the eye. Nearsightedness is called myopia.

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Page. 63
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[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2008, U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2002][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013][U.P.P.S.C.
(R.I.) 2014][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
 Farsightedness: If the eyeball is too short or the lens too flat or inflexible, the light rays entering
the eye — particularly those from nearby objects— will not be brought to a focus by the time
they strike the retina. Eyeglasses with convex lenses can correct the problem. Farsightedness is
called hypermetropia. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2010] In long-sightedness (Hypermetropia) the image
of a nearby object is formed behind the retina. It results in close objects appearing blurry. [U.P.
R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2017]

 Astigmatism : Astigmatism is the most common refractive problem responsible for blurry
vision. Most of eyeball’s focusing power occurs along the front surface of the eye, involving
the tear film and cornea (the clear ‘window’ along the front of the eyeball). The ideal cornea

om
has a perfectly round surface. Anything other than perfectly round contributes to abnormal
corneal curvature– this is astigmatism. Cylindrical lens is use to correct
astigmatism.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004]

***** l.c
ai
gm
07
03
ar
m
to
av
ur
ga

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Page. 64
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PART B - CHEMISTRY

It is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of
matter.
STATE OF MATTERS

Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. When a substance goes from one state of matter
to another, the process is called a change of state, or phase change. Two major categories of
classification of matter are physical classification and chemical classification.
 Physical Classification: Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma
 Chemical Classification : Pure Substances and Mixture

Physical Classification of Matter

1. Solid
 Solids are matter having fixed shape, fixed volume and almost impossible to compress.
 Solids are composed of particles which are very near to each other.
 It can only change their shape by force, as when broken or cut.
 e.g. Iron, cobalt, zinc, nickel, gold, silver, radium etc.
2. Liquid
 Liquids are matter having a fixed volume but no fixed shape – they take the shape of the
container. Liquids are very difficult to compress.
 Liquids are composed of higher energy particles which overcome their mutual forces of
attraction and move independently.
 The volume is definite if the temperature and pressure are constant.
 The inter-molecular force of attraction for liquid matter is weaker than solid matter.
 e.g. mercury, bromine, water, milk
3. Gas
 Gases are matter having neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume. They are very easy to
compress.
 Not only will a gas conform to the shape of its container but it will also expand to fill the
container.
 The inter-molecular force of attraction for gaseous matter is negligible.
 e.g. oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium etc.
4. Plasma
 A plasma is an ionized gas, a gas into which sufficient energy is provided to free electrons
from atoms or molecules and to allow both species, ions and electrons, to coexist.
 Plasmas are electrically conductive, produce magnetic fields and electric currents, and
respond strongly to electromagnetic forces.

Difference between Gas and Plasma

 Like gas, plasma does not have a definite shape or a definite volume unless enclosed in a
container.

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Page. 65
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 However, unlike gas, plasma can form structures such as filaments, beams and double layers
under the influence of a magnetic field.
Plasma in Universe
Plasma is most common state of matter in universe and most of it is found as rarefied inter-galactic
plasma. It is found in stars and galaxies.

Plasma in appliances
In everyday life, plasma can be found in many electronic instruments such as Plasma TV, Neon Lights,
Static Electric sparks etc. Further, the area in front of a spacecraft’s heat shield during re-entry into the
atmosphere is a plasma. The electric arc in an arc lamp, an arc welder or plasma torch is also plasma.
Laser-produced plasmas (LPP) are created when high power lasers interact with materials.
Magnetically induced plasmas (MIP) are typically produced using microwaves as a resonant coupling
method.
The full form of LASER is "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". A laser is a
device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of
electromagnetic radiation. The first LASER was built in 1960 by the Russian scientist N.S. Basov and
A.M. Prokhorov. The theoretical base came from C.H. Towres in 1965. These three physicians got the
Nobel Prize for their works. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]

Properties of Gases
 Gas has no definite volume or shape.
 The other outstanding characteristic of gases is their low densities, compared with those of
liquids and solids.
 All gases expand equally due to equal temperature difference.
 Diffusion of gases: The phenomenon in which a substance mixes with another because of
molecular motion, even against gravity- is called diffusion.
 The pressure of a gas: The molecules of a gas, being in continuous motion, frequently strike
the inner walls of their container
 Temperature and Temperature Scales: Temperature is defined as the measure of average
heat. Temperature is independent of the number of particles or size and shape of the object.
 Compressibility: Particles of a gas have large intermolecular spaces among them. By the
application of pressure much of this space can be reduced and the particles be brought closer.
Hence the volume of a gas can be greatly reduced. This is called compressing the gas.

Bose–Einstein condensate
 It is a state of matter of a dilute gas of bosons cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero
(that is, very near 0 K or −273.16 °C). Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy
the lowest quantum state, at which point macroscopic quantum phenomena become apparent.
 This form of matter was predicted in 1924 by Albert Einstein on the basis of the quantum
formulations of the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.

Melting (Melting Point)

 It is the change of state from solid to liquid.
 The process of melting, that is, change of solid state into liquid state is also known as fusion.

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 Melting Point: It is the temperature at which a solid melts. It decreases in the presence of
impurity. The melting point of ice is 0°C or 32°F.
Evaporation
 It is the change of state from liquid to gas.
 Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain enough energy to
overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state. The rate
of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the
humidity and the wind speed. Evaporation causes cooling.
 Boiling Point: It is the temperature at which a liquid evaporates. Boiling point of water at
normal condition is 100°C or 212°F.
 The water remains cold in an earthen pitcher because of evaporation. When liquid changes
to a gaseous (or vapour) state without boiling, it is known as evaporation. The earthen

om
pitcher is made of mud and has many minute pores. It is through these pores that the water,
placed inside the pitcher, oozes out. Now to evaporate, the water needs to absorb heat, which
will change it to vapour. The only way the water oozing out of the pitchers can turn to

l.c
vapour is by absorbing heat from the liquid within the pot. Due to this process of continuous
absorption of heat from water inside the pot, in a few hours, this water becomes
ai
cool.[U.P.P.C.S.(Pre) 2012]
gm

Freezing Point
It is the change of state from liquid to solid. Water freezes at 0°C or 32°F.
07

A glass bottle containing water breaks when kept in a freezer because the frozen water will have more
volume than the liquid water. So increased volume will put pressure on the walls of the bottle and it
03

will break. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1995]

ar

Chemical Classification of Matter

m

On the basis of Chemical composition, matter is divided into:

 Element – An element is a substance which is formed by two or more identical molecules. For
to

e.g. Hydrogen, Copper etc. They can be classified into – Metal, Non-metal and Metalloids.
 Compound – A compound is a substance composed of the atoms of two or more elements
av

combined in a definite proportion by weight. For e.g. Water, Sugar etc.

 Mixture – A mixture is a substance composed of two or more compounds or elements in any
ur

proportion by weight. For e.g. Milk, Cement etc.

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Types of mixture:
 Homogenous Mixture – When a mixture has same composition throughout than it is known as
Homogenous Mixture. For e.g. Alloys and Solutions.
 Heterogenous Mixture – Mixture which does not have uniform properties and composition. It
can be clearly separated by boundaries. For e.g. Colloids, Emulsions or Suspensions.
Various Separation Processes of Mixtures
 Sedimentation is the process of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid in which it is
suspended by allowing it to settle to the bottom of the container. If this also involves pouring
off of the liquid leaving the solid behind, it is called decantation.

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 Filtration is used for separating insoluble solids from a liquid.

 Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solid substances from solutions by evaporating
the solvent. The solute “dissolves out” and is left behind.
 Crystallization is a sophisticated form of evaporation technique in which crystals of the solute
are encouraged to develop during the process of “dissolving out” from the solution as the
solvent evaporates.
 Distillation is the process of heating a solution containing soluble solids to form vapours of the
liquid and then cooling the vapours to get the liquid back.
 Sublimation is a process in which some solids, on heating, are transformed directly to vapour
without passing through the liquid phase, and vice versa. This technique can be used to separate
a mixture of solids, one of which can undergo sublimation. The vapours are then cooled
separately to get the sublimed solid back. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
 Extraction is the process of dissolving out the soluble component from a mixture, and
subsequently treating the solution to get the solid.
 Magnetic separation is exemplified by the separation of iron filings. Chromatography is an
advanced technique of separation in which individual components of a mixture are separated
from each other using the property of differential migration (different rates of flow).
 Fractional distillation is the process of separating two or more miscible liquids by a modified
distillation process, in which the distillates are collected as fractions having different boiling
points. The separation of the liquids by this method is based on the difference in their boiling
points.
 Reverse Osmosis (RO) is the process of forcing a solvent from a region of high solute
concentration through a semipermeable membrane to a region of low solute concentration by
applying a pressure in excess of the osmotic pressure. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
 When salt is applied to cucumber or cut onion pieces, it makes their surrounding more
concentrated than the concentration of their cell sap. Then it causes the water molecules in the
cells of the cucumber and the cut onion pieces to move to the surrounding through their cell
membrane (which is semi permeable). [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]

Chemical Changes
These affect the composition as well as chemical properties of matter and result in the formation of a
new substance. E.g. of chemical changes include combustion (burning), cooking an egg, rusting of an
iron pan, and mixing hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide to make salt and water.
Physical Changes
 It is the change which only affect the physical properties like colour: hardness, density, melting
point etc. of matter.
 It does not affect the composition and chemical properties of matter.
 E.g. of physical changes include crushing a can, melting an ice cube, and breaking a bottle.

Mole Concept
 It is defined as the quantity of a substance that has the same number of particles as are found in
12 grams of carbon-12.
 The number of atoms present in 12 grams of carbon 12 (C-12) which is equal to 6.023 X 1023.
This is also known as Avogadro's constant.
 1 mol = 6.023 X 1023 = Avogadro's Number or Constant

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Page. 68
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Important Concepts
 Atomic mass : It is the mass of one atom of that element in atomic mass units (u).
 Molar mass : It is equal to the numerical value of the atomic mass. Its unit is g. The molar
mass of an atom is also known as gram atomic mass.
 Molecular mass : It is the sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule of a
substance.
 Formula unit mass : It is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of a
compound. It is used for substances made up of ions.

Gas Laws
All gases, irrespective of their chemical composition, obey certain laws that govern the relationship
between the volume, temperature and pressure of the gases. A given mass of a gas, under definite
conditions of temperature and pressure, occupies a definite volume. When any of the three variables is
altered, then the other variables get altered. Thus these Gas laws establish relationships between the
three variables of volume, pressure and temperature of a gas.
 Boyle’s Law: “The product of the volume and pressure of a given mass of dry gas is constant,
at constant temperature”.
 Charles’ Law: “At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of gas increases or decreases
by 1/273 of its original volume at 32˚F, for each degree centigrade rise or lowering in
temperature.”
 Pressure Law: Volume remaining constant, the pressure of a given mass of gas increases or
decreases by a constant fraction (=1/273) of its pressure at 0˚C for each degree Celsius rise or
fall of temperature.
 Avogadro’s Law: This is quite intuitive: the volume of a gas confined by a fixed pressure
varies directly with the quantity of gas. Equal volumes of gases, measured at the same
temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules. Avogadro’s law thus predicts a
directly proportional relation between the number of moles of a gas and its volume.
 Gay-Lussac’s Law: When different gases react with each other chemically to produce gaseous
substances, then under the same condition of temperature and pressure, the volume of the
reacting gases and product gases bear a simple ration among one another.
 Avogadro Number: From Avogadro’s hypothesis, we know equal volume of all gases contain
equal number of molecules at normal temperature and pressure. The number is known as
Avogadro Number and is equal to 6.06x1023.
 The ideal gas equation of state: If the variables P, V, T and n (the number of moles) have
known values, then a gas is said to be in a definite state, meaning that all other physical
properties of the gas are also defined. The relation between these state variables is known as an
equation of state.
 An ideal gas is an imaginary gas that follows the gas laws and has 0 volume at 0 K i.e., the gas
does not exist.

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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Physical Properties of Matter

Atoms are the minuscule building blocks of matter, which can be pictured or described as something
that occupies space. Both the mass and volume properties must be visible.
Properties are the characteristics that allow us to distinguish between different types of materials. An
aspect of matter that is unrelated to its chemical makeup is called a physical property.
Physical properties include things like density, color, hardness, melting and boiling points, and
electrical conductivity.
The term "properties of matter" refers to any attribute that can be measured, including an object's
density, color, mass, volume, length, malleability, melting point, hardness, odor, temperature, and
more.

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Intensive and Extensive Properties of Matter
The characteristics of matter can be either extensive or intensive on the physical and chemical levels.

l.c
The quantity of matter being weighed affects a variety of properties, such as mass and volume. The
amount of matter present has no effect on things like density and color.
ai
gm

Intensive properties of matter

An intensive property is a bulk property, which means it is a local physical characteristic of a system
that is unaffected by the size or material volume of the system. Intensive characteristics are those that
07

don't depend on how much matter is there. For instance, temperature and pressure are intensive
properties.
03

Extensive property of matter

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An extensive property is one that depends on the volume of the sample's constituents. Mass and volume
are examples of extensive properties. The extensive property of the system is determined by the
m

system's size or the amount of matter it contains. Extensive properties are those where the value of a
system's property equals the total value of the values for its constituent parts.
to
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Physical Properties of Metals and Non-metals

The chemical elements that have been identified so far all have unique properties. We are aware that
these elements are primarily categorized as metals or non-metals based on their properties. This list
also includes chemical and physical properties. In other words, the physical and chemical
characteristics of metals and non-metals are different. Let's talk about all the physical characteristics of
metals and non-metals in this article.

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Physical Properties of Metals

Malleability
Some substances can be hammered into sheets that are incredibly thin. This characteristic is known as
malleability. The vast majority of metals are naturally malleable. The two metals that are most
malleable are gold and silver. Because it is malleable, aluminum is used to make aluminum foils.

Ductility
Several substances can be drawn into incredibly thin wires. This characteristic is known as ductility.
The majority of metals are typically ductile in nature. Not all metals have the same ductility. Gold and
silver are the most ductile metals available. According to legend, 100 mg of silver can be drawn into a
fine wire that is 200 meters long. Similar to this, a gold coin the size of a 50 paisa can be stretched into
a 10 km long wire. Because it is ductile, copper is used to make wires.

Thermal and Electrical Conductivity

In general, metals are efficient heat and electricity conductors. Lead is the worst conductor of heat and
electricity, while silver performs the best. Our kitchen's appliances are made of zinc, copper, and
aluminum. This is because these metals are efficient heat conductor. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]
Due to the presence of free electrons, all metals are effective electrical conductors. Electric currents flow
through these free electrons. The best conductors of electricity are silver and copper, with gold coming in
third. Due to the presence of free electrons, all metals are effective electrical conductors. Electric currents flow
through these free electrons. The best electrical conductors are copper and silver, followed by tungsten, gold,
and aluminum. Iron and mercury exhibit greater resistance to the flow of current.
However, as the temperature rises, the metals' electrical conductivity decreases. This is due to the fact
that as temperature rises, core electron vibration also increases, obstructing electron flow.
[U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2013] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005, U.P.PC.S. (Mains) 2014] [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)
2020]

Lustre
Lustre is the ability of a substance to shine when light is incident on it. Metals can be polished and, in
general, are lustrous by nature.

Tensile Strength
Tensile strength is the measure of a material's resistance to longitudinal stress. Because of the powerful
metallic bonds that are present in them, metals typically have high tensile strengths.

Density
Metals typically have an extremely high density. The exception, though, is that some metals, like
sodium and potassium, have a very small number of densities. These less heavy metals are often
referred to as light metals.
Density is defined as the ratio between mass and volume or mass per unit volume (Density = mass /
volume). As the temperature increases, most materials expand or increase their volume. This results in
a decrease in density. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2006]
Elements such as cast iron, ice, antimony, bismuth, and brass when melts, their volume decreases.
These type of solids floats in their own melted fluid.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]

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Hardness
In general, metals are very tough. They are difficult to cut or compress. Metals like sodium and
potassium, on the other hand, are soft and can be cut with a knife. Thus, they are referred to as soft
metals.

Melting and Boiling Point

High melting and boiling points characterize metals. There are, however, some exceptions. In other
words, at low temperatures, sodium and potassium melt and boil. Metals like gallium and cesium melt
the moment they are placed on the palm.

Sonority
Metals typically make noise when we strike them. Sonority is the name for this quality.

Electronic Configuration
In their outermost shell, metals typically have 1, 2, or 3 electrons. For instance, the following list of
metals' electronic configurations

Metal Electronic Configuration

Aluminum 2,8,3

Magnesium 2,8,2

Sodium 2,8,1

Electropositive Character
Metals exhibit strong electropositivity. In order to adopt the stable configuration of the nearby noble
gas, metals have a high tendency to lose electrons and transform into positive ions (cations).

State
The majority of metals are solids at room temperature. The metal mercury is an exception in that it is
a liquid at room temperature.

Alloy Formation
Alloys are created when metals combine. In other words, metals can combine with one or more non-
metals or other metals to create a homogeneous combination. The word for such a composition is alloy.
For instance, brass is a copper-zinc alloy.

Physical Properties of Non-metals:

Malleability and Ductility
Non-metals are typically ductile and non-malleable. For this reason, non-metals cannot be used to
produce sheets or wires because they are typically brittle.

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Thermal and Electrical Conductivity

In general, non-metals are poor heat and electricity conductors. Graphite is a non-metal that can conduct
electricity, so that makes it an exception. This is due to the graphite's inclusion of free electrons.

Lustre
Non-metals are typically non-lustrous and cannot be polished. The non-metals, such as iodine and
graphite, are an exception because they naturally shine. They have lustrous qualities, in other words.

Tensile Strength
Non-metals typically have low tensile strengths. Non-metals can easily break as a result of this.

Density

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Non-metals typically have very low densities and are light in weight.

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Melting and Boiling Points
Non-metals typically have low boiling and melting points. Graphite, a non-metal with a very high
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melting point, is an exception to this rule
gm

Hardness
The majority of the solid non-metals have a hard nature. However, diamond, an allotrope of carbon, is
07

very tough. It is actually the hardest substance ever discovered. Diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring substance present on the earth. [U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2016]
03
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Sonority
Non-metals, in contrast to metals, will not make sound when they are struck together. Consequently,
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they lack sonority in nature

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Electronic Configuration
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A non-metal atom's outermost shell contains 4,5,6,7, or 8 electrons. These electrons are not naturally
free or moveable. Non-metals don't conduct electricity because of this.
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The electronic configuration of various non-metals, for instance, can be expressed as,

Non- metal Electronic Configuration

Carbon 2,4

Nitrogen 2,5

Oxygen 2,6

Fluorine 2,7

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Electronegative Character
Except for hydrogen, all non-metals are electronegative. In other words, they have a propensity to pick
up electrons and transform into negatively charged ions.

State
In all three of the matter's states, non-metals are present. In other words, non-metals can exist as solid,
liquid, or gas at room temperature. Non-metals such as bromine, for instance, exist as a liquid, while
others like hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine exist as gases. Solid non-metals include carbon, sulphur,
phosphorus, and iodine.

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

The atomic theory of matter was first proposed by John Dalton. Fundamental particles of an atom are
Electron, Proton and Neutron.
The particles that are smaller than the atoms are called subatomic particles. The three main sub-atomic
particles that form an atom are protons, neutrons and electrons. Deuteron contains a proton and a
neutron. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007] The positron or anti-electron is the antiparticle or the antimatter
counterpart of the electron. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005]
A neutrino is a subatomic particle that is very similar to an electron, but has no electrical charge and a
very small mass, which might even be zero. Neutrinos are one of the most abundant particles in the
universe. Because they have very little interaction with matter, however, they are incredibly difficult
to detect. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]

1. Proton (p): Discovered by E. Goldstein.

 Protons are positively charged.
 The absolute charge on the electron to be +1.6 × 10–19 C.
 Cyclotron is a machine used to accelerate charged particle such as alpha particles, deuteron,
proton etc. up to a very high speed.
2. Electron (e): Discovered by J.J. Thomson when he was studying the properties of cathode ray.
 Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney named this charge 'electron' in 1891.
 Electrons are negatively charged.
 The absolute charge on the electron to be –1.6 × 10–19 C.
 e/me as: = 1.758820 × 1011 C kg–1
 The charge of an electron was measured by R. Millikan in Oil drop experiment.
3. Neutrons (n) - J. Chadwick
 It has no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a proton.
 The mass of a neutron is taken as one unit each.
 In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle
with no sub-structure, thus not composed of other particles. Particles currently thought
to be elementary include the fundamental fermions (quarks, leptons, antiquarks and
antileptons) as well as fundamental bosons. [U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2017]
 The Higgs Boson is an elementary particle in the standard model of particle physics.
The hypothesis of its existence was given in 1964 but practically it was proved on March
14, 2013. In mainstream media the Higgs Boson has often been called the 'God particle'.
[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2013]

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4. Atomic nucleus – Rutherford

 The fast-moving alpha (α)-particles (doubly charged helium ions) were made to fall on a
thin gold foil.
 The mass of an atom is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
5. Valency
 The number of electrons gained, lost or shared so as to make the octet of electrons in the
outermost shell, is called valency.
 The atoms of elements, having a completely filled outermost shell show little chemical
activity, their valency is zero.
 An outermost-shell, which had eight electrons is said to possess an octet. Atoms would thus
react, so as to achieve an octet in the outermost shell.
 The chemical behavior of an atom depends upon the number of electrons orbiting around
the nucleus.
6. Atomic Number
 The atomic number is defined as the total number of protons present in the nucleus of an
atom. It is denoted by "Z".
7. Mass number: The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of nucleons (protons
and neutrons) present in the nucleus of an atom.
8. Mole and Avogadro number – According to new definition given by IUPAC “One mole
contains exactly 6.03×1023 elementary entities. Thus, Avogadro number or Avogadro constant,
is no. of particles found in 1 mole of a substance i.e. 6.023×1023 particles per mole.
9. Isotopes: Atoms which have the same atomic number but different mass numbers. The
chemical properties of isotopes are similar but their physical properties are different. But some
isotopes have special properties which find them useful in various fields. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2009]
 Radioactive isotopes
o Arsenic–74 → detect tumors
o Sodium–24 → Blood clot
o Iodine–131 → Activity of thyroid gland
o Cobalt–60 → Treat of cancer
o Phosphorus-:32 and cobalt-60 both radioisotopes are used to control blood cancer
(leukaemia).
o Arsenic-74 tracer is used to detect the presence of tumours.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl) (Pre)
2003, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003, U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2002, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2001][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2016][U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl (Pre)
2010, U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2013]

 Uses of some Isotopes are:

o An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
o An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
o An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goiter[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]
10. Isobars- Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass
number, are known as isobars.[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2001]

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11. Isotones – atoms having same number of neutrons.

12. Isoelectronic – atoms/molecules/ions containing same number of electrons.
13. Mass defect - The mass defect is the difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the sum
of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons.
14. Binding Energy
 The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to separate a nucleus into its
constituent parts.
 For heavier nuclei, energy is released when they break up (fission).
 For lighter nuclei, energy is released when they fuse together (fusion).
 Nuclear particles are held together by a nuclear strong force. A stable nucleus remains
forever, but as the ratio of N/Z gets larger, the atoms decay.
 Elements with Z > 82 are all unstable.

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 As the heavier atoms become more unstable, particles and photons are emitted from the
nucleus and it is said to be radioactive. All elements with A > 82 are radioactive.
 Radioactivity is a nuclear phenomenon. It is the process of spontaneous emission of alpha,
l.c
beta and gamma radiations from the nuclei of an atom. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]
ai
 Nuclear fusion reactors work on the principle of fusion of two light nuclei. Nuclear fusion
reactions are also called ‘Thermonuclear reactions’ because they operate at very high
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temperature. Usually, nuclear fusion reactors have Tokamak design. [U.P. R.O./A.R.O.
(Pre) 2016]
07

 The most common fissile nuclear fuels are uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Thorium is
more abundant in nature than uranium. Thorium can be used as a nuclear fuel through
03

breeding to uranium-233 (U-233). [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]

Examples are:
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 Alpha particles - (2 proton and 2 neutron) least penetrating

 beta-minus particles - (electron) penetrating
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 beta- plus particles - (positron) penetrating

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 Gamma rays - most penetrating, high electromagnetic radiation.

Half-Life period - The half half-life of an isotope is the time in which half of its unstable nuclei
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will decay.
N = N₀(1/2)n , where n is number of half-lives
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Packing Fraction (P)

 p = (Exact nuclear mass) – (Mass number) / Mass number
=M–A/M
The larger the value of packing friction. greater is the stability of the nucleus.
[The most stable nuclei are those with an even number of protons and neutrons.
The nuclei with an odd number of protons and neutrons are the most unstable.]

Radioactivity
Radioactivity refers to the phenomenon of heavy elements disintegrating into
comparatively lighter elements via radiation emission. Henry Becquerel discovered this
phenomenon in 1896.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2003]
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The Geiger-Muller Counter also called a Geiger Counter, is an instrument used for detection and
measurement of ionizing radiation. It detects radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles and
gamma rays using the ionization produced in a Geiger-Muller tube, which gives its name to the
instrument. [U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010]
Radioactive dating is a technique used to date material such as rocks or carbon. It is a principal
source of information about the absolute age of rocks and other geological features.
Uranium-lead dating is one of the oldest and most refined methods to determine the age of the earth,
decaying rocks and bones. Clair Cameron Patterson, an American geochemist who pioneered
studies of Uranium-lead radiometric dating methods is famous for having used to obtain one of the
earliest accurate estimates of the age of the earth. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2008]

Radiations Emitted by a Radioactive Element

Three types of radiations emitted by radioactive elements
(i) α-rays
(ii) β-rays
(iii) γ – rays
α-rays consists of α-particles, which are doubly ionised helium ion.
β-rays consists of fast-moving electrons.
γ – rays are electromagnetic rays.
[When an α – particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number decreases by 2 and mass
number decreases by 4.

When a β -particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number is Increases by one and mass
number remains unchanged.

When a γ – particle is emitted by a nucleus its atomic number and mass number remain
unchanged

Radioactive Decay law

 The rate of radioactive atom disintegration at any point in time is directly proportional to
the number of radioactive atoms present in the sample at that point.
 Rate of disintegration (– dN / dt) ∝ N
– dN / dt = λ N
where λ is the decay constant.
The number of atoms present undecayed in the sample at any instant N = No e-λt
where, No is number of atoms at time t = 0 and N is number of atoms at time t.

Half-life of a Radioactive Element

The time is which the half number of atoms present initially in any sample decays, is
called half-life (T) of that radioactive element.

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Relation between half-life and disintegration constant is given by

T = log2e / λ = 0.6931 / λ

Average Life or Mean Life(τ)

Average life or mean life (τ) of a radioactive element is the ratio of total life time of all the
atoms and total number of atoms present initially in the sample.
Relation between average life and decay constant τ = 1 / λ
Relation between half-life and average life τ = 1.44 T
The number of atoms left undecayed after n half-life is given by
N = No (1 / 2)n = No (1 / 2) t/T
where, n = t / T, here t = total time.

Activity of a Radioactive Element

The activity of a radioactive element is equal to its rate of disintegration.
Activity R = (– dN / dt)
Activity of the sample after time t,
R = Ro e -λt
Its SI unit is Becquerel (Bq).
Its other units are Curie and Rutherford.
1 Curie = 3.7 * 1010 decay/s
1 Rutherford = 106 decay/s
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear fission is the process of splitting a heavy nucleus into two or more lighter nuclei.
The principle of atom bomb is based on this. [U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2007]

When a slow neutron collides with a uranium nucleus (92U235), it splits into
141
56Ba and 36Kr92, as well as three neutrons and a large amount of energy.

Nuclear Chain Reaction

If the particle that started the nuclear fission reaction is produced as a product and
continues to participate in the nuclear fission reaction, a chain of fission reactions is
initiated, which is known as a nuclear chain reaction.
Nuclear chain reaction are of two types
(i) Controlled chain reaction
(ii) Uncontrolled chain reaction

Nuclear Reactor
The main parts of a nuclear reactor are following

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om
The main parts of a nuclear reactor are following
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 Fuel: As fuel, fusionable materials such as 92U235, 92U238, and 94U239 are used.
gm

 Moderator: To slow down fast-moving neutrons, heavy water, graphite, and beryllium
oxide are used.
 Antifreeze Cold water, liquid oxygen, and other methods are used to remove heat
07

generated during the fission process.

Control rods
03

 Cadmium or boron rods absorb neutrons well and are thus used to control the fission
reaction.
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The operation of an atomic bomb is based on an uncontrolled chain reaction.

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Nuclear Fusion
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The process of combining of two lighter nuclei to form one heavy nucleus, is called
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nuclear fusion.
Three deuteron nuclei (1H2) fuse, 21.6 MeV is energy released and nucleus of helium
(2He4) is formed.
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In this process, a large amount of energy is released.

Nuclear fusion takes place at very high temperature approximately about 107 K and at
very high pressure 106 atmosphere.
Hydrogen bomb is based on nuclear fusion.
The nuclear fusion that occurs at the Sun is the source of its energy.

Thermonuclear Energy
The energy produced by nuclear fusion is referred to as thermonuclear energy. Protons are needed
for fusion while neutrons are needed for fission process.

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DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY

India's defence industry is a strategically important sector in the country.

 With over 14.4 lakh (1.44 million) active personnel, India has one of the world's largest
military forces. It has the largest volunteer military in the world, with over 51 lakh (5.1
million) personnel.
 The total budget for the Indian military for fiscal year 2021 has been sanctioned at 4.78
lakh crore (US$67 billion). It has the world's third largest annual defence budget, trailing
only the United States (US$732 billion) and China (US$261 billion).
 It is the world's second largest defence importer, trailing only Saudi Arabia, accounting
for 9.2% of global arms imports. India has a domestic defence industry, with the
government owning 80% of it.
 The public sector includes DRDO and its 50 labs, 4 defence shipyards, 5 defence PSUs
and 41 ordinance factories. India has a new defence procurement, acquisition, and
manufacturing policy that aims to reduce imports while increasing domestic production.
 Following independence, the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) was established in 1958 to oversee military research and development on
behalf of the Ministry of Defence.
The Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) was launched in 1982-83 by
the Indian Government which saw the projects of:

 Prithvi (Short range surface to surface missile) [U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2007, U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 2001]
 Trishul (short range surface to air missile) (short range surface to air missile)
 Aakash (Medium range surface to air missile) (Medium range surface to air missile)
 Nag (Third generation anti-tank missile) (Third generation anti-tank missile) [U.P.
U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2013, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]
 Agni-I (Agni missile was later separated from the IGMDP due to its strategic importance)
(Agni missile was later separated from the IGMDP due to its strategic importance)

 The Prithvi-I is a 150-kilometer-range Indian short-range ballistic missile. The Prithvi-II,

the ship-launched Dhanush, and the Prithvi Air Défense interceptor are among the
indigenous land and sea-based missiles in the Prithvi family. The Indian Army has retired
the Prithvi-I and replaced it with the Prahaar missile.
 The Prithvi II class is a single-stage liquid-fuelled missile with a maximum warhead
mounting capability of 500 kg and a range of 250 km (160 mi). It was developed with the
Indian Air Force being the primary user. The first test firing occurred on January 27, 1996,
and the development stages were completed in 2004. This variant has also been accepted
into the army. The missile was launched in a test with an extended range of 350 km (220
mi) and improved navigation thanks to an inertial navigation system. The missile includes
anti-ballistic missile deception measures.
 According to news reports, the range has been increased to 350 km (220 mi) and the payload
capacity has been increased to 500-1000 kg. India successfully tested its indigenous nuclear-
capable Prithvi-II missile on June 2.

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 The Prithvi III class is a SURFACE-to-SURFACE missile with two stages. The first stage
is solid-fuelled and has a thrust motor with a force of 16 metric tonnes (157 kN). The second
stage is powered by liquid. The missile can carry a 1,000 kg warhead to a distance of 350
km (220 mi) and a 500 kg warhead to a distance of 600 km (370 mi) and a 250 kg warhead
up to a distance of 750 km
 Dhanush is a surface-to-surface or ship-to-ship variant of the Prithvi III missile developed
for the Indian Navy. It is capable of carrying both conventional and nuclear warheads with
payload capacities ranging from 500 kg to 1000 kg and can strike targets up to 350 km
away.
Range- 350km, naval variant of the Prithvi II
 Trishul is the name given to an Indian short-range surface-to-air missile developed as part
of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program. It has a range of 12 kilometres and
a 5.5 kg warhead. The system was developed to defend naval vessels against missiles as
well as as a short-range surface-to-air missile on land. It is designed to be used against low-
level (sea skimming) targets at short range.
 Akash is a medium-range surface-to-air missile with an intercept range of 30 km.
 Agni-I was tested in 1989 as part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program
(IGMDP). Following its success, the Agni missile programme was separated from the
IGMDP due to its strategic importance. It was designated as a special programme in India's
defence budget, and adequate funds were provided for future development. The Agni series
of missiles to be put into service in November 2019. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2008]
AGNI-I is a short-range ballistic missile with an effective range of 700-1250 km, while
AGNI-II has an effective range of 2000-2500 km. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011, U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2006]
 The Agni-V missile, having a range of 5,000 km is a fully indigenous missile. Agni-V is
about 17 metres long, 2 metres wide and has a launch weight of around 50 tons. The missile
can carry a nuclear warhead of more than one ton. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]
 Astra is an active radar homing Beyond-Visual-Range Air- to-Air Missile (BVRAAM)
developed by the DRDO. It has the capacity to destroy the enemy plane up to a distance of
80 km. Ballistic flight test of the missile was carried out from the integrated test range at
Chandipur. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010] [U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2011]
 Shaurya is a short-range canister-launched hypersonic surface to surface tactical ballistic
missile being developed by DRDO's Advanced Systems Laboratory at Hyderabad. The
maximum range is estimated to be 700 km along with 1000 kg of Payload. It was
successfully test-fired from the integrated test range at Chandipur, Odisha on 24 September,
2011. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Pre) 2008, M 2011]
 A supersonic cruise missile 'Brahmos' is a joint venture between the Russian Federation's
NPO Mashinostroyenia and DRDO. The name Brahmos is formed from the names of two
rivers, the Brahmaputra of India and the Moskva of Russia. It has a speed of 2.8 to 3.0
Mach, with a original range of 290 Km. The submarine variant of Brahmos was test-fired
successfully for the first time from a submerged pontoon near Vishakhapatnam at the coast
of Bay of Bengal on 20 March, 2013. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2003],[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A, (Pre) 2013][U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018]
 The Naval version of BrahMos, the supersonic cruise missile was successfully test-fired on
18th October 2020 from Indian Navy's indigenously-built stealth destroyer INS Chennai,
hitting a target in the Arabian Sea.[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2016],[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2009, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2008]

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Cruise missiles vs Ballistic missiles

A cruise missile either finds its target or has a pre-programmed target. It uses a guidance system to
navigate, such as inertial or beyond visual range satellite GPS guidance, and includes a payload and
aircraft propulsion system. Cruise missiles, which can travel at subsonic, supersonic, and hypersonic
speeds, can be launched from land, sea, or air for land attacks and anti-shipping purposes. They are
designed to carry large payloads with high precision and stay relatively close to the earth's surface,
making them difficult to detect by anti-missile systems.
Ballistic missiles, meanwhile, are launched directly into the upper layers of the earth's atmosphere.
They travel outside the atmosphere, where the missile's warhead detaches and falls to a predetermined
target. They are self-guided rocket-propelled weapons systems that can carry conventional or nuclear
munitions. They can be launched from planes, ships, and submarines, as well as from land.

India’s Nuclear Triad

om
The ability to deliver nuclear weapons by aircraft, land-based ballistic missiles, and submarine-
launched missiles is referred to as the Nuclear Triad.

l.c
India declared its nuclear triad operational after the indigenous Ship Submersible Ballistic Nuclear
(SSBN) INS Arihant completed its first deterrence patrol.
ai
Under its Nuclear Command Authority, India has established a strong nuclear command and control
gm

structure, an effective safety assurance architecture, and strict political control.

INS Arihant
07

 The Arihant is the flagship of the Arihant class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines
built by India.
03

 These will form a potent and formidable weapons system which will ensure national security.
 Arihant is India's first nuclear-powered submarine designed and built in-house.
ar

 Arihant is armed with 750-kilometer-range K-15 Sagarika missiles.

m

 It will carry the longer-ranged K-4 missiles with a range of 3,500 kilometres developed by the
Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO).
to

 This submarine is the longest in the Navy's submarine fleet.[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]
av

Arighat
ur

Arighat, the second submarine in the series, is currently undergoing sea trials before being
commissioned. The Arihant-class submarine, INS Arighat, has been upgraded. India is building its
ga

second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine. Under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV)
project, the Ship Building Centre in Visakhapatnam will construct nuclear submarines. In March 2019,
India and Russia signed a deal for the lease of another Akula-class nuclear submarine to India for 10
years. The Chakra-III, the new vessel, will be delivered to the Indian Navy by 2025.The Arihant-class
(Sanskrit, for Slayer of Enemies) is a class of nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines being built
for the Indian Navy. They were created as part of the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project,
which aimed to design and build nuclear-powered submarines worth 90,000 crores (US$13 billion).
These ships are designated as "strategic strike nuclear. “These vessels are classified as ‘strategic strike
nuclear submarines’ by India the Indian Navy currently operates fourteen diesel powered submarines
and two nuclear powered submarines. India’s submarine fleet is based at two locations: Visakhapatnam
on the east coast and Mumbai on the west coast.

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Quick Overview of Capabilities

The fleet consists of 16 ballistic missile submarines (SSBNs), 1 nuclear-powered attack submarine
(SSN), 1 diesel-electric attack submarine (SSK), and 14 air-independent propulsion (AIP) submarines.
History
While India discussed the feasibility of nuclear-powered submarines as early as the 1960s, the
development of its Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) submarine programme did not begin until
1983. (source) The ATV is part of India's sea-based nuclear deterrent, which is one of three legs of
India's minimum nuclear deterrent triad of airborne, naval, and land-based platforms (MND).
Modernization and Existing Capabilities at Visakhapatnam, India's nuclear-powered submarine
programme is managed and operated by the Defence Research and Development Organization
(DRDO), the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), and the Indian Navy. By commissioning its first
ATV submarine, the INS Arihant, in August 2016, India took the first step towards operationalizing its
nuclear triad. Two new submarine bases are currently being built in India. Karwar, 500 kilometres
south of Mumbai, is the first. The second is the INS Varsha, a secret naval base. This base, near
Kakinada on the east coast, will have underground pens for the submarines.
Ship Biographies
 Sindhu Ghosh-Class (Type 877EM) (Type 877EM)
India has nine diesel-electric attack submarines of the Sindhu Ghosh class. These Kilo-class
submarines are the backbone of India's submarine fleet. They can remain submerged for about
45 days without surfacing. Their weapons systems can launch torpedoes and anti-ship missiles.
 Shishumar-Type (209/1500)
India operates four Shishumar-class vessels built in Germany by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche
Werft (HDW). They can stay submerged for up to 50 days without coming to the surface.
Torpedoes can be fired from their weapons systems. Since their commissioning, all four
Shishumar-class vessels have undergone refits.

Chakra-Class
INS Chakra II is a Russian nuclear-powered attack submarine of the Akula class. It is operated by the
Indian Navy under a 10-year lease. It was formally commissioned in India in April 2012 and is
scheduled to return to Russia in 2022.

Arihant-Class
Under the ATV Program, India is expected to build three to six nuclear-powered ballistic missile
submarines (SSBNs). They can stay submerged for up to 50 days without coming to the surface. Their
weapons systems can launch torpedoes as well as submarine-launched ballistic missiles. However,
following INS Arihant, the next ships in the class are expected to be larger and more powerful in terms
of both firepower and nuclear power.

Kalvari-Class
Under the Project-75 programme, India is expected to build six Kalvari-class diesel-electric attack
submarines. In 2017, the first vessel in this class was commissioned. The Kalvari class is based on the
Scorpène-class submarines of France. Their weapons systems can launch torpedoes and anti-ship
missiles.

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Project 75I:
By 2022, India will purchase six next-generation diesel submarines with Air Independent Propulsion
System (AIP) technology for the Indian Navy under Project 75I.Conventional diesel-electric
submarines must surface every few days to replenish their batteries with oxygen. They can stay
submerged for much longer periods of time with AIP systems. Project 75-I will include vertically
launched BrahMos for sea and land targets, as well as tube-launched torpedoes for anti-submarine
warfare.

INS Vikrant
INS Vikrant (IAC-I) is the first aircraft carrier built in India and the first Vikrant-class aircraft carrier
built by Cochin Shipyard (CSL) in Kochi, Kerala for the Indian Navy. The ship's motto is Jayema Sam
Yudhi Sprdhah, which translates as "I defeat those who fight against me" from the Rig Veda.The carrier
is 262 metres long, 62 metres wide, and 30 metres deep minus the superstructure. There are 14 decks
in total, five of which are in the superstructure. It has a ski-jump and a Short Take-Off but Arrested
Recovery (STOBAR) configuration. The deck is intended to allow aircraft like the MiG-29K to operate
from the carrier. It is expected to transport up to thirty aircraft, including up to 24-26 fixed-wing combat
aircraft, primarily the Mikoyan MiG-29K.On December 2, 2016, the navy rejected the naval variant of
the HAL Tejas due to its weight. Besides carrying 10 Kamov Ka-31 or Westland Sea King the Ka-31
will provide airborne early warning (AEW), while the Sea King will provide anti-submarine warfare
(ASW). Vikrant is powered by four General Electric LM2500+gas turbines on two shafts, generating
over 80 megawatts (110,000 hp) of power. The gearboxes for the carriers were designed and supplied
by Elec on Engineering. It has a ski-jump and a Short Take-Off but Arrested Recovery (STOBAR)
configuration. The deck is intended to allow aircraft like the MiG-29K to operate from the carrier. It is
expected to transport up to thirty aircraft, including up to 24-26 fixed-wing combat aircraft, primarily
the Mikoyan MiG-29K.On December 2, 2016, the navy rejected the naval variant of the HAL Tejas
due to its weight. Besides carrying 10 Kamov Ka-31 or Westland Sea King the Ka-31 will provide
airborne early warning (AEW), while the Sea King will provide anti-submarine warfare (ASW).
The first Vikrant had a displacement of 20,000 tonnes and was equipped with a mix of Westland Sea
Kings, HAL Chetak, and Sea Harrier jets. Viraat moved 28,500 tonnes, while Vikramaditya moved
45,400 tonnes. The new Vikrant will have a displacement of 40,000 tonnes.

In support of Land Battles

 During the 1971 operations to liberate Bangladesh, the aircraft on board the INS Vikrant were
very successfully used to strike strategic targets deep within the former East Pakistan.
 It is important to note that as long as much of India's land boundary (stretching from north-
west to north-east) remains disputed, the potential of a border conflict, and thereby the
likelihood of such a need, will persist.
 Thus, the new aircraft carrier would provide India with a strategic advantage in the event of
future conflicts.

Security of Sea-Lines of Communication

 In the event of a military conflict, the only naval asset capable of providing comprehensive
protection to merchant shipping carrying strategic commodities to India is a carrier. The Indian
naval chief recently expressed apprehensions on the future vulnerability of energy imports
through the Strait of Hormuz due to China's strategic "foothold" in Pakistan's Gwadar port.

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 Many other locations ("pearls") in the Indian Ocean littoral, dispersed along the arterial
shipping routes, have the same potential as Gwadar. Because of the ongoing diversification of
energy sources away from the Persian Gulf region, these distant Security of Sea-Lines of
Communication (SLOCs) and thus Aircraft Carriers are gaining strategic importance for India.

Maintaining Influence in IOR

 India's security is inextricably linked to and intertwined with that of the Indian Ocean and the
adjacent littoral region (IOR)—the country's primary strategic interest. The Chinese "pearls" in
the Indian Ocean are likely to be aimed at "displacing" India's influence in the IOR, in addition
to addressing Beijing's strategic vulnerability in terms of energy imports.
 A possible Chinese political-military intervention in the region would have a significant impact
on India's security. In that sense, an aircraft carrier such as Vikrant can provide India with the

om
ability to maintain its influence in these waters and achieve strategic "dissuasion" against any
hostile extra-regional power.

Safeguarding Vital Interests Overseas:

l.c
 Carrier aviation will allow India to protect its strategic interests not only in the IOR but also
ai
beyond. India's economic/strategic stakes in Afro-Asian states, many of which are plagued by
gm

political, socioeconomic, and ethnic instabilities, are growing noticeably.

 Besides, many Indian citizens are working in these countries, and past events have amply
demonstrated how their lives and property can be jeopardised. In collaboration with the host
07

countries, New Delhi will need to protect these interests. When the operational situation calls
for it, it may be preferable to conduct precision airstrikes to "soften" the target before deploying
03

ground forces, as doing so may result in avoidable casualties.

ar

Security of Island Territories

 Integral naval aviation is essential for defence of India's far-flung island territories, particularly
m

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (A&N) that lie more than 1,000 km from the Indian
to

mainland. Because of their geographical spread and the fact that the majority of them are
uninhabited, these islands are also extremely vulnerable.
av

 Foreign military occupation or claim may be unlikely in the near future, but it cannot be ruled
out entirely. Argentina's takeover of the Falkland Islands was also regarded as a remote
ur

possibility until it occurred in 1982. By all indicators, high-value naval/air assets are unlikely
ga

to be based in the A&N Islands. As a result, the aircraft carrier is essential, even as a deterrent.

Non-military Missions
 Although the concept of a carrier is primarily military in nature, such a platform would
significantly increase India's operational options in the event of a natural disaster in the regional
seas or littoral. While it has begun to introduce large sealift platforms with integrated
helicopters, such as the INS Jalashwa Landing Platform Dock (LPD), a major disaster may
necessitate the use of a carrier.
 A carrier like Vikrant, similar to a floating city, can provide virtually unlimited sealift,
significant airlift, and all conceivable essential services ranging from freshwater to electric
supply, and medical to engineering expertise. There is an effort to improve a carrier's usefulness

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Page. 85
 Science Common GS
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for such roles, such as by incorporating a modular concept. It includes modular

spaces/containers that can be rapidly deployed for specific missions and carry specialised
personnel, engineering equipment, medical facilities, and so on. INS Vikramaditya
 Vikramaditya was acquired from Russia for $2.3 billion.
 It was delivered to the Navy in November 2013 but lacked critical air defence systems. They
are now installed by the original equipment manufacturer during the "guaranteed refit," in
addition to scheduled maintenance.
 It is a Kiev-class aircraft carrier that has been modified. She was renamed after Vikramaditya,
a legendary first-century BCE emperor of Ujjain, India.
 Vikramaditya is outfitted with an Israeli-supplied Barak-1 point defence missile system and a
Russian-origin AK-630 close-in weapon system borrowed from a decommissioned Godavari-
class ship.Barak-8 (the Hebrew word for Lightning) is an Indian-Israeli surface-to-air missile
(SAM), designed to defend against any type of airborne threat including aircraft, helicopters,
anti-ship missiles, and UAVs as well as cruise missiles and combat Jets. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)
2016]
 The carrier was supposed to receive a long-range surface-to-air missile system developed in
collaboration with Israel. However, due to development delays, the carrier was inducted
without its own air-defence cover.

Anti-Ballistic Missile Defence System

 The ballistic missile defence (BMD) programme in India, which began development two
decades ago, is said to be ready for deployment in a configuration for the country's national
capital territory, with future phases to fine-tune and expand capabilities.
 The BMD system is currently comprised of the endo-atmospheric Advanced Air Defence
(AAD) interceptor and the exo-atmospheric Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) systems.
 The AAD is a component of the two-tiered Ballistic Missile Defence system developed by the
Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) in collaboration with the
Hyderabad-based Research Centre Imarat (RCI).
 The endo-atmospheric missile can intercept incoming targets at altitudes ranging from 15 to 25
kilometres.
 The interceptor is a 7.5-meter-long single-stage solid rocket-powered guided missile with a
navigation system, a high-tech computer, and an electro-mechanical activator.
 The endo-atmosphere AAD missile is the system's second level.
 The interceptor missile is equipped with its own mobile launcher, a secure data link for
interception, independent tracking and homing capabilities, and sophisticated radars.

NASAMS
 The NASAMS-II air defence system is designed to target aircraft and cruise missiles, whereas
the BMD system is designed to target incoming ballistic missiles. Even though it is not strictly
an anti-missile system, NASAMS-II-based 'Integrated Air Defence Weapon System' for the
Delhi region. A high dollar cost — nearly double India's $1 billion procurement budget — has
slowed progress.
S400:

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 It is a Russian-developed modern long-range surface-to-air missile (MLRSAM) system that

will be delivered to India by 2025. Because it can fire three different types of missiles, it can
provide layered defence.
 The S-400 Trimuf can engage all types of aerial targets, including aircraft, ballistic and cruise
missiles, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV), within a range of 400 kilometres and at an
altitude of up to 30 kilometres.

THAAD
 THAAD, or Terminal High Altitude Area defence, is a missile defence system designed
to intercept and destroy short and medium-range ballistic missiles in their final flight
phase.
 THAAD, which was first proposed in 1987 and finally deployed in 2008, cannot be used
as a form of attack against an enemy. Its role, by use of a powerful radar, is to simply
track and destroy missiles before they are launched.
 Iron Dome

Deployed in 2011, it is a short-range, ground-to-air, air defence system that includes a radar and Tamir
interceptor missiles that track and neutralise any rockets or missiles aimed at Israeli targets. It is used
for countering rockets, artillery & mortars (C-RAM) as well as aircraft, helicopters and unmanned
aerial vehicles. Its success rate is over 90%.
The Iron Dome is comprised of three main systems that work in tandem to provide a shield over the
area where it is deployed while dealing with multiple threats.

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It has an incoming threat detection and tracking radar, a battle management and weapon control system
(BMC), and a missile firing unit.
It can be used in all weather conditions, including at night and during the day.
Bilateral and Multilateral Military Exercises
Indian Armed Forces conducts/participates in various bilateral and multilateral military exercises with
foreign countries. The details of such exercise include the following:

Sl. Exercise
Country
No.
1 Australia Ex AUSTRA HIND, Ex AUSINDEX, EX PITCH BLACK
Ex SAMPRITI, IN-BN CORPAT, IN-BN BILAT,
2 Bangladesh
IN-BN SF EXERCISE, TABLE TOP EX, SAMVEDNA

om
3 Brazil & South Africa IBSAMAR
4 China Ex HAND IN HAND
5 Egypt Ex CYCLONE
6 France
l.c
Ex SHAKTI, Ex VARUNA, GARUDA
ai
Ex GARUDA SHAKTI, IND-INDO CORPAT
7 Indonesia
IND-INDO BILAT
gm

8 Israel Ex BLUE FLAG

9 Japan Ex DHARMA GUARDIAN, Ex JIMEX
07

10 Kazakhstan Ex KAZIND
11 Kyrgyzstan Ex KHANJAR
03

12 Malaysia Ex HARIMAU SHAKTI, Ex IN-RMN BILAT, HOP EX

13 Maldives Ex EKUVERIN, EX EKATHA [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
ar

14 Mongolia Ex NOMADIC ELEPHANT

m

15 Myanmar Ex IMBEX, IMCOR, IN-MN BILAT, TABLE TOP EX

to

16 Nepal Ex SURYA KIRAN

Ex AL NAGAH, NASEEM-AL-BAHR, Ex EASTERN
av

17 Oman
BRIDGE
18 Qatar ZA’IR AL BAHR
ur

19 Russia EX INDRA, EX AVIAINDRA

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20 Seychelles Ex LAMITIYE
21 Singapore SIMBEX, JOINT MILITARY TRAINING
Ex MITRA SHAKTI, SLINEX, IN-SLN SF Ex, SAMVEDNA
22 Sri Lanka
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
23 Thailand Ex MAITREE, INDO-THAI CORPAT, Ex SIAM BHARAT
24 UAE DESERT EAGLE
25 UK Ex AJEY WARRIOR, KONKAN, INDRADHANUSH
Ex YUDHABHAYAS, Ex VAJRA PRAHAR, SPITTING
26 USA
COBRA, SANGAM

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(IN-USN EOD Ex), RED FLAG, Ex COPE INDIA, Malabar

naval exercise (Japan)
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]
27 Uzbekistan Ex DUSTLIK
28 Vietnam VINBAX, IN-VPN BILAT
29 Multilateral BIMSTEC
30 Multilateral AFINDEX
31 Multilateral MEDEX
31 Multilateral SCO – PEACE MISSION

New Defence Acquisition Procedure of 2020

The purpose of the Defence Acquisition Procedure (DAP), formerly known as the Defence
Procurement Procedure (DPP), is to ensure the timely acquisition of military equipment, systems, and
platforms as required by the Armed Forces in terms of performance, capabilities, and quality standards,
while making the best use of available budgetary resources. DAP will enable this while also ensuring
the highest level of probity, public accountability, transparency, fair competition, and a level playing
field.

Highlights of the new policy:

 Indigenous firm reservations: The policy reserves several procurement categories for
indigenous firms. DAP 2020 defines a "Indian vendor" as a company owned and controlled by
resident Indian citizens, with no more than 49 percent foreign direct investment (FDI).
 2)New Buy (Global-Manufacture in India) category: This requires indigenisation of at least
50% of the total contract value of a foreign purchase purchased with the intention of later
building it in India with technology transfer.
 More indigenous content: It encourages more indigenous content in military procurements of
arms and equipment, including equipment manufactured in India under licence. DAP-2020
requires 10% more indigenisation than DPP 2016 in most acquisition categories.
 Import embargo list: The government's "import embargo list" of 101 items issued last month
has been specifically incorporated into DAP 2020. (An embargo is a government order that
restricts trade or the exchange of specific goods with a specific country.)
 Offset liability: The government has decided not to include an offset clause in defence
equipment procurements conducted via inter-government agreement (IGA), government-to-
government, or ab initio single vendor
 A foreign vendor is required by the offset clause to invest a portion of the contract value in
India.
 The priority of categories will be as follows, in decreasing order of priority: -
Buy (Indian – Indigenously Designed Developed and Manufactured) i.e., Buy (Indian-IDDM).
Buy (Indian).
Buy and Make (Indian).
Buy (Global – Manufacture in India).
Buy (Global).
Allows leasing of military platforms

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Conclusion
One of the DAP 2020's key focus areas was to implement 'Ease of Doing Business,' with a focus
on simplification, delegation, and making the procurement process more industry friendly.
In addition, the Indian government has stated that it intends to spend USD 130 billion on military
modernization over the next five years. Changes to the FDI Policy and the DAP 2020 will provide
the impetus required for Foreign OEMs to include Indian companies in their global supply chain,
which is expected to boost exports even further.

ACID, BASE AND SALT

Acid
 The word acid, comes from a Latin word ‘acere’ which means ‘sour’.
 An acid is a compound, produce hydrogen ions, H+(aq), in solution, which are responsible for
their acidic properties.
 According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, an acid is any species that can donate a proton to another
species.
 Hydrogen ions cannot exist alone, but they exist after combining with water molecules.
 The most common acids are: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4), etc.

Key Features of Acids

 They are sour in taste.
 They turn blue litmus red.
 They react with certain metals and liberate hydrogen gas.
 They react with oxides and hydroxides of metals forming salt and water.
 Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity
 Corrosive in nature
Types of Acid
 Natural acid or organic acid are the acids which are basically present in food. e.g. acetic acid,
tartaric acid, lactic acid, etc.
 Mineral acid or inorganic acid are the acids prepared from mineral and used in various
laboratory processes. e.g. hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, etc.

Organic Acids & Source Strength of Acids

Name of Acid Source Strong Acids Weak Acids
Acetic acid Vinegar pH Value: 0, 1, 2, 3 pH Value: 4, 5, 6
[U.P.
R.O./A.R.O.
(Mains) 2016]

Citric acid Lemon, Orange & other Fully Ionized Partially Ionized
citrus food

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Ascorbic acid Guava, Amla When dissolved in When dissolved in water

water gives large gives small number of H+
+
number of H ions ions
Lactic acid Sour milk, Curd Example: Example: Acetic
Hydrochloric Acid(CH3COOH),
Acid(HCl), Sulfuric Hydrofluoric Acid(HF), etc.
Acid(H2SO4) etc.
Methanoic acid Ant sting, Nettle sting
Oxalic acid Tomato
Tartaric acid Tamarind

Uses of Acids

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 Hydrochloric acid present in our stomach helps in the digestion of food.
 Vitamin C or ascorbic acid gives the needed nutrients for body.
 Carbonic acid is used in making carbonated beverages and fertilizers.
 Vinegar a preservative is a dilute form of acetic acid.
l.c
ai
 Sulphuric acid is used in the manufacture of fertilizers, paints, synthetic fibres etc.
 Nitric acid is used in the preparation of aqua regia, used in the purification of precious metals
gm

like gold and silver.

 Boric acid is used to wash eyes.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2011]
07

 Phosphoric acid is used in making fertilizers and detergents.

 Sulfenic acid found in onions irritates lacrymal glands and produces tears in eyes.[U.P.P.C.S.
03

(Pre) 2015]
ar

Base
 Substance that gives OH-ions when dissolved in water. They are usually metal hydroxides.
m

 According to Bronsted-Lowry theory, a base is a proton acceptor.


to

Strength of a base depends on concentration of hydroxyl ions when it is dissolved in water.

 Bases soluble in water are called alkalis. All alkalis are bases but all bases are not alkalis.
av

 Common base are : Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate (washing
soda), lime (Calcium oxide), potassium hydroxide (caustic potash). [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
ur

 Chillies are valued principally for their high pungency and colour. Pungency in chillies is due
ga

to the active constituent 'capsaicin', an alkaloid which is extracted from chillies and is also used
in the medicine. The molecular formula of capsaicin is C18H27N03.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]
[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008]

Key features of Bases

 They have a bitter taste.
 Their aqueous solutions have a soapy touch.
 They turn red litmus blue.
 They react with acids to form salt and water.
 Their aqueous solutions conduct electricity.
 Its pH value greater than 7.
 Strong bases are corrosive

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Strength of Bases
Strong Bases Weak Bases
pH Value: 11, 12, 13, 14 pH Value: 8, 9, 10
When dissolved in water gets completely Partially Ionize and equilibrium lies mostly
ionized and produces hydroxide ions towards reactants side
Example: Sodium Hydroxide Example: Ammonia in Water

Types of Base
Base can be divided in two types Water soluble and water insoluble.

Salt
 Salts are the ionic compounds that are produced after neutralization reaction between acid and
base.
 Salts are electrically neutral.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) is also known as table salt or common salt.

Family of Salt
 Salts having common acidic or basic radicals are said to belong to same family.
 Sodium chloride (NaCl) and Calcium chloride (CaCl2) belong to chloride family.
 Calcium chloride (CaCl2) and calcium sulphate (CaSO4) belong to calcium family.
 Zinc chloride (ZnCl2) and Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) belong to zinc family.

Characteristics of salt
 Most of the salts are crystalline solid
 Salts may be transparent or opaque
 Most of the salts are soluble in water
 Solution of salts conducts electricity. Salts conducts the electricity even in their molten state
 The salt may be salty, sour, sweet, bitter and umami (savory)
 Neutral salts are odorless

Uses of Salts in Industries:

 Sodium chloride is used in chlorine, caustic soda, washing soda and baking soda.
 Ammonium salts are used as fertilizers.
 Potassium nitrate is used in the manufacture of gun powder and fire works.
 Silver bromide is used in photography.[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]
 Potassium chlorate is used in the match industry.
 Aluminum sulphate is used in preparing alums.
 Alum is a specific crystalline substance and the aluminium ion present in it has high
coagulating property. So, the alum is considered very good for the coagulation of blood
when someone gets wounded and blood starts coming out from the wound.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2010]

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Acidic, Basic and Neutral Salts

 Acidic salt: Salts which are formed from reaction of strong acid and weak base called acidic
salt. Their pH value is lower than 7. e.g. ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, etc.
 Basic Salt: Salts which are formed from reaction of weak acid and strong base are basic salt.
The pH value of a basic salt is more than 7. e.g. sodium carbonate, sodium acetate, etc.
 Neutral Salt: Salts produced from reaction of strong acid and strong base are neutral in nature.
Their pH of value is 7, i.e. neutral. e.g. Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, etc.

Some Common Salts and Their Uses

pH Scale (Power of Hydrogen ion Scale)

 The strength of acid or base depends upon the hydrogen ion concentration.
 pH is a scale which quantifies the concentration of hydrogen ion in a solution. The range of pH
scale is between 0 to 14.
 Substances with a pH value below 7 are acidic.
 Substances with pH value above 7 are basic.
 Substances with a pH value is 7 are neutral.

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Red Cabbage Juice as Acid Base Indicator
gm

It is known as an acid/base indicator because it contains pigments that react differently to acids and
bases i.e. changes color, when exposed to either. It is naturally neutral and is purplish in color. When
acid is added to it, it turns pink. If a base is added, it turns green. Eg., it will turn pink when lemon
07

juice is added to it. It changes to green when toothpaste is mixed with it, because toothpaste is basic in
nature. The tooth paste should be basic due to the reason, that some acids are formed by the bacteria in
03

our mouth and these are neutralized by the bases present in the tooth paste.
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CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODIC TABLE

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Periodic Table
 It is a tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, ordered by their atomic number (number
av

of protons), electron configurations, and recurring chemical properties.

 The horizontal rows of the table are called periods; the vertical columns are called groups.
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 Dmitri Mendeleev is generally credited with the invention of the periodic table.
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Mendeleev’s Periodic Table

 Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian scientist arranged the elements in increasing order of
their relative atomic masses.
 Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that the properties of elements are the periodic function of
their relative atomic masses.
 Mendeleev arranged all 63 elements in a tabular form, known as Mendeleev’s Periodic Table.
 It contains eight vertical columns of elements called 'groups' and seven horizontal rows called
'periods', each group has two sub-groups A and B.
 The properties of elements of a sub-group resemble each other more markedly than the
properties of those between the elements of the two sub-groups.

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Modern Periodic Table

 In 1913 Sir Henry Moseley discovered that elements positions in the periodic table are better
predicted by their atomic numbers than their atomic weights.
 Law of Modern Periodic Table states that properties of elements are periodic function of their
atomic numbers. Elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic numbers.
 Vertical columns are called Groups(18) and horizontal columns are called Periods(7)

Periodic Properties
 Atomic Radius is the total distance from an atom’s nucleus to the outermost orbital of electron.
Smallest atom is hydrogen and largest is cesium.
 Ionization Energy is the energy required to remove an electron from the atom in the gas phase.
 Electron Affinity reflects the ability of an atom to accept an electron.
 Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for the electrons in a chemical bond.
 Metallic Character is the chemical properties of elements that are metals. The strongest natural
metal is Tungsten.

Moving Left → Right

 Atomic Radius Decreases
 Ionization Energy Increases
 Electron Affinity Generally Increases (except Noble Gas Electron Affinity near Zero)
 Electronegativity Increases
 Metallic Character Decreases

Moving Top → Bottom

 Atomic Radius Increases
 Ionization Energy Decreases
 Electron Affinity Generally Decreases Moving Down a Group
 Electronegativity Decreases
 Metallic Character Increases

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Alkali metals
The metals of First group of periodic tables are alkali metals. They include Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na),
Potassium (K), Rubidium (Rb), Cesium (Cs), And Francium (Fr). Hydrogen is also a member of group
1 but is not an alkali metal. Key features:
 They are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature.
 They are usually stored immersed in mineral oil or kerosene (paraffin oil) because of their high
reactive nature like Sodium. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
 They have low melting points and densities.
 All alkali metals have silver color except cesium which has a golden color.
 They react with halogens and make salts for example NaCl (table salt)
 They react with water and make Hydroxides for example NaOH
 Potassium and rubidium are naturally weakly radioactive elements and they each contain a long
half-life radioactive isotope.
 Under standard conditions Lithium is the lightest metal and the least dense solid element.
 Lithium carbonate is used in use in psychiatry
 Organolithiums are also used in polymer synthesis and for creating carbon-carbon polymers.
 Lithium batteries are disposable (primary) batteries with lithium metal or lithium compounds
 as an anode, while the Lithium-ion batteries are high energy-density rechargeable batteries.
 Al-Li alloys are used in aeronautics.
 The sodium vapour lamp uses sodium in an excited state to produce light i.e., yellow light.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2000]
 Low-pressure sodium lamps only give monochromatic yellow light and so inhibit colour vision
at night and will not split through water droplets. Sodium-vapor lamps cause less light pollution
than mercury-vapor lamps. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007]
 Alkali metal as the Na+ ion is vital to animal life.
 Molten sodium is used as a coolant in some types of nuclear reactors.
 It decreases in blood pressure and decreases in sodium concentration sensed within the kidney
result in the production of rennin which in turn helps in secretion of ant diuretic hormones
 Animal cells, potassium ions are vital to cell function. They participate in the Na-K pump and
in helping to restore the body’s total amount of fluid.
 Sodium is the chief cation in fluid residing outside cells in the mammalian body
 Low sodium intake may lead to sodium deficiency which is known as hyponatremia.
 About 93% of the world potassium production is consumed by the fertilizer industry
 Potassium chloride is used in execution by lethal injection.
 Potassium vapour is used in several types of magnetometers
 Cesium is one among the five metals which are liquid at room temperature. These are
 Mercury (melting point −39 °C), Francium (27 °C) cesium (28 °C), Gallium (30 °C) & rubidium
(39 °C)
 Cesium has been used in the petroleum Industry exploration as cesium formate.
 The cesium atomic clocks use the resonant vibration frequency of caesium-133 atoms as a
reference point. Precise cesium clocks measure frequency with an accuracy of from 2 to 3 parts
in 1014, which would correspond to a time measurement accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day,
or one second in 1.4 million years.

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Alkaline Earth Metals

Group 2 of the periodic table is known as Alkaline earth metals and it includes the Beryllium (Be),
Magnesium (Mg), Calcium (Ca), Strontium (Sr), Barium (Ba) and Radium (Ra). Key Features
 Beryllium has very low absorption for X-rays and its most important applications are in
radiation windows for X-ray tubes.
 Magnesium ions are essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating
important biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of
enzymes thus require magnesium ions to function.
 Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the center of chlorophyll, and is thus a common additive
to fertilizers.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2000]
 Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. As a
suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia because of its milk-like appearance it is
used as an antacid and laxative. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]

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 Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg, all are in significant amount.
 Magnesium is the third most commonly used structural metal. The two most commonly used

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are iron and aluminum.
 It has a low weight and used in Electronic devices.
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 Calcium has four stable isotopes (40Ca and 42Ca through 44Ca).
gm

 New Rocks: The uplift of mountains exposes Ca-bearing rocks to chemical weathering and
releases Ca2+ into surface water. This Ca2+ eventually is transported to the ocean where it
reacts with dissolved CO2 to form limestone. Some of this limestone settles to the sea floor,
07

where it is incorporated into new rocks.

 Dissolved CO2, along with carbonate and bicarbonate ions, are referred to as Dissolved
03

Inorganic Carbon (DIC).

 Making of cheese, where calcium ions influence the activity of rennin in bringing about the
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coagulation of milk.
 Calcium plays an important role in building stronger, denser bones early in life and keeping
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bones strong and healthy later in life.

 Approximately ninety-nine percent of the body’s calcium is stored in the bones and teeth.
to

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]

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 Vitamin D is added to some calcium supplements. Proper vitamin D status is important because
vitamin D is converted to a hormone in the body which then induces the synthesis of intestinal
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proteins responsible for calcium absorption.

 Strontium is named after a village in Scotland where it was first discovered.
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 The 90Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.90 years
 Barium sulphate is used for its heaviness, insolubility, and X-ray opacity.
 133Ba, is routinely used as a standard source in the calibration of gamma-ray detectors in
nuclear physics studies
 Barium sulphate is used as a radio contrast agent for X-ray imaging of the digestive system
(“barium meals)
 The most stable isotope of radium is 226Ra, has a half-life of 1601 years and decays into radon
gas.
 Radium is over one million times more radioactive than the same mass of uranium, Handling
of radium has been blamed for Marie Curie’s death due to aplastic anemia.

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Metals, Non-Metals, and Metalloids

On the basis of their properties, the elements are broadly classified into metals and non-metals. The
metals have been placed on the left-hand side and in the center of the periodic table, whereas nonmetals
have been placed on the right hand side. There are certain elements which show the properties of both
metals and non-metals and these are called metalloids. The metals and non-metals in the periodic table
are separated by a zig-zag line of metalloids. The metalloids are bismuth, silicon, germanium, arsenic,
antimony, tellurium and polonium.
The following table differentiates between metals, non-metals and metalloid with their general
properties and uses.

Metallurgy : Extraction of Metals

The compounds of various metals found in nature as ores are mixed with impurities like sand and rock.
The various processes involved in the extraction of metals from their ores and their subsequent refining
are known as metallurgy.

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Rock, Mineral and Ore

Rocks: A rock is made up of 2 or more minerals. You need minerals to make rocks, but you don't need
rocks to make minerals. All rocks are made of minerals.
Minerals: A mineral is composed of the same substance throughout. There are about 3000 different
minerals in the world. Minerals are made of chemicals - either a single chemical or a combination of
chemicals.
Difference between rock and mineral- A rock is made up of 2 or more minerals, whereas a mineral
is composed of the same substance throughout.
Ore: A mineral occurring in sufficient quantity and containing enough metal to permit its recovery and
extraction at a profit. Or, a mineral or an aggregate of minerals from which a valuable constituent,
especially a metal, can be profitably mined or extracted is an ore. Simple ores are ores that yield a
single metal. Complex ores are ores that yield more than one metal.

Some Important Ores of Metals

Alloys
 It is a material containing a mixture of two or more metals.
 It can be used to provide increased strength or a lighter weight material.
 Its constituents are usually measured by mass.

Alloys and their uses

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[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012, 2016] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2003]

Aqua Regia
 It is a mixture of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid (HNO3) at a ratio of either 3:1 or 4:1.

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 It is a reddish-orange or yellowish-orange fuming liquid.
 The term is a Latin phrase, meaning "king's water".

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 It dissolves the noble metals gold, platinum, and palladium. It will not dissolve all noble metals.
e.g. iridium and tantalum are not dissolved.
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 It is also known as Royal Water, Nitro-Muriatic Acid (1789 name by Antoine
gm

Lavoisier).[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]

CHEMICAL REACTION
07

Chemical and Physical Changes

03

In a physical change, substances don’t change; only their molecules are rearranged. No new substance
is formed in a physical change. In Chemical Change, a chemical reaction takes place and new
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substances are formed. Such reaction either takes energy or releases energy.
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Examples of Physical Change

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 Any change in state of matter in solid, liquid or vapour and vice versa is a physical change.
 For example, heating water would turn it into vapour while cooling it would turn it into ice.
av

 Sublimation of iodine or salt; melting of gold, silver or other metals.

 Absorption of water into a towel, Crumpling a piece of paper, Pulling copper into a thin wire,
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cutting wood, breaking glass, ripping a paper of tin foil etc.

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 Dissolving sugar in water is also an example of Physical change because sugar molecules are
dispersed within the water, but the individual sugar molecules are unchanged.

Examples of Chemical Changes

 Rusting of Iron (Iron reacts with Oxygen and turns into Iron Oxide)
 Burning of all kinds of fuels results in release of energy and gases such as CO2
 Cooking of egg would denature the protein molecules; which uncoil and create cross links to
become solid white.
 Fermentation in which yeast converts Carbohydrates to alcohol, CO2 and other by
products.[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2016]

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 Souring of Milk results in production of lactic acid from lactose sugar. [U.P.P.S.C. (R.I.) 2014]
 Burning of Camphor
 Explosive reaction of sodium with water and phosphorous with moist air
 Setting of cement
A change is considered to be chemical reaction only if chemical bonds are broken in reactants and new
bonds are formed in products. In other words, chemical reaction is a bond breaking and bond making
process. In some cases, the products of a reaction recombine to form the reactants back. These are
called reversible reactions. Others are irreversible reactions.
During chemical changes, there is a rearrangement of atoms that makes or breaks chemical bonds. In a
chemical reaction, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed between different atoms.

Dissolving salt into water is a Physical Change or Chemical Change?

Sometimes, changes are difficult to categorize into physical or chemical changes. One definition of
Physical change is that may result in re-arrangement of molecules but the molecules should not be
broken apart. Although dissolving salt in water involves the breaking of chemical bonds, yet is
described as physical change.

Burning of Candle is a Physical Change or Chemical Change?

Burning of candle is example of both physical and chemical change. Physical change is melting and
solidifying of the wax. Chemical change is the production of heat by consuming oxygen.

Rate of Chemical Reaction

The rate of a chemical reaction is defined as the change in the concentration of the reactant or product
per unit time. The Factors affecting the rate of reaction are summarized as below:
 Concentration of Reactants: The rate of reaction generally increases with increase in
concentration of the reactants.
 Temperature: Generally increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction. When the
temperature increases, the reactant molecules acquire higher energy and can easily form the
products. Cooked food gets spoilt quickly during summer than winter. Souring of milk is faster
in summer. These are all due to the fact that the chemical reactions responsible for these changes
take place faster at higher temperatures.
 Presence of Light: There are certain reactions which take place or are accelerated by the
absorption of light by the reactants. Such reactions are known as photochemical reactions. These
reactions do not occur if the reactants are shielded from light. The combination of hydrogen and
chlorine to produce hydrogen chloride does not take place at measurable rate in the dark. The
plants prepare starch from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight by the process
of photosynthesis. This reaction is slow in dim sunlight but it is much faster in bright sunlight.
 Presence of Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance which is added to a reaction mixture to alter the
rate of chemical reaction where the mass and the chemical composition of the catalyst remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction. Many industrially important reactions such as manufacture
of ammonia, sulphuric acid, nitric acid and polythene are carried out using suitable catalysts.
 Chemical Equilibrium: In reversible chemical reactions, there is a point when forward and
backward reactions proceed simultaneously at the same rate. This is called Chemical

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Equilibrium. For instance, when hydrogen and iodine are taken in a closed vessel maintained at
717 K, hydrogen molecule combines with iodine molecule to form hydrogen iodide.
H2(g) + I2(g) ←→ 2HI(g)
Since the reaction is reversible in nature, the molecules of hydrogen iodide formed begin to
dissociate to form hydrogen and iodine.

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

The chemical reactions which proceed with the evolution of heat energy are called exothermic
reactions. Heat evolved is expressed in Joules (J) or kilo Joules (kJ).
All combustion reactions are exothermic. These reactions proceed with the evolution of heat energy.
An important exothermic reaction occurs in our body cells which is nothing but respiration. During
respiration, glucose in food burns in oxygen and gives out heat energy. Another example is formation
of ammonia. When nitrogen combines with hydrogen in the presence of iron catalyst to form ammonia,
a lot of heat is produced. Thus, the formation of ammonia is an exothermic reaction
N2(g) + 3H2(g) →2NH3(g) + Heat
The chemical reactions which proceed with the absorption of heat energy are called endothermic
reactions.

Why heat is evolved or absorbed in chemical reactions?

Chemical reaction involves the rearrangement of atoms. During the reaction, certain bonds are broken
while certain new bonds are formed between the atoms. If the energy required to break the bonds is
more than the energy released during the formation of bonds, then there is net absorption of energy and
the reaction is endothermic. Both exothermic and endothermic reactions are due to the internal
(intrinsic) energy that is stored within the structural units of every substance. When nitrogen and
oxygen are heated to a very high temperature, they combine to form nitrogen monoxide and a lot of
heat is absorbed in this reaction. Thus, the formation of nitrogen monoxide is an endothermic reaction.
N2(g) + O2(g) + Heat ←→2NO(g)

What is impact of Temperature on Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions?

Increase in temperature favours endothermic reactions and decrease in temperature favours the
exothermic reactions.

Oxidation and Reduction

1. Oxidation is removal of electrons.
2. Reduction is the addition of electrons.
3. Oxidation means
 Addition of oxygen
 Removal of hydrogen.
4. Reductions means
 Removal of oxygen.
 Addition of hydrogen.
5. The substance that causes oxidation is called the oxidizing agent.
6. The substance that causes reduction is called the reducing agent.

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7. Oxidizing agent:
 Acceptors of electrons.
 It is a substance which removes the electron from an atom.
 It brings about oxidation.
8. Reducing agent
 Donors of electrons.
 It is a substance which adds electrons to an atom.
 It brings about reduction.

Redox Reaction
A reaction which involves oxidation and reduction occurring simultaneously together are called redox
reaction. Photosynthesis in plants digestion of food in animals; dry and wet batteries and corrosion of

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metals are diverse examples of oxidation and reduction reactions.

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Electrolysis
 Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic cell.
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 A simple electrolytic cell consists of two copper strips dipped in an aqueous solution of copper
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sulphate.
 On applying DC voltage to the two electrodes, copper metal is deposited on cathode and copper
is dissolved at anode.
07

Uses
03

 In the purification of impure metals.

 In the extraction of metals
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 The blocks used in typing industries are prepared by electrolysis.

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 Steel is coated with zinc metal during the process of galvanization.

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Batteries
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These convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Mainly two types of batteries are used, i.e.
primary and secondary.
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1. Primary Batteries: In the primary batteries, reaction occurs only once and after a period of
time battery becomes dead.
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2. Dry Cell or Leclanché Cell

 It consists of a zinc container that acts as anode and the cathode is a carbon (graphite) rod
surrounded by powdered manganese dioxide and carbon.
 A moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and zinc chloride (ZnCl2) is used as an
electrolyte.
 Dry cell is commonly used in our transistors and clocks.
 Generally, dry cells are used in the torch, whose anode is made up of zinc while the cathode
is made up of carbon. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
 The most commonly used material for making transistors is silicon. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]

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Page. 103
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3. Mercury Cell
 It is commonly used in low current devices such as hearing aids, watches etc.
 The electrolyte is a past of potassium hydroxide (KOH) and zinc oxide (ZnO).
4. Secondary Batteries
 Lead Storage Battery
o It consists of a lead as anode and a grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO2) as
cathode.
o A 38% solution of sulphuric acid is used as an electrolyte. On charging the battery, the
reaction is reversed and lead sulphate gives lead on anode and cathode is converted into
lead dioxide respectively.
 Nickel Cadmium Cell
o It has longer life that the lead storage cell. It consists of a cadmium as anode and nickel
dioxide as cathode. The electrolyte is a potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.
 Fuel Cells
o Fuel cells convert energy from the combustion of fuels such as hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, methane directly into electrical energy
o A fuel cell with hydrogen and oxygen has been used for electric power in Apollo Space
Programme.

 The photocell is used in fire alarm. A photocell is a technological application of the

photoelectric effect. A photocell is a resistor that changes resistance depending on the
amount of light incident on it. It operates on semiconductor photoconductivity - the
energy of light photons hitting the semiconductor frees electron to flow, decreasing the
resistance.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2020]

Corrosion
 When iron is exposed to moist air for a long period of time, its surface acquires a coating of
brown flaky substance called rust.
 Rust is mainly hydrated iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3. xH2O).
 In corrosion, a metal is oxidized by the loss of electrons to oxygen and form oxide.
 The rusting of iron can be prevented by painting, oiling and greasing, galvanizing (by coating
iron objects with zinc), chrome plating etc.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2002]

Catalysis
 A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of reaction.
 The catalyst itself does not alter during the reaction.
 The phenomenon in which the rate of reaction is altered by the presence of a substance (catalyst)
is known as catalysis.
 Catalysts are specific in their action.
 A catalyst does not change the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction, only brings it quickly.
 The main function of a catalyst in a reaction is to decrease the activation energy.

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Important Reaction Process and Catalyst Used

Process Catalyst
Making ammonia Iron
Manufacturing ghee from vegetable oil Nickel
Conversion of milk into curd Lactose
Making synthesis gas (carbon monoxide & Nickel
hydrogen)
Catalytic cracking of gas oil Zeolite
Making Phenol & propanone Sulfuric acid
Reforming of naphtha Platinum & rhenium on zeolite

Homogeneous catalysis
 It is a reaction involving a catalyst where the catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants.
 E.g. Oxidation of Sulphur dioxide to Sulphur trioxide in presence of Nitric oxide as catalyst.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) + NO (g) → 2SO3 (g)

Heterogeneous catalysis
 It is a catalyst where the phase of the catalyst is different from the phase of the reactants.
 E.g. Manufacture of ammonia from N2 and H2 in presence of Iron (Fe) as catalyst.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) + Fe (s) → 2NH3 (g)

CHEMICAL BOND

 It is the attraction between two atoms or ions that holds them together.
 It is caused by electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges, either between
electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction.
 Covalent or Ionic bonds are strong bonds and Dipole–Dipole bond and Hydrogen bond are weak
bonds.

Valence
 The valence or valency of an element is a measure of its combining power with other atoms
when it forms chemical compounds or molecules.
 It is denoted using a positive or negative integer used to represent this binding capacity. It is
also known as valency or valence number.

Ions
 It is a charged atom or molecule. It is charged because the number of electrons do not equal the
number of protons in the atom or molecule.
 An atom can acquire a positive charge or a negative charge depending on whether the number
of electrons in an atom is greater or less then the number of protons in the atom.
 When an atom is attracted to another atom because it has an unequal number of electrons and
protons, the atom is called an Ion.

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 If the atom has more electrons than protons, it is a negative ion, or Anion. e.g. Hydroxide anion
(OH-), Oxide anion (O2-)
 If it has more protons than electrons, it is a positive ion, or Cation. e.g. Silver (Ag+), Hydronium
(H3O+)
 Ionic Compound is a compound composed of cations and anions held together by electrostatic
forces.

Ionic Bond
 It formed by the electrostatic force of attraction between two oppositely charged ions.
 It is formed due to transfer of electrons from one atom to another.
 Generally, it is formed between a metal atom and a non-metal atom.
 Its properties are Crystalline, stronger force of attraction, thermally stable, low volatility, high

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density, high melting point and boiling point.
e.g. NaCl, MgO2, CaCl2, etc.

l.c
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Covalent Bond
gm

 It formed between two atoms due to the sharing of electron pairs.

 Generally, it formed by two nonmetal atoms.
07

 Its properties are low melting point and boiling point, non-conductor, and soluble in non-polar
solvent, rigid and directional bond.
03

e.g. H2, Cl2, HCl, etc.

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m

Coordinate Covalent Bond

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 It is formed when one atom donates both of the electrons to form a single
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covalent bond. These electrons originate from the donor atom as an

unshared pair.
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 Its properties are Sparingly soluble in water, not forming ions, largely
soluble in non-polar solvents, High Melting and boiling points, Stable,
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Nonconductor, rigid and directional bond.

e.g. Ammonium Ion (NH4+)
Hydrogen Bond
 It is the electrostatic attraction between polar groups that occurs when a hydrogen (H) atom
bound to a highly electronegative atom such as nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) or fluorine (F)
experiences attraction to some other nearby highly electronegative atom.
 It tends to be stronger than Van Der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent bonds or ionic
bonds.
 It is two types; inter-molecular (between two molecules) and intra-molecular (within a
molecule).

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Van Der Waals’ Force / Interaction

 It is the attraction of intermolecular forces between molecules.
 It is the weakest of all intermolecular attractions between molecules.
 With a lot of Van der Waals forces interacting between two objects, the interaction can be very
strong.

Metallic Bond
 It is the force of attraction between valence electrons and the metal ions.
 It is the sharing of many detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons
act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite structure.
 It is formed between electropositive metal atoms of same or different elements.
 It is also considered as highly delocalized covalent bond.
 E.g. The metal atoms Na, Cu, Ag, Fe etc. are bound to each other in their crystals by metallic
bond.

COAL, PETROLEUM AND FLAMES

Natural Resources
It is anything that people can use which comes from nature. There are two types of natural resources:
 Inexhaustible Natural Resources: Resources which do not exhaust and which are available in
plenty in nature are known as inexhaustible natural resources. E.g. – air, sunlight, etc.
 Exhaustible Natural Resources: Resources which get exhausted and are not available in
nature in plenty and are known as exhaustible natural resources. They take longer to get
replenished. For example – coal, petroleum, forest, minerals, etc.

Coal Types of Coal

It is a black coloured stone-like material. Type Carbon % Uses
 It is a combustible, sedimentary, Anthracite 90 Space heating
organic rock, composed mainly of Bituminous 80 Fuel in Steam-Electric
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Power Generation
 It is used to produce electricity in Lignite 70 Fuel for Electric Power
thermal power stations. Generation
 It gives carbon dioxide when burnt in Peat 60 Domestic Fuel
air.

Charcoal
 It is a light, black residue, consisting of carbon and any remaining ash, obtained by removing
water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances.
 It is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence
of oxygen.

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Lamp Black is a velvety black powder and used in ink, printer's ink, black paint, carbon papers, etc.
Carbon Black is black, finely divided pellet or powder. It is used in tires, rubber and plastic products,
and coatings.
Petroleum or Rock oil or Crude oil. It is naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons. Various usable substances are obtained from petroleum.

Some of the petroleum products and their uses

Products Uses
Petrol Fuel in motor car, aviation, solvent for dry cleaning
Diesel Fuel for heavy vehicle, such as trucks, rail engine, small vehicle, such as
jeep car, for jet air crafts, small generators, etc.
Liquid Fuel in households, and in vehicles.
Petroleum Gas
Kerosene Fuel for stoves, jet aircrafts, lamps, etc.
Lubricating oil Used as lubricant mainly in engines.
Paraffin wax Used in manufacturing of ointment, candles, cosmetics, etc.
Bitumen Used in making of paints, road, etc.
Asphalt Roads, railway beds or airport runways, etc.

Natural Gas
 It is naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas.
 It is a mixture of methane, higher alkanes, carbon dioxide, etc.
 It is found in deep underground rock formation as fossil fuel.
 Compressed natural gas (CONG) is used for running vehicle. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]

CNG : Compressed Natural Gas

 Its constituent is methane.
 It obtained from natural gas-and condensate wells, oil wells, coal bed methane wells.
 It is the substitute for gasoline in automobiles.
 It releases lesser greenhouse gas.
 It is lighter than air and hence disperses quickly in the event of spillage.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]

LPG : Liquefied Petroleum Gas

 Its constituents are Propane and Butane
 It is automatically generated from gas fields when natural gas is extracted from the reservoir. It
is the by-product of cracking process during crude-oil refining.
 It is used as fuel in households, and in vehicles.
 It releases CO2 which is a greenhouse gas but is cleaner when compared to gasoline.
 It is highly inflammable.
 Ethanethiol or Ethyl Mercaptan is a colorless gas or clear liquid with a distinct scent. It added
to liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to help warn of gas leaks. It will maintain chemical
equilibrium across liquid and vapour space. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013],[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)
2021],[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]

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Octane Number or Octane Rating is a standard measure of the ignition quality of gas (gasoline or
petrol).
The octane number of a fuel (petrol) is the measure of its antiknock quality when it is used in a spark
ignition, internal combustion engine as compared to the antiknock quality of ISO-octane. The higher-
octane number of a fuel means the better anti-knocking capacity for that fuel. [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre)
2009, 2015]

Antiknock Agent is a gasoline additive used to reduce engine knocking and increase the fuel's octane
rating by raising the temperature and pressure at which ignition occurs.
Cetane Number or Cetane Rating is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel. It is an
inverse of the similar octane rating for gasoline (petrol).

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Flame
It is the hot glowing body of ignited gas that is generated by something on fire.

Zones of Candle Flame

1. Dark zone: It is the area around the l.c
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Flame colorants
wick of the candle flame that consists Color Chemical
gm

of unburnt wax vapour. When you

Carmine (Dark Lithium Chloride
ignite the candle, the molten wax
Red)
moves up (due to a phenomenon
07

called the capillary action) and Red Chloride or Nitrate of Strontium

vaporizes around the wick creating a Orange Calcium Chloride
03

dark zone. This part is 'dark black' Yellow Chloride or Carbonate of Sodium
because of the decomposed carbon Apple Green Borax(Sodium Borate)
ar

particles formed due to vaporization. Green Copper(II) Sulfate, Boric Acid

Also, it is the least hot of all the four Blue Copper(I) Chloride, Butane
m

zones.
Violet 3 parts Potassium Sulfate, 1 part
to

2. Luminous zone: It is the region Potassium Nitrate(Saltpeter)

where incomplete combustion takes
Purple Potassium Chloride
av

place and a lot of heat is generated. In

this zone, the molten wax particles further vaporize in the presence of wax and vapor particles.
ur

It is present near the base of the flame. It is typified by a yellowish flame.

3. Non-Luminous zone: It is the region of complete combustion. This is the zone of complete
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combustion (as there is plenty of oxygen present around the candle).

4. Blue zone: Just at the base of the flame you will observe a 'bluish hue'. This is due to the
incomplete burning of carbon dioxide resulting in the formation of carbon monoxide.

Fire Extinguisher
 It is a portable device that discharges a jet of water, foam, gas, or other material to extinguish a
fire.
 Different types of fire extinguishers are Water and Foam, Carbon Dioxide, Dry Chemical, Wet
Chemical, Halogenated, Dry Powder, Water Mist and Cartridge operated Dry Chemical.

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Fire Matches
 It is a tool for starting a fire.
 Modern matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper.
 Safety Matches can be struck only against a specially prepared surface.
 Strike-Anywhere Matches can be used on any suitably frictional surface.
 Electric matches ignite fire electrically and do not make use of heat from friction.

AIR, WATER, SOIL AND THEIR POLLUTION

Air
The air in our atmosphere is
composed of molecules of
different gases.
 It consists of 78 % nitrogen gas,
21 % oxygen, 0.9 % argon, and
0.03 % carbon dioxide, water
vapor-floating molecules of water
and trace gases.
 Earth's atmosphere is divided into
five main layers.
Layers Range in km
Troposphere 0 to 12
Stratosphere 12 to 50
Mesosphere 50to 80
Thermosphere 80 to 700
Exosphere 700 to 10000

Some Important Gases

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Water (H2O)
 It can occur in three states: solid (ice), liquid, or gas (vapor).
 It is a good polar solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent.
 It covers 71% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life.
 Its boiling point is 100oC and freezing point is 0oC.
 It is tasteless and odorless.
 Intrinsic colour of water and ice is slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small
quantities.

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]

Pollution
It is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse changes.

Pollutants
It is the substance or agent of pollution. It is harmful to nature.
 Primary Pollutants are injected into the atmosphere directly. E.g. smoke, carbon monoxide,
nitric oxide , sulphur dioxide, dust, ash, salt particles, etc.
 Secondary pollutants are formed by chemical reaction between the primary pollutants and
constituents of the environment (i.e. those which are already present in the environment). E.g.
smog, ozone, sulphur trioxide, nitrogen dioxide, etc.

Air Pollution
 When some foreign particles enters the air and deteriorate its quality is known as air pollution.
These particles can be produced naturally or man-made. Dust storms, Bacteria and gases of
volcanic eruptions are examples of natural’s sources of pollutants. Gases released from the
automobile and the chimneys are the example of man-made pollutants.
 Major Air pollutants: Carbon monoxide(CO), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Sulphur
dioxide (SO2), etc.
 Cause : Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust, Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion,
and other natural sources, Building construction or demolition.
 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a colourless gas with the odour of rotten eggs. H2S is naturally
formed during decaying vegetation and animal matter and bacterial decomposition of
human and animal wastes, and is present in emissions from sewage treatment facilities and
landfills. These are the chief environmental sources of H2S pollutant. H2S is also released
naturally from geothermal fields. Its industrial sources include oil and natural gas extraction
and petrochemical plants, coke oven plants, and krafit paper mills. [U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre)
2021]

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Page. 111
 Science Common GS
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Water Pollution
 When some foreign particle, organic, inorganic or biological impurities are added to the water
so that it becomes unfit for use is known as water pollution.
 Major Water pollutants: Point Sources: Sewerage system and industrial effluents etc.
Diffused sources: Agriculture. Mining and construction etc.
 Cause : Increased sediment from soil erosion, Improper waste disposal and littering, Leaching
of soil pollution into water supplies, Organic material decay in water supplies

Soil Pollution
 When the productivity of the soil reduces due to the presence of pollutants in it is known as soil
pollution. Man has polluted the soil by the excess use of pesticides.
 Major soil pollutants: Pesticides, fungicides and herbicides

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 Cause : Hazardous waste and sewage spills, Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the
heavy use of inorganic pesticides, Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices,
Household dumping and littering

l.c
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Greenhouse Effect
 It is the exchange of incoming and outgoing radiation of greenhouse gases that warms the Earth.
gm

 Carbon dioxide, ozone, water vapor, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and a few
other gases are greenhouse gases.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014]
07

Global Warming
03

 It is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such
as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat
ar

that would otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type of greenhouse effect.
 It is the gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a
m

change that is believed to be permanently changing the Earth’s climate.

to

Effects of global warming

av

 Increase of temperature on the earth by about 3° to 5° C (5.4° to 9° Fahrenheit) by the year

2100.
ur

 Rise of sea levels by at least 25 meters (82 feet) by the year 2100.
ga

Acid Rain
 It refers to a mixture of wet and dry deposition (deposited material such as snow) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids.
 It has pH less than 5 due to oxides of nitrogen and Sulphur. The pH value of normal rain water
is 5.6.

Particulate matter
It is the sum of all solid and liquid particles suspended in air, many of which are hazardous. This
complex mixture contains for instance dust, pollen, soot, smoke, and liquid droplets.

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Page. 112
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Notes Code 1.6

Smog
 Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility.
 It is the mixture of smoke and fog caused a major air pollution problem.
 It occurs when emissions from industry, motor vehicles, incinerators, open burning and other
sources accumulate under certain climatic conditions.

CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Any material that is manufactured by human effort or human made through industrial process. e.g.
Soaps, detergents, fertilizers, Glass, medicine, cement, plastics, fibers, etc.

Soap
 Soap is water-soluble sodium or potassium salts of fatty acids. Soaps are made from fats and
oils, or their fatty acids, by treating them chemically with a strong alkali.
 Used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning, but they are also used in textile spinning
and are important components of lubricants.

Detergent
 It is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants with cleaning properties in dilute solutions.
 Higher end detergents contain enzymes and optical brighteners. Some liquid detergents contain
nonionic surfactants. Sodium tripolyphosphate was an excellent builder used in laundry
detergent powders.

Fertilizer and Insecticides

 It is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is applied to
soils or to plant tissues (usually leaves) to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the
growth of plants.
 Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the
soil fertility, usually as measured by a soil test and according to the particular crop.
 Organic fertilizers use decaying plants, fish, bone or other animal waste.
 Commercial and homemade fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N-P-K)
mixed in proportion to function.
 The fertilizer is a chemical or natural substance added to the soil to increase its fertility. There
are at least 16 elements essential for the growth of the plant. Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen are
derived from carbon dioxide and water. Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Potassium, Calcium,
Magnesium, Boron, Chlorine, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum and Zinc are normally
derived from the soil in the form of inorganic salts. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007]
 Urea is an organic compound whose chemical formula is CO(NH2) 2. Nearly 46.7% of nitrogen
in the urea is present in the form of amide. In the field of organic chemicals, it is also called
carbamide. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017],[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2008]
 Urea is an organic compound that is only stable in an acidic environment. It is named after the
Greek word 'Oura' meaning urine. Urea is very easily soluble in water as compared to other
fertilizers. [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]

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Page. 113
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 Urea is commonly used for foliar fertilization because of its high solubility and its rapid and
effective absorption by leaves. [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2015, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]
 Ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO4-) are the predominant inorganic forms of nitrogen in the
soil. Plants normally use nitrogen in the form of nitrate. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]
 The Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) is used as a fertilizer. Its formula is (NH4)2HPO4. The
average pH in solution is 7.5-8. The typical formulation is 18% N and 46% P2O5. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008]
 Aluminium Phosphide is highly toxic inorganic compound. It is a cheap, easily available
pesticide which causes lethal poisoning by liberation of phosphine gas. It is also used as
fumigant for preservation of cereals and as rodenticide. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008]
 Potassium cyanide (KCN) and zinc phosphide which are highly toxic chemicals, used as a
rodenticide - a poison to kill the mouse. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]
 Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control unwanted
plants. Sodium chlorate (NaC103) is an oxidizing agent and it is used as herbicide. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) 2019]
 The weedicide commonly used for paddy is 2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). Its
chemical formula is C8H6CI2O3. It is selective translocated herbicide and most widely used to
control broadleaf weeds.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Mains) 2015]

Glass Metals Used to Impart Colour to Glass

 It is a mixture having no definite Substance Added Colour
boiling of freezing points. Antimony Oxides White
 It is also called a super cooled liquid. Cadmium Sulfide Yellow
 Most glasses are silicates. Carbon Oxides Amber Brown
 It is transparent and not affected by Chromic Oxide Emerald Green
chemicals. Cobalt Oxide Blue-Violet
 It can be moulded into any shape. Copper Compounds Blue, Green, Red
 The ingredients for making glass are Gold Chloride Red
Limestone (CaCO3), Soda ash Iron Oxide Greens and Browns
(Na2CO3) and Sand (SiO2). Lead Compounds Yellow
Manganese Dioxide Purple
Types of glass Nickel Oxide Violet
 Soda glass or soda-lime glass is Sulfur Yellow-Amber
prepared by heating sodium carbonate
Tin Compounds White
and silica. Uses: making
windowpanes, tableware, bottles and Uranium Oxide Fluorescent Yellow, Green
bulbs.
 Colored structural glass is a heavy plate glass, available in many colors. It is used in buildings
as an exterior facing, and for interior walls, partitions, and tabletops.
 Plate glass It is made by floating a layer of molten glass over a layer of molten tin. So, it is
thicker than ordinary glass. Uses: shop windows, doors, etc.
 Bullet-resisting glass is thick, multilayer laminated glass. This glass can stop even heavy-
caliber bullets at close range. Bullet resisting glass is heavy enough to absorb the energy of the

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Page. 114
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

bullet, and the several plastic layers hold the shattered fragments together. Such glass is used
in bank teller windows and in windshields for military tanks, aircraft, and special automobiles. It can
be used in making bulletproof jackets. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]
 Kevlar (polyamide - best known for its use in ballistic and stab-resistant body armour) and Lexan
(polycarbonate) are used for making bulletproof materials. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
 Laminated safety glass is a “sandwich” made by combining alternate layers of flat glass and plastics.
The outside layer of glass may break when struck by an object, but the plastic layer is elastic and so it
stretches. The plastic holds the broken pieces of glass together and keeps them from flying in all
directions. It is used where broken glass might cause serious injuries, as in automobile windshields.
 Optical glass is used in eyeglasses, microscopes, telescopes, camera lenses, and many instruments for
factories and laboratories. The raw materials must be pure so that the glass can be made almost flawless.
The care required for producing optical glass makes it expensive compared with other kinds of glass.
 Crookes glass is one of the several types of glasses designed to diminish the transmission of

om
ultraviolet rays. It is used to make sunglasses.
 Jena glass is a shock- and heat-resistant glass used in scientific and technological applications,

l.c
especially in chemistry.
 Soda-lime glass is produced on a large scale and used for bottles, drinking glasses, and windows.
ai
[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]
 Pyrex glass or borosilicate glass is highly heat resistant. Uses: in Laboratory equipment, ovenware,
gm

etc.
 Photochromic glass darkens when exposed to ultraviolet rays and clears up when the rays are removed.
07

It is used for windows, sunglasses, and instrument controls.

[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]

03

Chalcogenide glass is made up of elements from the chalcogen group, including selenium, sulfur, and
tellurium. The glass is transparent to infrared light and is useful as a semiconductor in some electronic
devices. Chalcogenide glass fibers are a component of devices used to perform laser surgery.
ar

 With the increase in temperature, the conductivity of the semiconductor material increases. As with
m

increase in temperature, outermost electrons acquire energy and hence by acquiring energy, the
outermost electrons leave the shell of the atom. Hence, with an increase in temperature, number of
to

carriers in the semiconductor material increases which leads to increase in the conductivity of the
material. So we can say that the semiconductor material has negative temperature coefficient i.e.
av

with an increase in temperature, resistance decreases. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]

 In solid state electronics, either pure silicon or germanium may be used as the intrinsic
ur

semiconductor which forms the starting point for fabrication. Each has four valence electrons but
ga

germanium at a given temperature has more free electrons and higher conductivity. Silicon is by far
the more widely used semiconductor for electronics because it can be used at much higher
temperatures than germanium. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005],[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre)
2016],[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015],[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018]
 Integrated circuits (ICs) are used in the third-generation computers. This circuit was
invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce. The electronic circuit formed by constructing
electronic components like transistor, resistor, and capacitor on a small piece of
semiconducting material is called integrated circuit. Integrated circuit is a set of electronic
circuits on one small plate of semiconductor material normally silicon. After its invention
in 1958, it is used in place of transistors in the computer and hence we can say that the
miniaturization of present day computers has been possible due to these integrated circuit

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units. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007],[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016],[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)

2004],[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2006, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2004, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002],[U.P.
U.D.A./L.D.A. (Mains) 2010]
 Infrared waves are used to transmit radio and TV signals but some of them are using radio
waves. Infrared is an electromagnetic radiation.[U.P.P.C.S.(Pre) 2013, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A.
(Pre) 2010, U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013]

Cement
A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.
 Concrete = Cement + water + sand + gravel
 Plaster = Cement + water + sand
 Mortar = Cement + lime + sand

Composition of cement
 Lime (CaO) 60-65%, Silica (SiO2) 20-25%, Alumina (Al2O3) 4-8%, Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 2-4%,
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 1-3%, Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.1-0.5%, Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1-
2%
 Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of lime (calcium oxide, CaO) mixed with
silica (silicon dioxide, SiO2) and alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3). The lime is obtained from
a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the other oxides are derived from an
argillaceous (clayey) material.

Medicine
It is the chemical substances used for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease

Classes of Medicine

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2006] [UP. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2017] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2010] [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2011]

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Polymers
These are substances whose molecules have high molar masses and are composed of a large number of
repeating units. There are both naturally occurring and synthetic polymers. Among naturally occurring
polymers are proteins, starches, cellulose, and latex.

Plastic Common Polymers and their Monomers

 It is a synthetic material made from a Name Monomer
wide range of organic polymers such Polyethylene Ethylene
as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, Polypropylene Propylene
etc.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015, Poly(Vinyl Chloride) Vinyl Chloride
U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2001] Poly(Vinylidene Chloride) Vinylidene Chloride
 Types of Plastic : Thermoplastics Polystyrene Styrene
and Thermosets
Polyacrylonitrile Acrylonitrile
 Thermoplastics are softened by heat
Polytetrafluoroethylene Tetrafluoroethylene
and can be moulded. (Injection
moulded, blow moulded or vacuum Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) Methyl Methacrylate
formed). e.g. acrylic, polypropylene, Poly(Vinyl Acetate) Vinyl Acetate
polystyrene, polythene and PVC. Polychloroprene Chloroprene
 Thermosets which are formed by ha heat process but are then set (like concrete) and cannot
change shape by reheating. e.g. melamine (kitchen worktops), Bakelite (black saucepan
handles), polyester and epoxy resins.

Fiber
 It is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it is wide.
 The strongest engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-
high-molecular-weight polyethylene.
 Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural
fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort, over their
synthetic counterparts.
 Wool, silk, leather are the natural polymers. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]

Natural Rubber
 It is a high molecular weight polymeric substance with viscoelastic properties.
 It is obtained from the milky secretion (latex) of various plants, but the only important
commercial source of natural rubber (sometimes called Pará rubber) is the tree Hevea
brasiliensis. The only other plant under cultivation as a commercial rubber source is guayule.
 The main use of natural rubber is in automobiles.

Explosives
It is a reactive substance that contains a great amount of potential energy that can produce an explosion
if released suddenly, usually accompanied by the production of light, heat, sound, and pressure. An
explosive charge is a measured quantity of explosive material. e.g. TNT- trinitrotoluene, RDX-
cyclonite, PETN-pentaerythritol tetranitrate, nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin, etc.

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Chemical explosive is a compound or mixture that releases chemical energy violently and rapidly,
creating heat and a shock wave generated by a release of gases.
Dynamite is an explosive made by soaking an inert (inactive or stable), absorbent substance with a
mixture of (1) nitroglycerin or ammonium nitrate, (2) a combustible substance (a substance with the
ability to burn), such as wood pulp, and (3) an antacid.
Gunpowder is an explosive mixture of charcoal, potassium nitrate, and sulfur often used to propel
bullets from guns and shells from cannons.
Nitroglycerine is an explosive liquid used to make dynamite. Also used for dilating blood vessels.
Nuclear explosive is a device that obtains its explosive force from the release of nuclear energy.
Trinitrotoluene (TNT) is a high explosive.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003, U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre)
2002, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2001] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]

om
Industrial Names of Some Important Compounds

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03
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[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre) 2004] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2003] [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2016] [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017] [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2002]
[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]

*****

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PART C - BIOLOGY

The word biology means, "the science of life", from the Greek term ‘bios’which means life, and ‘logos’
which means word or knowledge. Therefore, Biology is the science of Living Things. That is why
Biology is sometimes known as Life Science.

BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION

 It is the process through which the characteristics of organisms change over successive
generations, by means of genetic variation and natural selection.
 Microevolution is defined as changes in gene frequency in a population from one generation
to the next. A population is a group of organisms who interbreed with each other.
 Macroevolution is evolution on a big scale, the descent of many species from one common
ancestor over billions of years.

Origin of Life
 It is generally agreed that all life today evolved by common descent from a single primitive
lifeform.
 All known organisms share certain general properties, and to a large degree these properties
define what we mean by life.
 Scientists Disagree about Where Life Started: The atmosphere of the early earth was rich in
hydrogen, providing a ready supply of energetic electrons to build organic molecules.
 The most abundant element in the Universe is Hydrogen, which makes up about 3/4 of all
matter. Helium makes up most of the remaining 1/4. Thus, it is clear that hydrogen is the
most common and abundant element in the Universe. While the most abundant element in
the earth's crust is Oxygen making up 46.6% of earth crust. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2007]
 The Miller-Urey Experiment : Experiments attempting to duplicate the conditions of early
earth produced many of the key molecules of living organisms.
 Theories about the Origin of Cells : The first cells are thought to have arisen spontaneously,
but there is little agreement as to the mechanism.
 The Earliest Cells : The earliest fossils are of bacteria too small to see with the unaided eye.
 In 1924 when Alexander Oparin reasoned that atmospheric oxygen prevented the synthesis of
the organic molecules. Organic molecules are the necessary building blocks for the evolution
of life. In his The Origin of Life, Oparin argued that a "primeval soup" of organic molecules
could be created in an oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of sunlight.
 Around the same time J.B.S. Haldane also suggested that the Earth's pre-biotic oceans, which
were very different from what oceans are now, would have formed a "hot dilute soup". In this
soup, organic compounds, the building blocks of life, could have formed. This idea was called
biopoiesis.
 The Mesozoic Era is the age of the dinosaurs and lasted almost 180 million years from
approximately 250 to 65 million years ago. This era includes three well known periods, called
the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.[U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2001]

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Fundamental Properties of Life

 Cellular organization : All organisms consist of one or more cells—complex, organized
assemblages of molecules enclosed within membranes.
 Sensitivity : All organisms respond to stimuli— though not always to the same stimuli in the
same ways.
 Growth : All living things assimilate energy and use it to grow, a process called metabolism.
Plants, algae, and some bacteria use sunlight to create covalent carbon-carbon bonds from CO2
and H2O through photosynthesis. This transfer of the energy in covalent bonds is essential to
all life on earth.
 Development : Multicellular organisms undergo systematic gene-directed changes as they
grow and mature.
 Reproduction : All living things reproduce, passing on traits from one generation to the next.

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Although some organisms live for a very long time, no organism lives forever, as far as we
know. Because all organisms die, ongoing life is impossible without reproduction.
 Regulation : All organisms have regulatory mechanisms that coordinate internal processes.

l.c
 Homeostasis : All living things maintain relatively constant internal conditions, different from
their environment.
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Heredity
All organisms on earth possess a genetic system that is based on the replication of a long, complex
07

molecule called DNA. This mechanism allows for adaptation and evolution over time, also
distinguishing characteristics of living things.
03

THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
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Lamarckism (Lamarckian inheritance)

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck was a French scientist who developed an alternative theory of evolution in
1801 and 1809. His theory involved two ideas:
 A characteristic which is used more and more by an organism becomes bigger and stronger, and
one that is not used eventually disappears
 Any feature of an organism that is improved through use is passed to its offspring.

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Darwinism
 Theory of evolution by natural selection, first formulated in Darwin's book "On Origin of
Species" in 1859, is process by which organisms change over time as result of changes in
heritable physical or behavioral traits.
 As "Darwinism" became widely accepted in the 1870s, caricatures of Charles Darwin with an
ape or monkey body symbolized evolution.

Mendelian inheritance
It is inheritance of biological features that follows the laws proposed by Gregor Johann Mendel in 1865
and 1866 and re-discovered in 1900.
Hybridization was experimented on garden pea plant first by Gregor Mendel. After studying the seven
types of qualities of pea, he rendered three laws as- Law of Dominance, Law of Segregation and Law
of Independent Assortment.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2002]

Genetic drift
It (also known as allelic drift or the Sewall Wright effect after biologist Sewall Wright) is the change
in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling of organisms.
 Hugo De Vries is known for his mutation theory of evolution. According to him, new
species are not formed by continuous variations but by the sudden appearance of variations,
which he named as mutations. He stated that mutations are heritable and persist in
successive generations. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005]

Modern Evolutionary Synthesis

 It is a synthesis of ideas from several fields of biology that provides an account of evolution
which is widely accepted as the current paradigm in evolutionary biology, and reflects the
consensus about how evolution works.
 The 19th Century ideas of natural selection by Charles Darwin and Mendelian genetics by
Gregor Mendel were united by Ronald Fisher, one of the three founders of population genetics,
along with J. B. S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, between 1918 and 1932.

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

The basic structural unit of an organ is known as the cell.

 In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered the cell.
 A cell is a living organism.
 A human body has trillions of cells, which vary in
shapes and sizes.
 The organism, which is made up of more than one
cell, is known as multicellular organism.
 The single-celled organisms are known as
unicellular organism. E.g. Amoeba.

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Amoeba
 A single-celled organism performs all the essential functions that a multicellular organism
performs.
 Unlike other organisms, Amoeba has no definite shape; so, it keeps on changing its shape.
 Amoeba has pseudopodia, which means – pseudo means false and podia means feet.
 Amoeba is a full-fledged organism capable of independent existence.
 Shape of the cells are normally round, spherical, or elongated.
 Protoplasm is known as the living substance of the cell.
 The cells having nuclear substances without nuclear membrane are known as prokaryotic cells.
E.g. bacteria and blue green algae.
 Blue-green algae is also called Cynobacteria. It is associated with biological nitrogen fixation.
 Blue- green algae are mainly used as biofertilizer in the crop paddy.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2019][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]
 Azolla is an aquatic fern. It gives a good biofertilizer when mixed with blue-green algae (BGA)
or cyanobacteria and contributes in supplying nitrogen to rice fields. In addition, they also bring
about directly or indirectly a number of changes in the physical, chemical and biological
properties of the soil and soil-water interface in rice fields. [U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains)
2014, 2016, U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]
 Blue-green algae is the oldest organism on earth.[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008]
 The cells having well organized nucleus with a nuclear membrane are designated as eukaryotic
cells. All multicellular organisms are eukaryotic cells.

Cell Structure and Function

 The basic parts of a cell are cell membrane,
cytoplasm, and nucleus.
 Cell membrane is also known as the plasma
membrane.
 The plasma membrane is porous and
allows certain substances or materials
move both inward and outward.
 The central dense round structure in the
center is known as nucleus.
 The jelly-like substance between the
nucleus and the cell membrane (as shown
in the above image) is known as cytoplasm.
 Different organelles of cells are also present in the cytoplasm such as Mitochondria, Golgi
bodies, Ribosomes, etc.
 Located in central part, nucleus is almost in spherical shape.
 Nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a porous membrane known as the nuclear
membrane.
 The smaller and spherical structure, found inside the nucleus, is known as nucleolus.

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 Nucleus contains thread-like structures known as chromosomes.

 Chromosomes carry genes and help in inheriting the characteristics of the parents to the
offspring.
 Gene is a fundamental unit of inheritance in living organisms.[U.P.P.S.C. (GIC) 2010]
 Change in the base sequence within a gene is called mutation. Mutation is the changing of
the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to the subsequent
generations. Mutation is the ultimate source of all genetic variation, providing the raw
material on which evolutionary forces such as natural selection can act.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2020]
 The entire constituents of a living cell are known as protoplasm, which include nucleus and
cytoplasm.

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Plant Cell

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 The cell membrane provides shape to the cells of plants and animals.
 In plant cell, cell wall is an additional covering over the cell membrane.
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 An animal cell does not have cell wall.

 Cell wall gives shape and rigidity to plant cells.
m

 Cell wall gives protection, plant cells need protection against varying temperature, high wind
to

speed, atmospheric moisture, etc.

 Bacterial cell also has a cell wall.
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 Usually, most of the cells are microscopic in size and are not visible to the naked eye.
 The size of smallest cell is 0.1 to 0.5 micrometer found in bacteria.
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 The size of largest cell is 170 mm × 130 mm, found in the egg of an ostrich.
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 The size of the cells however has no relation with the size of the body of the animal or plant.
 Some small colored bodies in the cytoplasm of the cells of Tradescantia leaf are known
as plastids.
 Plastids are found in different colors.
 Some plastids have green pigment and known as chlorophyll.
 Green colored plastids are known as chloroplasts.
 Chloroplasts give green color to the leaves.
 Chlorophyll is essential for the photosynthesis.
 Red apples get their colour from anthocyanin pigment. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2002]
 The red colour of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruit is due to the carotenoid pigment
lycopene. The red colour formation in the apple skin is due to the formation of anthocyanin

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pigments. The red-orange colour of carrot is due to the pigment (β-Carotene).[U.P. P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008, 2016]
 The botanical name of papaya is ‘Carica papaya’. It is rich in carotene, which is a precursor of
vitamin A. The papain enzyme presented in papaya is helpful in digestion of protein. The yellow
colour of papaya is due to presence of caricaxanthin.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2015]
 The yellow colour of cow's milk is due to the presence of carotene. It is a hydrocarbon whose
formula is C^LU It is found in hay, grass, green leaves, some fruits, carrots etc. When cow
consumes carotene containing foods, some of the pigment is converted into vitamin A and some
found unchanged in milk. Vitamin A imparts no colour to milk, whereas carotene gives milk a
yellow colour. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008],[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Pre) 2008]

CELL- FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

The fundamental unit of life is cell.

 Cell was first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 in a simple microscope.
 In 1674, Leeuwenhoek, with the help of developed microscope, discovered the free living cells
in pond water.
 In 1831, Robert Brown had discovered the nucleus in the cell.
 In 1839, Purkinje used the term ‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance found in the cell.
 The cell theory was proposed by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).
 According to the cell theory, all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell
is the basic unit of life.
 In 1855, Virchow further expanded the cell theory and suggested that all cells arise from pre-
existing cells.
 In 1940, the discovery of electron microscope made possible to observe and understand the
complex structure of the cell.

Unicellular Organisms
The single cellular organisms, such as Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium, and bacteria, are
known as unicellular organisms.

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Multicellular Organisms
The organisms consisting of many cells are known as multicellular organisms. E.g. human being,
animals, birds, etc.

Significant Characteristics of Cells

 Each living cell has the aptitude to perform certain basic functions that are characteristic of all
living forms.
 Each such cell has certain specific components within it known as cell organelles.
 Different types of cells have different function and each cell organelle performs a special
function.
 These organelles collectively constitute the basic unit of life known as cell.
 All cells are found to have the same organelles, irrespective of their different functions and the
organism they found in.

Structural Organization of Cell

Following are 3 basic features that every cell possesses −
 Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm

Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane

 Plasma membrane is the outermost covering layer of the cell (as shown in the image given
above).
 Plasma membrane allows certain materials to enter inside the cell and come out from the cell;
therefore, it is known as selectively permeable membrane.
 The movement of water molecules through the selectively permeable membrane is known as
osmosis.
 It is composed of two layers of phospholipids and embedded with proteins.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008]

Cell Wall
 Plant cells have an addition protecting cover known as cell wall (absent in animal cell).
 The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane; likewise, it also covers plasma membrane.
 The cell wall is essentially composed of cellulose.
 Cellulose is a form of carbohydrate. It is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of
several hundred to many thousands of P linked D-glucose units. It is the chief constituent
of cell walls in living organisms. Wood is mostly cellulose, making cellulose the most
abundant type of organic compound on the earth. Its purest natural form is
cotton.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]

Nucleus
 Nucleus is a Latin term and its meaning is kernel or seed.
 The nucleus has a double layered covering, which is known as nuclear membrane (see the image
given above).

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 The nuclear membrane has some pores, which allow certain materials come inside (in nucleus)
and go outside (in the cytoplasm).
 The most significant feature of nucleus is – it contains chromosomes.
 Chromosomes are rod-shaped structures and it is visible only when the cell is about to divide.
 Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
 DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) molecules contain inheritance features from parents to next
generation.
 James Dewey Watson was an American molecular biologist, geneticist and zoologist, best
known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure (double helix model) of DNA in 1953 with
Francis Crick. Watson, Crick, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning the "molecular structure of nucleic
acids and its significance for information transfer in living material". [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012,

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Pre 2012],[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018],[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]
 DNA molecules also contain the information essential for constructing and organizing cells.
 Functional segments of DNA are known as genes.


DNA is present as the part of chromatin material.
Chromatin material is visible as entangled mass ofl.c
ai
thread like structures (as shown in the image given
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below).
 Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin
material gets organized into chromosomes.
07

 The nucleus plays a central and significant role in

cellular reproduction.
03

 The cell, which has no nuclear membrane, is known as prokaryotes (i.e. Pro = primitive or
primary; karyote ≈ karyon = nucleus). See the image given below:
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
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The cell, which has a nuclear membrane, is known as eukaryotes.

 Prokaryotic cell does not have many other cytoplasmic organelles those are present in
to

eukaryotic cells (see the image given above).

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Cytoplasm
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 Cells consist of cytoplasm inside the cell

membrane, which contains many
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biomolecules including proteins and nucleic

acids.
 There are many structures found in the
cytoplasm known as cell organelles.

Cell Organelles
Following are the major cell organelles that play a
major role in the functioning of cell −
 Nucleus
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

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 Ribosome
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Mitochondria
 Plastids
 Vacuoles

Endoplasmic Reticulum
 The endoplasmic reticulum (or simply ER)
is a large network of membrane-bound
tubes and sheets (see the image given
above).
 Based on visual structure, ER is
categorized as rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).
 When the ribosome attached on the surface
of ER, it is known as Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum and without ribosome, it is
known as Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum.
 The SER helps in the manufacturing of fat
molecules, or lipids, which is important for cell functioning.
 Most of the lipids in our food are present in the form of simple fats or triglycerides. Lipase
enzyme plays an important role in the digestion of Lipids. Lipase breaks down lipids into fatty
acids and monoglycerides. Bile probably contains no digestive enzyme, yet it plays an important
role in the digestion and absorption of fat. It facilitates emulsification of fats. Pepsin is a protein
digesting or proteolytic enzyme.[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]
 One of the significant functions of ER is to serve as channels for the transportation of materials
(especially proteins) in various regions of the cytoplasm and also between the cytoplasm and
the nucleus.

Ribosome
 The ribosomes, normally, present in all active cells.
 Ribosome are the sites of protein manufacturing.

Golgi Apparatus
 The Golgi Apparatus is named after the name of its discover Camillo Golgi.
 Golgi Apparatus consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged roughly parallel to
each other in stacks known as cisterns (see the image given above).
 The significant functions of Golgi Apparatus are the storage, modification, and packaging of
products in vesicles.
 The Golgi apparatus also helps in the formation of lysosomes.

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Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are a sort of waste disposal system of the cell.
 It helps in keeping cell clean by digesting foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles.
 It contains powerful digestive enzymes which are made up of Protein capable of breaking down
all sorts of organic materials. [U.P. Lower Sub. (Mains) 2013, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2004,
U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 1996],[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
 Lysosome has a typical feature i.e. when the cell gets damaged lysosome most likely bursts and
the released enzymes digest their own cell. Because of this reason, lysosome is also known as
the ‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

Mitochondria
 Mitochondria, commonly, are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
 Mitochondria release energy required for various chemical activities (essential for the life).
 Mitochondria release energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
 ATP is popular as the energy currency of the cell.
 Mitochondria have their own DNA and ribosomes; hence, they are capable to make some of
their own proteins.[U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2013]

Plastids
 Plastids are present only in the plant cells
 Plastid is categorized as – Chromoplasts (it is colored plastids) and Leucoplasts (It is either
white or colorless plastids).
 Plastids contain chlorophyll pigment, which are known as Chloroplasts.
 Chloroplasts play important role in the photosynthesis in plants.
 Chloroplasts also contain various types of yellow or orange pigments.
 Leucoplasts are the organelles in which some important materials such as starch, oils, and
protein granules get stored.
 Plastids look like mitochondria (in terms of external structure).
 Like the mitochondria, plastids also possess their own DNA and ribosomes.

Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are commonly the storage sacs that contain solid or liquid materials.
 In animal cell, vacuoles are small; whereas in plant cell, vacuoles are of large size.
 Plant cells vacuoles are filled with cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.

CELL DIVISION
The process of division of parent cell into two or more daughter cells is known as cell division. In early
1880s, Fleming first observed the process of cell division. Three types of cell division −
 Amitosis
 Mitosis &
 Meiosis

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Amitosis
 Parent cell gets divided into two parts, and each of them grows as a new complete organism.
 Amitosis can be seen in less developed organisms. E.g. bacteria
 Amitosis is also known as binary fission.
 There is no stage of division, cell directly gets divided into two new organisms.

Mitosis
1. The process of division of
parent cell into two new
identical cells is known as
mitosis.
2. In both the new cells, the

om
number of chromosomes
remain same.
3. Mitosis (cell division)
occurs only in eukaryotic
l.c
ai
cells.
4. In mitosis, the division of
gm

the nucleus is preceded by

the S stage (i.e. interphase - during this phase, the DNA is replicated).
07

5. After the interphase, the cytokinesis process begins, which divides the cytoplasm, cell
organelles, and cell membrane into two new cells.
6. Process of mitosis is divided into the following stages −
03

 Prophase
 Prometaphase
ar

 Metaphase
m

 Anaphase
 Telophase
to
av

Prophase
 During the prophase, cell prepares to get divided.
ur

 The prophase process is also known as chromosome

ga

condensation, as chromatin fibers condense into discrete

chromosomes.
 Each chromosome has two chromatids and these two
chromatids are joined at a place known as centromere.

Prometaphase
In this phase, the nuclear envelope gets disintegrated into small membrane vesicles.

Metaphase
In this phase, the two centrosomes start pulling the chromosomes towards opposite ends of the cell and
ensure the equitable distribution of chromosomes.

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Anaphase
In this phase two identical daughter chromosomes are formed.

Telophase
 Telo is a Greek word meaning ‘end’.
 In this phase, the nuclear envelop gets broken and a new nuclear envelop forms.
 The new envelope gets formed around each set of separated daughter chromosomes; parallel,
the nucleolus reappears.
 Likewise, the mitosis is complete.

Cytokinesis
 Cytokinesis, technically, is not a phase of mitosis, but rather a distinct process, essential for
completing the cell division.
 In this phase, cytoplasm begins to divide and completed with the development of two new
identical cells.

Meiosis
 Meiosis is a typical type of cell division in which the chromosome number gets reduced by half,
creating four haploid cells. Each cell is genetically distinct from the parent cell.
 Meiosis cell division process occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multicellular
eukaryotes, including plants, animals, and fungi.
 Meiosis cell division is primarily categorized as Meiosis I and Meiosis II

TISSUES

A group of cells that are similar in structure and work together to accomplish a particular function is
known as tissue. Tissues are categorized as −
 Plant Tissue
 Animal Tissue

Plant Tissue
Following are the major types of plant tissue −
1. Meristematic Tissues
2. Permanent Tissues
 Simple Permanent Tissues
o Parenchyma
o Collenchyma
o Sclerenchyma
o Epidermis
 Complex Permanent Tissue
o Xylem
o Phloem

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Meristematic Tissue
 Meristematic tissue mainly consists of actively dividing cells, and helps in increasing the length
and thickening the stems of the plant.
 Meristematic tissue, commonly, present in the primary growth regions of a plant, for example,
in the tips of stems or roots.
 Depending on the region (where the meristematic tissues are found); meristematic tissues are
classified as apical, lateral, and intercalary
 Apical meristem (as shown in the above image) is present at the growing tips of stems and roots
and helps in their growth.
 Lateral Meristem is found in stem or root region and helps in their growth.
 Intercalary meristem is found at the base of the leaves or internodes (on twigs) and helps in
growth.

Permanent Tissue
Cells of meristematic tissue later differentiate to form
different types of permanent tissue. Permanent Tissue is
further categorized as −
 Simple Permanent Tissue and
 Complex Permanent Tissue

Simple Permanent Tissue

Simple Permanent Tissue further categorized as −
 Parenchyma
 Collenchyma
 Sclerenchyma
 Epidermis
 Parenchyma tissue provides support to plants and also
stores food.
 Sometimes, parenchyma tissue contains chlorophyll and
performs photosynthesis, in such a condition, it is known
as collenchyma.
 The collenchyma tissue provides flexibility to plant and
also provides mechanical support (to plant).
 The large air cavities, which are present in parenchyma of
aquatic plants, give buoyancy to the plants and also help
them float, are known as aerenchyma.
 The Sclerenchyma tissue makes the plant hard and
stiff. For example, the husk of a coconut is made
up of sclerenchymatous tissue.
 The cells of Sclerenchyma tissue normally are
dead.
 The outermost layer of cells is known
as epidermis.

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 The epidermis is usually made up of a single layer of cells.

 The entire surface of a plant has the outer covering
of epidermis, which protects all the parts of the
plant.

Complex Permanent Tissue

The complex tissue, normally, consists of more than one
type of cells which work together as a unit. Complex
tissues help in the transportation by carrying organic
material, water, and minerals up and down in the plants.
Complex Permanent Tissue is categorized as;
 Xylem and

om
 Phloem

 Xylem, normally, consists of tracheid, vessels, xylem

the conduction of water and l.c

parenchyma, and xylem fibers. Xylem is accountable for
mineral
ai
ions/salt.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
gm

 Phloem, normally, is made up of four types of elements

namely − Sieve tubes, Companion cells, Phloem fibers
and Phloem parenchyma
07

 Phloem tissue transports food from leaves to other parts

of the plant.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]
03

Animal Tissue
ar

The tissue found in animals have comparatively some different

m

properties than the plant tissue. Types of Animal Tissue

Animal Tissues are divided as −
to

 Epithelial Tissue
av

 Connective Tissue
 Muscular Tissue
ur

 Nervous Tissue
ga

Epithelial Tissue
 Epithelial tissues are the covering and protective tissues in the animal body.
 Epithelial tissue covers almost all organs and cavities within the body.
 Epithelial tissue also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
 Epithelial tissue cells are closely packed (as shown in the image given above) and form a
continuous layer.

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Connective Tissue
1. Connective tissues are made up
of the cells those are separated
by non-living material, and
known as an extracellular
matrix.
2. This matrix could be either
liquid or rigid.
3. Connective tissues are further
divided as −
 Fibrous connective tissue
 Skeletal connective tissue and
 Fluid connective tissue
4. Tendons are the example of fibrous connective tissue.
5. Bone is an example of a skeletal connective tissue.
6. Bone forms the framework and provide supports to the body.
7. Blood is an example of fluid connective tissue.
8. Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix known as plasma.
9. In plasma, the red blood cells (RBCs), the white blood cells (WBCs), and the platelets are
remaining suspended.

Muscular Tissue
 Muscular tissue largely consists of
elongated cells, and also known as muscle
fibers.
 The muscular tissue is accountable for the
movements in our body.
 The muscular tissue contains special
proteins known as contractile proteins; and
this protein helps in contraction and
relaxation and supports free movement.

Nervous Tissue
 The brain, spinal cord, and nerves all
are composed of the nervous tissue.
 Cells of the nervous tissue are
extremely particular and sensitive for
being stimulated and then transmitting
the stimulus swiftly from one place to
another within the body.
 The cells of nervous tissue are known
as nerve cells or neurons.
 Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles whenever we want to do so.

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CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS

 Classifying organisms is called Taxonomy (Taxis means

arrangement and nomos means method)
 The modern taxonomic system was developed by the
Swedish botanist Carolus (Carl) Linneaeus (1707-1788).
He used simple physical characteristics of organisms to
identify and differentiate between different species, and
is based around genetics.
 He developed a hierarchy of groups for taxonomy.
 These groups are known as taxa (singular: taxon).
 It is in hierarchical order:

Five Kingdoms
 Animal Kingdom (Animalia)
 Plant Kingdom (Plantae)
 Fungi Kingdom (Fungi)
 Protist Kingdom (Protista)
 Moneran Kingdom (Monera)

Animal Kingdom (Animalia or Metazoa)

 The word 'animal' is derived from the Latin word animalis which means 'having breath'.
 Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular and heterotrophic organisms.
 They have multiple cells with mitochondria and they depend on other organisms for food.
 Habitat - Most of the animals inhabit seas, fewer are seen in fresh water and even fewer on land.
 There are around 9 to 10 million animal species that inhabit the earth. Only 800,000 species are
identified.

Some important groups are listed below.

 Phylum Porifera - They are primitive organisms, most of
them are salt-water sponges. They do not have organs or
nerve cells or muscle cells. Approximately, 8,000 species
exist today. e.g. Sycon, Euspongia, Spongilla.
 Phylum Coelentrata (Cnidaria) - This group is composed
of jelly-fish and other lower aquatic animals.
Approximately, 15,000 species exist today. e.g. Aurelia, Adamsia.
 Phylum Platyhelminthes - This group consists of flat worms. They inhabit both marine and
fresh water habitats and they are mostly endoparasites found in animals. e.g. Taenia, Fascicola.
 Phylum Aschelmeinthes - It is a group of round worms, most of them are parasites. This
phylum consists of about 80,000 parasitic worms.

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 Phylum Annelida - They are present in aquatic, terrestrial and are free-living or parasitic in
nature. This phylum comprises of segmented worms. e.g. Earthworm, Leech etc.
 Phylum Arthropoda - This is the largest phylum which consists of insects. There are over 1
million species of insects existing today. e.g. Locusts, Butterfly, Scorpion, Prawn.
 Phylum Mollusca - It is the second largest phylum. They are terrestrial and aquatic. e.g. Pila,
Octopus.
 Phylum Echinodermata - This consists of sea stars and sea urchins. There are about 6,000
species. e.g. Asteria, Ophiura.
 Phylum Chordata - Animals of this phylum have a characteristic feature of presence of
notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve cord and paired pharyngeal gill slits. Within this phylum
advanced group called vertebrates which include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

om
Plant Kingdom (Plantae)
The Kingdom Plantae can be defined as multicellular, autotrophic eukaryotes, which conduct
photosynthesis. All member of this family comprises of true nucleus and advanced membrane bound
organelles. Some important groups are listed below.
l.c
 Phylum Bryophyta - These are non-vascular land plants, which do not contain any conducting
ai
tissues. e.g. Mosses, Liverworts, Hornworts, etc.
gm

 Phylum Pteridophytae – These are seedless vascular plants, which contain vascular tissues but
do not produce seeds. e.g. horsetails, ferns and club mosses.
 Phylum Angiosperms – These are flowering plants, which develops the seeds within a
07

protective structure. e.g. trees, shrubs, vines and flowers.

 Phylum Gymnosperms – These are non-flowering plants with undeveloped seeds, which are
03

present in an enclosed structure. e.g. palms, carpet lawns, etc.

ar

Fungi Kingdom (Fungi)

m

 Fungi are eukaryotic organisms.

 They are non-vascular organisms.
to

 They reproduce by means of spores.

av

 Depending on the species and conditions both sexual and asexual spores may be produced.
 They are typically non-motile.
ur

 Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alteration of generation.

ga

 The vegetative body of the fungi may be unicellular or composed of microscopic threads called
hyphae.
 The structure of cell wall is similar to plants but chemically the fungi cell wall are composed of
chitin.

Some Important Groups are Listed below.

 Phylum Ascomycota: Sac Fungi - The sacfungi produce spores in small cup-shaped sacs called
asci, hence the name ascomycota. e.g. Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora.
 Phylum Basidiomycota: Club Fungi - includes the mushrooms, puff-balls, smuts, rusts and
toadstools. The spores are borne on a club-shaped spore case called basidium. e.g.
Agaricus(mushroom), Ustilago(smut), and Puccinia(rust fungus).

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 Phylum Zygomycota: Zygote forming Fungi - These fungi are usually found on cheese,
bread, and other decaying food. They are zygote forming fungi, hence the name zygomycota.
The spores are produced in round-shaped case called sporangium. e.g. Mucor, Rhizopus (the
bread mold) and Albugo.
 Phylum Deuteromycota: Imperfect Fungi - These organisms are known as imperfect fungi
because they lack sexual reproduction. They reproduce by asexual spores known as conidia.
Most of the fungi causes diseases to humans like ringworm, athlete's foot. e.g. Alternaria,
Colletotrichum and Trichoderma

Protist Kingdom (Protista)

 They are single-celled, eukaryotes and mainly aquatic.
 It includes diatoms, golden algae, euglena and protozoans like amoeba, paramecium
Plasmodium, etc.
 In this kingdom, cell walls form two thin overlapping shells.
 Walls are embedded with silica. Cell walls deposit forms diatomaceous, which is used for
polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
 Mostly marine & photosynthetic.

Some important groups are listed below.

 Protozoans – animal like single-celled
organisms. e.g. amoeba, foraminifera,
paramecium, plasmodium
 Algae – plant like single or multi-celled
organisms. e.g. green algae, red algae, brown
algae, golden algae, fire algae

Moneran Kingdom (Monera)

 Consists of very small & one-celled organisms.
 They are prokaryotes, which includes species
such as bacteria, archae bacteria, cyanobacteria
and Mycoplasma.
 They are present almost everywhere around us
 They are unicellular organisms with no
specific mode of nutrition.
 They are both aerobic and anaerobic. The
presence of cell wall, which are composed of peptidoglycan. They have naked DNA with the
absence of membrane bound organelles. Reproduction is through by binary fission.

Some important groups are listed below.

 Archaebacteria – these are microbes that live in extreme and harsh conditions, they are known
as extremophiles. These bacteria lack cell wall, their cell membrane is made up of different
lipids, and their ribosomes are similar to that of eukaryotes. These are of three major groups of
bacteria based on their habitat i.e., thermophiles, halophiles and methanogens.

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Page. 137
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 Eubacteria – These are true bacteria. The characteristic feature is the presence of rigid cell wall
and if present a motile flagelllum that aids in locomotion.
HUMAN BODY
The study of the human body involves anatomy and physiology. The human body is the entire structure
of a human being and comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms
and hands, legs and feet.

Facts of Human Body Composition of Human Body

Oxygen = 65%
Nitrogen = 3.2%
Potassium = 0.4%
Sodium = 0.2%
Carbon = 18.5%
Calcium = 1.5%
Sulfur = 0.3%
Magnesium = 0.1%
Hydrogen = 9.5%
Phosphorus = 1.0%
Chlorine = 0.2%
Trace elements < 0.1%

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]

[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Pre) 2013]
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]

[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl) (Pre)

2010, U.P Lower Sub. (Pre) 2008]

The human body consists of many interacting systems. Each system contributes to the maintenance of
homeostasis, of itself, other systems, and the entire body. A system consists of two or more organs,
which are functional collections of tissue.

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The amount of water in the human body ranges from 60- 70%. The average adult human body have 55-
65% water. The percentage of water in infants is much higher typically around 75-78%, dropping to
65-70% by one year of age.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007]

Integumentary System or Exocrine system

 The human body's largest organ is the integumentary system, which includes the skin, hair,
nails, glands and nerve receptors.
 Protection: it protects against UV light, mechanical, thermal and chemical stresses,
dehydration and invasion by microorganisms.
 Sensation: skin has receptors that sense touch, pressure, pain and temperature.
 Thermoregulation: various features of the skin are involved in regulating temperature of the
body. For example sweat glands, hair, and adipose tissue.

om
 Metabolic functions: subcutaneous adipose tissue is involved in production of vitamin D, and
triglycerides

SYSTEMS OF HUMAN BODY

l.c
ai
Skin
gm

It is composed of a layer of epithelial tissue (epidermis) that is supported by a layer of connective tissue
(dermis) and an underlying subcutaneous layer (hypodermis or subcutis).
07

Epidermis
 It is the outermost layer of the skin.
03

 It contains squamous cells or keratinocytes,

ar

which synthesize a tough protein called

keratin. Keratin is a major component of
m

skin, hair and nails.[U.P.P.S.C. (R.I.) 2014]

 It contains specialized cells called
to

Langerhans cells that signal the immune

av

system of an infection.
 The basal layers of this epithelium are
ur

folded to form dermal papillae.

ga

Epidermis is composed of five sub-layers.

 Stratum corneum - top layer of dead,
extremely flat cells. Cell nuclei are not
visible.
 Stratum lucidum - thin, flattened layer of dead cells. Not visible in thin skin.
 Stratum granulosum - rectangular-shaped cells that become increasingly flattened as they
move to the surface of the epidermis.
 stratum spinosum - polyhedral-shaped cells that flatten as they get closer to the stratum
granulosum.
 Stratum basale - innermost layer of elongated columnar (column-shaped) cells. Consists of
basal cells that produce new skin cells.
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Page. 139
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Dermis
 The layer beneath the epidermis is the dermis.
 It is the thickest layer of skin composing almost 90 percent of its thickness.
 It contains specialized cells that help regulate temperature, fight infection, store water and
supply blood and nutrients to the skin.
 It also help in the detection of sensations and give strength and flexibility to the skin.

Components of Dermis:
 Blood vessels - transport oxygen and nutrients to the skin and remove waste products. These
vessels also transport vitamin D from the skin to the body.
 Lymph vessels - supply lymph (milky fluid containing white blood cells of the immune system)
to skin tissue to fight microbes.
 Sweat glands - regulate body temperature by transporting water to the skin's surface where it
can evaporate to cool down the skin.
 Sebaceous (oil) glands - secret oil that helps to waterproof the skin and protect against microbe
build-up. They are attached to hair follicles.
 Hair follicles - tube-shaped cavities that enclose hair root and provide nourishment to hair.
 Sensory receptors - nerve endings that transmit sensations such as touch, pain, and heat
intensity to the brain.
 Collagen - tough structural protein that holds muscles and organs in place and gives strength
and form to body tissues.
 Elastin - rubbery protein that provides elasticity and makes the skin stretchable. It is also found
in ligaments, organs, muscles and artery walls.

Hypodermis (Subcutis)
 The innermost layer of the skin is the hypodermis.
 This layer is underneath the dermis, and merges with it.
 It mainly contains adipose tissue and
sweat glands.
 Adipose tissue has metabolic functions:
production of Vitamin D and
triglycerides.

Digestive System or Excretory system

Group of organs working together to convert
food into energy and basic nutrients to feed
entire body.
 Food passes through a long tube inside
the body known as the alimentary canal
or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract).
 The alimentary canal is made up of the
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestines, and large
intestines.

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 The entire system from mouth to anus is about 30 feet (9 meters) long.
 To providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major functions take place in the digestive
system: ingestion, secretion, mixing and movement, digestion, absorption, excretion.

Digestive system components

1. Mouth
 The mouth is the first part of the gastrointestinal tract and is equipped with several structures
that begin the first processes of digestion. These include salivary glands, teeth and the
tongue.
 Teeth chop food into small pieces, which are moistened by saliva before the tongue and
other muscles push the food into the pharynx.
2. Teeth
 Teeth are made of a bone-like material called
dentin, which is covered by the hardest tissue
in the body enamel.
 The number of teeth in an adult person is 32.
 It designed for cutting and grinding food into
smaller pieces.
 Incisors are the teeth in the very front. They’re
the sharpest teeth, built to cut food and shaped
to shovel the food inward.
 Canine teeth are in the corners of your mouth.
Because they’re meant for grasping and tearing
food, they have very long roots.
 Premolars are located just behind your Canine
teeth. Premolars have a flatter chewing surface because they’re meant for crushing food.
 Molars are the last teeth towards the back of
your mouth. Molars are much bigger than the
Premolars and have bigger, flatter chewing
surfaces because their job is to chew and grind
the food into smaller pieces.
3. Tongue
 It is a fleshy and muscular sensory organ, and the
very first sensory information is received via the
taste buds on its surface.
 It also helps to push food toward the posterior
part of the mouth for swallowing.
 The outside of the tongue contains many rough papillae for gripping food as it is moved by
the tongue’s muscles.
 The taste buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and connect to
nerves in the tongue to send taste information to the brain.
4. Salivary Glands
 It produces a watery secretion known as saliva.

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 It helps to moisten food and begins the digestion of carbohydrates.

 The body also uses saliva to lubricate food as it passes through the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus.
5. Pharynx (Throat)
 It is a funnel shaped tube connected to the posterior end of the mouth.
 It helps in passing chewed food from the mouth to the esophagus.
 Air from the nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually
the lungs.
6. Esophagus
 The esophagus is a long, thin, and muscular tube that connects the pharynx (throat) to the
stomach.
 It functions as the conduit for food and liquids that have been swallowed into the pharynx

om
to reach the stomach.
 It is about 9-10 inches (25 centimeters) long and less than an inch (2 centimeters) in diameter

l.c
when relaxed.
 At the inferior end of the esophagus is a muscular ring called the lower esophageal sphincter
ai
or cardiac sphincter. It is used to close of the end of the esophagus and trap food in the
stomach.
gm

7. Stomach
 It is the main food storage tank of the body, so that the body has time to digest large meals
07

properly.
 It is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just inferior to
03

the diaphragm.
 It also contains hydrochloric acid (HCL) and digestive enzymes that continue the digestion
ar

of food that began in the mouth.

 In human body, the digestion of protein begins in the stomach with the action of enzyme
m

pepsin. Pepsin is secreted by the gastric glands of the stomach which digests the protein into
to

smaller peptides and amino acids, which can be readily absorbed by the small intestine.[U.P.
P.C.S. (Pre) 2020][U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2017][U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]
av

 The inner layer of the stomach is full of wrinkles known as rugae (or gastric folds). Rugae
both allow the stomach to stretch in order to accommodate large meals and help to grip and
ur

move food during digestion.

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8. Small Intestine
 It is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about 10 feet long that is part of the lower
gastrointestinal tract.
 It is located just inferior to the stomach and takes up most of the space in the abdominal
cavity.
 It is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is full of many ridges and folds.
 It absorbs about 90% of the nutrients from the food.
 Duodenum, jejunum and ileum are the three major region of small intestine.
9. Liver
 It is a roughly triangular accessory organ of the digestive system located to the right of the
stomach, just inferior to the diaphragm and superior to the small intestine.

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 Weighing in at around 3 pounds (1.36 kg) , the liver is the body’s second largest organ.
 It helps in digestion, metabolism, immunity, and the storage of nutrients within the body.
 The liver is the largest gland of the human body. Extra glucose in the body gets converted
into glycogen and is stored in the liver. Glucose is a simple sugar found in carbohydrates.
Once carbohydrates are absorbed from food, they are carried to the liver for
processing.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004]
 The liver is responsible for the detoxification of alcohol. Liver detoxifies harmful
substances through the complex chemical reactions.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]

10. Gallbladder
 It is a small, pear-shaped organ located just posterior to the liver. It is used to store and
recycle excess bile from the small intestine so that it can be reused for the digestion of
subsequent meals.
11. Pancreas
 It is a glandular organ in the upper abdomen, but really it serves as two glands in one: a
digestive exocrine gland and a hormone-producing endocrine gland.
 It is a narrow, 6-inch long gland that lies posterior and inferior to the stomach on the left
side of the abdominal cavity.
 The head of the pancreas, which connects to the duodenum, is the widest and most medial
region of the organ.
 The tail of the pancreas extends from the body as a narrow, tapered region on the left side
of the abdominal cavity near the spleen.
 Glandular tissue that makes up the pancreas gives it a loose, lumpy structure.
12. Large Intestine
 It is the final section of the gastrointestinal tract.
 It is a long, thick tube about 2 ½ inches in diameter and about 5 feet long.
 It is located just inferior to the stomach and wraps around the superior and lateral border of
the small intestine.
 It absorbs water and vitamins while converting digested food into solid waste products and
exit the body through the anal canal.

Digestive Process
 Ingestion of food
 Secretion of fluids and digestive enzymes
 Mixing and movement of food and wastes through the body
 Digestion of food into smaller pieces
 Absorption of nutrients
 Excretion of wastes

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 It allows us to take in vital oxygen and expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing.
 It consists mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.
 The nose and nasal cavity form the main external opening for the respiratory system and are the
first section of the body’s airway—the respiratory tract through which air moves.
 Red blood cells collect the oxygen from the lungs and carry it to the parts of the body where it
is needed. The red blood cells collect the carbon dioxide and transport it back to the lungs,
where it leaves the body when we exhale.
 A decrease in oxygen is known as hypoxia and a complete lack of oxygen is known as anoxia.

Trachea or windpipe
 It is a 5-inch long tube made of C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings lined with pseudostratified
ciliated columnar epithelium.
 It connects the larynx to the bronchi and allows air to pass through the neck and into the thorax.
 The rings of cartilage making up the trachea allow it to remain open to air at all times.
 It is used to provide a clear airway for air to enter and exit the lungs.

Diaphragm
 It is the primary muscle used in the process of inspiration, or inhalation.
 It is a dome-shaped sheet of muscle that is inserted into the lower ribs. Lying at the base of the
thorax (chest), it separates the abdominal cavity from the thoracic cavity.
 The nerve that controls the diaphragm is the phrenic nerve, which originates at vertebral level
C3-C5.

Lungs
 These are a pair of large, spongy organs found in the thorax lateral to the heart and superior to
the diaphragm.

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 Each lung is surrounded by a pleural membrane that provides the lung with space to expand as
well as a negative pressure space relative to the body’s exterior.
 The negative pressure allows the lungs to passively fill with air as they relax.
 The left and right lungs are slightly different in size and shape due to the heart pointing to the
left side of the body.
 The left lung is therefore slightly smaller than the right lung and is made up of 2 lobes while
the right lung has 3 lobes.
 The interior of the lungs is made up of spongy tissues containing many capillaries and around
30 million tiny sacs known as alveoli.
 The alveoli are cup-shaped structures found at the end of the terminal bronchioles and
surrounded by capillaries.
 . Gas exchange takes place in the millions of alveoli in the lungs and the capillaries that envelop

om
them.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]

l.c
CIRCULATORY OR CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM


ai
It is a network of organs and vessels that is Blood types of parents and their children
responsible for flow of blood, nutrients,
gm

hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from

cells.

07

It contains the heart, blood and blood vessels.

 It includes the pulmonary circulation, a "loop"
03

through the lungs where blood is oxygenated;

and the systemic circulation, a "loop" through the
rest of the body to provide oxygenated blood.
ar

 The systemic circulation can also be seen to

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function in two parts–a macrocirculation and a

microcirculation.
to

 An average adult contains five to six quarts

av

(roughly 4.7 to 5.7 liters) of blood.[U.P.

R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2017]
ur

 Karl Landsteiner was an Austrian biologist and physician. He is noted for having first
distinguished the main blood groups in 1900, having developed the modem system of
ga

classification of blood groups from his identification of the presence of agglutinins in the
blood and having identified with Alexander S. Wiener, the Rhesus (Rh) Factor in 1937
(which was believed to be a similar antigen found in rhesus monkey red blood cells), thus
enabling physicians to transfuse blood without endangering the patient's life.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003, U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2004][U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Mains) 2010]
 Individuals with blood group 'O' are a universal donor because their red blood cells have
neither A nor B antigens on their surface. So, the blood of a person having O group can be
given to people with any blood group.
 [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]

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Blood
 It is a constantly circulating fluid providing
the body with nutrition, oxygen, and waste
removal.
 It is mostly liquid, with numerous cells and
proteins suspended in it, making blood
"thicker" than pure water.
 It transports nutrients, proteins needed for
blood clotting, and waste products.
 It is conducted through blood vessels
(arteries and veins).
 It is made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and liquid plasma.
 The pH value of the blood of human is about 7.4. Blood pH is regulated to stay within the
narrow range of 7.35 to 7.45, making it slightly basic or alkaline. Blood that has a pH below
7 is acidic, whereas blood pH above 7.45 is too basic.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2007]

Red Blood Cells (RBCs) or Erythrocytes

 These are used to carry oxygen to all parts of the body and to bring carbon dioxide to the lungs.
 RBCs have a lifetime of about 120 days.
 The hemoglobin in the red blood cell is the carrier for oxygen and carbon dioxide.[U.P. P.C.S.
(Pre) 2016]
 One RBC contains about 280 hemoglobin molecule.
 In the process of being formed they go through a unipotent stem cell stage. They have the job
alongside the white blood cells of protecting the healthy cells.
 Myoglobin (Mb) is an oxygen-binding heme protein found in the skeletal muscle tissue of
vertebrates in general and in almost all mammals. It contains iron (Fe). It is distantly related to
haemoglobin. Compared to haemoglobin, myoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen and does
not have cooperative binding with oxygen like haemoglobin does.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2020]

White Blood Cells (WBCs) or Leukocytes

 These are responsible for fighting infection by identifying, engulfing, and destroying foreign
organisms.
 They are active in the immune response by producing antibodies to foreign organisms.
 Granulocytes or neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes are the 5
different types of WBCs.
 Neutrophils are the most abundant of all the WBCs.
 The spleen plays important role in regard to red blood cells (also referred to as erythrocytes)
and the immune system. It removes old red blood cells and holds a reserve of blood, which
can be valuable in case of haemorrhagic shock and also recycles iron. In the human adult,
the bone marrow alone produces all of the RBCs, 60-70 percent of the WBCs (i.e. the
granulocytes), and all of the platelets. The bone marrow and the lymphatic tissues,
particularly the spleen, the thymus, and the lymph nodes, produce the lymphocytes
(comprising 20-25 percent of WBCs). [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2008]

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Page. 146
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Platelets or Thrombocytes or Yellow Blood Cells

 These are small cell fragments responsible for the clotting of blood and the formation of scabs.
 They form in the red bone marrow from large megakaryocyte cells that periodically rupture and
release thousands of pieces of membrane that become the platelets.
 They do not contain a nucleus and only survive in the body for up to a week before macrophages
capture and digest them.

Plasma
 It is the non-cellular or liquid portion of the blood that makes up about 55% of the blood’s
volume.
 Approximately, 90% of blood plasma is water and remaining 10% are proteins, inclusions and
waste products etc.
 The plasma functions as a transportation medium for these substances as they move throughout
the body.

Blood Vessels
 These are the tubular structure carrying blood through the tissues and organs
 There are three major types of blood vessels: arteries, capillaries and veins.

Arteries
These are the blood vessels that carry the oxygenated blood away from the heart.
 It contains about 20% of blood at any one time.
 Their walls are thick and elastic.
 They have small lumen (tubular cavities inside).
 They also help to push the rapid flow of blood when the ventricles are relaxed and the heart is
refilling.
 Arterioles are known as the small arteries.
 It has a pulse and blood travels in spurts.

Veins
 These are the blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.
 It contains about 75% of blood.
 The walls of the veins are thinner than the arteries.
 Venules are known as the smallest of the veins.
 It has no pulse and blood travels smoothly.

Capillary
 These are the smallest blood vessels in the body.
 It contains about 5% of blood at any time, and no pulse can be felt in one.
 These blood vessels are act as a link between arteries and veins.

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 It has a single layer of endothelial cells. Water and other small molecule substances can pass
through this wall.
 Atrium : Either of the two (left and right) upper chambers of the heart. Also called auricles
 Pulmonary : Used to describe blood vessels that carry blood between the heart and the lungs
 Aorta : The largest artery which directs blood to every organ but the lungs
 Lumen : The inner open space of a tubular organ, in this case the blood vessels
 Vena Cava : Either of two large veins which carry blood into the right side of the heart
 Cardiovascular : Of or involving the heart and blood vessels

Heart
 It is a muscular organ about the
size of a closed fist that

om
functions as the body’s
circulatory pump.

l.c
 It takes in deoxygenated blood
through the veins and delivers it
ai
to the lungs for oxygenation
before pumping it into the
gm

various arteries.
 It is located in the thoracic
07

cavity medial to the lungs and

posterior to the sternum.
03

 The bottom tip of the heart,

known as its apex, is turned to
ar

the left, so that about 2/3 of the

heart is located on the body’s
m

left side with the other 1/3 on

right.
to

 The top of the heart, known as the heart’s base, connects to the great blood vessels of the body:
av

the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary trunk, and pulmonary veins.

ur

Circulatory Loops
The pulmonary circulation loop and the systemic circulation loop are 2 primary circulatory loops in the
ga

human body.
 Pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the
lungs, where the blood picks up oxygen and returns to the left side of the heart.
 The pumping chambers of the heart that support the pulmonary circulation loop are the right
atrium and right ventricle.
 Systemic circulation carries highly oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart to all of
the tissues of the body (with the exception of the heart and lungs). Systemic circulation removes
wastes from body tissues and returns deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart. The left
atrium and left ventricle of the heart are the pumping chambers for the systemic circulation
loop.

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Page. 148
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LYMPHATIC OR IMMUNE SYSTEMS

 It is a network of tissues and organs that help rid body of toxins, waste, unwanted materials.
 It is our body’s defense system against infectious pathogenic viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as
parasitic animals and protists.
 The primary function of the lymphatic system is to transport lymph, a fluid containing infection-fighting
white blood cells, throughout the body.
 The lymphatic system primarily consists of lymphatic vessels, which are similar to circulatory system's
veins and capillaries. The vessels are connected to lymph nodes, where lymph is filtered. The tonsils,
adenoids, spleen and thymus are all part of lymphatic system.

Red Bone Marrow

 It is a highly vascular tissue found in the spaces between trabeculae of spongy bone.
 It is mostly found in the ends of long bones and in the flat bones of the body.
 It is a hematopoietic tissue containing many stem cells that produce blood cells.

Lymph Capillaries
As blood passes through the tissues of the body, it enters thin-walled capillaries to facilitate diffusion of nutrients,
gases, and wastes. Blood plasma also diffuses through the thin capillary walls and penetrates into the spaces
between the cells of the tissues.

Lymph
 The interstitial fluid picked up by lymphatic capillaries is known as lymph.
 It is very closely resembles the plasma found in the veins: it is a mixture of about 90% water and 10%
solutes such as proteins, cellular waste products, dissolved gases, and hormones.
 It may also contain bacterial cells that are picked up from diseased tissues and the white blood cells that
fight these pathogens.

Blood Pressure
 It is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels.
 It is also known as arterial blood pressure.
 It is usually expressed in terms of the systolic (maximum) pressure over diastolic (minimum) pressure
and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg).[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
 Sphygmomanometer is the measurement device for Blood pressure.
 Normal resting blood pressure in an adult is approximately 120/80 mm Hg.
 Blood pressure that is low due to a disease state is called hypotension, and pressure that is consistently
high is hypertension.
 The atmosphere exerts enormous pressure on us but we do not feel it, because our blood exerts
pressure slightly more than that of the atmosphere. We feel this pressure in water because the
pressure under water is greater than our normal blood pressure.[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]
 Beta-blockers, also known as beta-adrenoceptor blocking agents are drugs that are prescribed to treat
several different types of conditions, including hypertension (high blood pressure), angina, some
abnormal heart rhythms and heart attack.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]
 Potassium (K) plays a role in every heart beat. It helps trigger the heart to squeeze blood through the
body. It also helps your muscles to move, nerves to work and kidneys to filter blood.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2004][U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre) 2003, U.P. Lower Sub.
(Pre) 2002, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2001]

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Page. 149
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Notes Code 1.6

SKELETON SYSTEM

 The body is supported and its internal parts protected by a strong yet flexible framework of bones called
the skeleton. These bones meet at joints, most of which allow movement between the bones they connect.
As well as protection and movement, bones provide a store for the mineral calcium, which is vital to the
working of nerves and muscles. They also contain bone marrow, which makes blood cells and stores fat.
 The adult human skeletal system consists of 206 bones, as well as a network of tendons, ligaments and
cartilage that connects them. Babies have over 270, but by adulthood many of these have fused
together.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre) 2008]
 The skeletal system performs vital functions - support, movement, protection, blood cell production,
calcium storage and endocrine regulation - that enable us to survive.
 The human skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton (80 bones = 28 in skull + 52 in torso) and the
appendicular skeleton (126 bones = (32 x 2 in upper extremities including both arms + 31 x 2 in lower
extremities including both legs).

Skull
 It is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for the mandible.
 The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the cranium and protect the brain from
damage.
 The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as facial bones and support the
eyes, nose, and mouth.

Hyoid
 The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the mandible.
 It is the only bone in body that does not form a joint with any other bone - a floating bone.
 It helps in holding the trachea open and to form a bony connection for the tongue muscles.

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Page. 150
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Auditory Ossicles
The malleus, incus, and stapes - known collectively as the auditory ossicles - are the smallest bones in
the body. Found in a small cavity inside of the temporal bone, they serve to transmit and amplify sound
from the eardrum to the inner ear.

Vertebrae
 26 vertebrae form vertebral column of the human body. They are named by region: Cervical
(neck) - 7 vertebrae, Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae, Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae, Sacrum
- 1 vertebra and Coccyx (tailbone) - 1 vertebra.
 With the exception of the singular sacrum and coccyx, each vertebra is named for the first letter
of its region and its position along the superior-inferior axis. For example, the most superior
thoracic vertebra is called T1 and the most inferior is called T12.

om
Ribs and Sternum
 The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along the midline of the anterior

l.c
side of the thoracic region of the skeleton. The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of
cartilage called the costal cartilage.
ai
 There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the ribcage of the thoracic region.
gm

The first seven ribs are known as “true ribs” because they connect the thoracic vertebrae directly
to the sternum through their own band of costal cartilage.
07

Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb

 The pectoral girdle connects the upper limb (arm) bones to the axial skeleton and consists of
03

the left and right clavicles and left and right scapulae.
 The humerus is the bone of the upper arm.
ar

 It forms the ball and socket joint of the shoulder with the scapula and forms the elbow joint with
m

the lower arm bones.

to

Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb

av

 Formed by left and right hip bones,

pelvic girdle connects lower limb bones
ur

to axial skeleton.
 The femur is largest bone in the body
ga

and the only bone of the thigh (femoral)

region.
 Femur forms the ball and socket hip
joint with hip bone and forms knee joint
with the tibia and patella. Commonly
called kneecap, patella is special
because it is one of the few bones that are not present at birth.
 The patella forms in early childhood to support the knee for walking and crawling.

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Page. 151
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Cartilage
 It is made up of specialized cells called chondrocytes. These chondrocytes produce large
amounts of extracellular matrix composed of collagen fibres, proteoglycan, and elastin fibers.
 There are no blood vessels in cartilage to supply the chondrocytes with nutrients.
 It is a firm tissue but is softer and much more flexible than bone.
 It is a connective tissue found in many areas of the body including: Joints between bones e.g.
the elbows, knees and ankles, Ends of the ribs, Between the vertebrae in the spine, Ears and
nose and Bronchial tubes or airways

Joint or Articulation
 Junction of two or more bones or cartilages.
 It allows to movement (except for skull, sacral, sternal, and pelvic bones) and provide
mechanical support, and are classified structurally and functionally.
 An articulate facet is generally seen as a small joint, especially used when speaking of the joints
of the ribs.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 It is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.

 It permits movement of body, maintains posture, and circulates blood throughout the body.
 The muscular system in vertebrates is controlled through the nervous system, although some
muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous.

Skeletal Muscles
 Skeletal muscles form most of the human body weight.
 They are under the control of human will and all body movements occurring by our will are
produced by skeletal muscles.
 They are called skeletal muscles because they are almost always found attached to the skeleton
and produce movements in different parts of the skeleton.

Smooth Muscles or Visceral Muscles

 It is found inside of organs like the stomach, intestines, and blood vessels.
 The weakest of all muscle tissues, visceral muscle makes organs contract to move substances
through the organ. Because visceral muscle is controlled by the unconscious part of the brain,
it is known as involuntary muscle - it cannot be directly controlled by the conscious mind.

Cardiac Muscles
 Found only in heart, cardiac muscle is responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.
 Cardiac muscle tissue cannot be controlled consciously, so it is an involuntary muscle.
 While hormones and signals from brain adjust rate of contraction, cardiac muscle stimulates
itself to contract.

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 The natural pacemaker of the heart is made of cardiac muscle tissue that stimulates other cardiac
muscle cells to contract.
 Because of its self-stimulation, cardiac muscle is considered to be auto-rhythmic or intrinsically
controlled.

URINARY OR RENAL SYSTEM

 It is the system of production, storage and

elimination of urine.
 It consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra.
 The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes
and produce urine. The ureters, urinary
bladder, and urethra together form the urinary
tract, which acts as a plumbing system to drain
urine from the kidneys, store it, and then
release it during urination.
 Besides filtering and eliminating wastes from
the body, urinary system also maintains the
homeostasis of water, ions, pH, blood pressure,
calcium and red blood cells.
 Excretion of average urine in the adult human body is around 1.5 litres per day. About 91-
96% of urine consists of water.
 A pigment urochrome is the reason for the yellow colour of human urine. It is also known
as urobilin. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2004]

Kidneys
 The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that serve several essential regulatory roles in vertebrates
and located in the abdominal cavity.
 The left kidney is located at the vertebral level T12 to L3, and the right is slightly below the
diaphragm and posterior to the liver.
 The kidneys, unlike the other organs of the abdominal cavity, are located posterior to the
peritoneum and touch the muscles of the back.
 The kidneys are surrounded by a layer of adipose that holds them in place and protects them
from physical damage.
 The kidneys filter metabolic wastes, excess ions, and chemicals from the blood to form
urine.[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2011]

Ureters
 These are a pair of tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
 They are about 10 to 12 inches long.
 Gravity and peristalsis of smooth muscle tissue in the walls of the ureters move urine toward
the urinary bladder.

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 The ends of the ureters extend slightly into the urinary bladder and are sealed at the point of
entry to the bladder by the ureterovesical valves.
 These valves prevent urine from flowing back towards the kidneys.
 Urinary bladder
 It is a sac-like hollow elastic organ that functions as the body’s urine storage tank.
 It is located along the body’s midline at the inferior end of the pelvis.
 The urinary bladder functions as a storage vessel for urine to delay the frequency of urination.
 It is an elastic organs and is able to increase its volume greatly to accommodate between 600 to
800 ml of urine at maximum capacity.

Urethra
1. It is a tube that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.

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2. Its wall is lined with mucous membranes and contains a relatively thick layer of smooth muscle tissue.
3. It contains numerous mucous glands, called urethral glands that secrete mucus into the urethral canal.
4. Urine:

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 It is a liquid (an aqueous solution) produced by the kidneys to remove waste products from
the bloodstream.
ai
 It is yellowish in color fluid due to presence of urochrome pigment.
gm

 It consists primarily of water (91-96%), with organic solutes including urea, creatinine, uric
acid, and trace elements.
 The pH of human urine ranges from 5.5 to 7, averaging around 6.2 and it is acidic in nature.
07

 Average urine production in adult humans is about 1-2 L per day, depending on state of
hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.
03
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NERVOUS SYSTEM
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 It consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all of the nerves that connect these
to

organs with the rest of the body.

 Together, these organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among
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its parts.
 The brain and spinal cord form the control center known as the Central Nervous System (CNS),
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where information is evaluated and decisions made.

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 The sensory nerves and sense organs of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) monitor conditions
inside and outside of the body and send this information to the CNS.
 Efferent nerves in the PNS carry signals from the control center to the muscles, glands, and
organs to regulate their functions.

Nervous Tissue
The majority of the nervous system is tissue made up of two classes of cells: neurons and neuroglia.
 Neurons, also known as nerve cells, communicate within the body by transmitting
electrochemical signals. Neurons look quite different from other cells in the body due to the
many long cellular processes that extend from their central cell body. There are 3 basic types of
neurons,

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 Afferent neurons : Also known as sensory neurons, afferent neurons transmit sensory signals
to the central nervous system from receptors in the body.
 Efferent neurons : Also known as motor neurons, efferent neurons transmit signals from the
central nervous system to effectors in the body such as muscles and glands.
 Interneurons : Interneurons form complex networks within the central nervous system to
integrate the information received from afferent neurons and to direct the function of the body
through efferent neurons.
 Neuroglia, also known as glial cells, act as the “helper” cells of the nervous system. Each
neuron in the body is surrounded by anywhere from 6 to 60 neuroglia that protect, feed, and
insulate the neuron.

Brain
 The brain, a soft, wrinkled organ that weighs
about 1.36 kg, is located inside the cranial
cavity, where the bones of the skull surround
and protect it.
 The approximately 100 billion neurons of the
brain form the main control center of the body.
 The brain and spinal cord together form the
central nervous system (CNS), where
information is processed and responses
originate.
 The brain, the seat of higher mental functions
such as consciousness, memory, planning, and voluntary actions, also controls lower body
functions such as the maintenance of respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.[U.P.
P.C.S. (Pre) 2016][U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2020]
 There is no pain or tactile (touch) receptors of any type in the brain itself. So, a needle or
even more invasive brain surgery is not associated with any ‘sensation’ of the brain. Brain
does not have any pain receptors.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]
 ‘Satiety’ and ‘thirst’ centres in humans are located in the hypothalamus of the brain. This area of
the brain governs body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleep, circadian rhythm, moods, sex drive and
the release of various hormones in the body.[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Mains) 2010]

Spinal Cord
 It is a long, thin mass of bundled neurons that carries information through the vertebral cavity
of the spine beginning at the medulla oblongata of the brain on its superior end and continuing
inferiorly to the lumbar region of the spine.
 It is around 45 cm (18 in) in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in women.
 In the lumbar region, the spinal cord separates into a bundle of individual nerves called the
cauda equina (due to its resemblance to a horse’s tail) that continues inferiorly to the sacrum
and coccyx.
 The white matter of the spinal cord functions as the main conduit of nerve signals to the body
from the brain.
 The grey matter of the spinal cord integrates reflexes to stimuli.

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Nerves
 Nerves are bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that act as information
highways to carry signals between the brain and spinal cord and the rest of the body.
 Each axon is wrapped in a connective tissue sheath called the endoneurium. Individual axons
of the nerve are bundled into groups of axons called fascicles, wrapped in a sheath of connective
tissue called the perineurium.
 Finally, many fascicles are wrapped together in another layer of connective tissue called the
epineurium to form a whole nerve.
 The wrapping of nerves with connective tissue helps to protect the axons and to increase the
speed of their communication within the body.

Meninges
The meninges are the protective coverings of the central nervous system (CNS). They consist of three
layers: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
 Dura mater : The dura mater, which mean “tough mother,” is the thickest, toughest, and most
superficial layer of meninges.
 Arachnoid mater : The arachnoid mater, which means “spider-like mother,” is much thinner
and more delicate than the dura mater.
 Pia mater : The pia mater, which means “tender mother,” is a thin and delicate layer of tissue
that rests on the outside of the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
 The space surrounding the organs of the CNS is filled with a clear fluid known as cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF).
 CSF is formed from blood plasma by special structures called choroid plexuses.
 The choroid plexuses contain many capillaries lined with epithelial tissue that filters blood
plasma and allows the filtered fluid to enter the space around the brain.

Sense Organs
 Eye has the sense of sight.
 Ear has the sense of hearing.
 Nose has the sense of smell.
 Tongue has the sense of taste.
 Skin has the sense of touch.

Eye
 It allows you not only to view
objects, but to see depth, color,
size, and detail.
 The eye works by refracting
and focusing light onto the
retina.

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 When light strikes the retina, millions of rhodopsin-containing rods, which are responsible for
night vision, convert the light into electrical impulses, which are sent to the brain.
 The brain then translates what it receives from the optic nerves so that we can understand what
we see.
 The retina also contains millions of cones that contain iodopsin and are used for bright light
vision and color perception. There are approximately 17 times more rods than cones - about
120 million rods and 7 million cones - in the retina of each eye.
 The only time that the sun can be viewed with the naked eye is during a total eclipse when
the moon completely covers the disk of the sun. But it is never safe to look at a partial or
annular eclipse or the partial phases of a total solar eclipse without proper equipment and
techniques. Failure to use proper observing method may result in permanent eye damage or
severe visual loss caused by the ultraviolet (UV) radiations.


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The human eye is about 2.5 cm in diameter. [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2004, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
1995] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2003]
 The normal human eye can focus a sharp image of an object on the eye if the object located

l.c
anywhere from infinity to a certain point called the "Near point". The minimum distance of
an object from eye to have its clear image is called "least distance of distinct vision". It is
ai
about 25 cm for the normal eye and denoted by ‘D’. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2008]
gm

Parts of Human Eye

 Sclerotic: It is the white outer part of the eye that you can see. It provides protection and
07

structure for the inner parts of the eye.

 Cornea: It is the clear bulging surface in front of the eye. It is the main refractive surface of the
03

eye.
 Iris: It controls the size of the pupil and the amount of light that enters the eye. It is the coloured
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part of your eye.

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 Eye Lens: It focuses light onto the retina. It is a double convex lens with the help of which
image is formed at retina by refraction of light.
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 Ciliary Muscles: The eye lens is held by ciliary muscles which helps the eye lens to change its
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focal length.
 Pupil: It is the black hole in the center of the colored iris. It contracts when exposed to bright
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light and expands in darkness to allow more light into the eye.
 Aqueous Humour: It is the transparent fluid between cornea and eye lens.
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 Vitreous Humour: It is the transparent fluid between eye lens and retina.
 Retina: It is the innermost layer of sensitive tissue that transmits light to the brain. The retina
consists of several types of cells, including a layer of rods and cones, which transform light into
chemical and electrical energy that is transmitted to the optic nerves. The center of the retina
contains the macula. The macula is a highly sensitive part of the retina that is responsible for
our detail vision. The center of the macula, which has a major role in detail perception, is called
the fovea.
 The retina operates in a similar way to the film inside a traditional (non-digital) camera. The
middle part of the retina (known as the macula) takes care of your sharp vision. Your retina's
nerve cells change light rays into electrical impulses and then sends them to the brain
through the optic nerve. [U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2011]

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 Optic Nerve: It carries the information from the eye to the brain. It consists of over one million
axons, which carry visual information to different parts of the brain.
 Blind Spot : This is a bit of your retina which is not sensitive to light because there are no rods
or cones there. It is the spot where the optic nerve is joined on to the retina.
 Yellow Spot : It is central part of retina lying on optic axis of eye is most sensitive to light.
 Eye Lids : Its main function is to protect the eyes by blinking. Blinking prevents debris from
getting into the eye. The average blink rate is 10 blinks per minute.

Ear
 It receives sound and helps in balance and body position.
 The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
 The ear has external, middle, and inner portions.
 The outer ear is called the pinna and is made of ridged cartilage covered by skin.
 Sound funnels through the pinna into the external auditory canal, a short tube that ends at the
eardrum (tympanic membrane).
 Sound causes the eardrum and its tiny attached bones in the middle portion of the ear to vibrate,
and the vibrations are conducted to the nearby cochlea.
 The spiral-shaped cochlea is part of the inner ear; it transforms sound into nerve impulses that
travel to the brain.
 The fluid-filled semicircular canals (labyrinth) attach to the cochlea and nerves in the inner ear.
They send information on balance and head position to the brain.
 The eustachian (auditory) tube drains fluid from the middle ear into the throat (pharynx) behind
the nose.

Nose
 It is the body's organ of smell and also functions as part of the body's respiratory system.
 The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the
septal cartilage (which separates the nostrils) and the upper and lower lateral cartilages.
 The nose has two holes called nostrils. The nostrils and the nasal passages are separated by a
wall called the septum.
 Deep inside your nose, close to your skull, your septum is made of very thin pieces of bone.
 Closer to the tip of your nose, the septum is made of cartilage, which is flexible material that's
firmer than skin or muscle. It's not as hard as bone, and if you push on the tip of your nose, you
can feel how wiggly it is.
 Behind your nose, in the middle of your face, is a space called the nasal cavity. It connects with
the back of the throat. The nasal cavity is separated from the inside of your mouth by the palate
(roof of your mouth).

Tongue and Skin

 Tongue is described in Digestive System
 Skin is described in Integumentary System

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REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The process by which new individuals are produced from their parents is called reproduction and the
organs which are used for this process, collectively constitute the reproductive system.
Reproduction is of two types, i.e., asexual and sexual.

Asexual reproduction is reproduction without sex. In this form of reproduction, a single organism or
cell makes a copy of itself. It produces offspring genetically identical to their parent.
Fission asexual reproduction: Amoeba, bacteria, flatworm etc.

Budding asexual reproduction : Hydra, yeast and sponge

Sexual reproduction is the creation of a new organism by combining the genetic material of two
organisms. It typically requires the involvement of two individuals or gametes, one from each opposite
type of sex. Syngamy sexual reproduction : Cockroach, frog and human being.

Male Reproductive System

 It includes the scrotum, testes,
spermatic ducts, sex glands, and
penis. These organs work together to
produce sperm, the male gamete, and
the other components of semen.
 These organs also work together to
deliver semen out of the body and
into the vagina where it can fertilize
egg cells to produce offspring.

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 Male can produce sperm (spermatozoa) through their life from age of 13-14 years.
 A sperm remains alive for up to 72 hours after entering into oviduct but its capacity to
fertilize the ovum lasts for about 48 hours (2 days).[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010]
Organ(No.) Function
Penis(2) Passes Urine and deposit Sperm in female genital tract
Urethra(1) Conducts Urine and Sperms
Testes(2) Produces Sperm and Testosterone
Sperm Duct(2) Conducts Sperm from Testes to Urethra
Seminal Vesicles(2) Secretes Seminal Plasma
Prostate Gland(2) Secretes an alkaline fluid to neutralize acidity of urethra and make
sperms more active
Cowper’s Gland Secretes an alkaline white lubricating fluid

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gm
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03
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m
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Female Reproductive System

 It contains two main parts: the uterus, which
hosts the developing fetus, produces vaginal
and uterine secretions, and can pass sperm
through to the Fallopian tubes; and the ovaries,
which produce the female's egg cells.
 These parts are internal; the vagina meets the
external organs at the vulva, which includes the
labia, clitoris and urinary meatus.
 The vagina is attached to the uterus through the
cervix, while the uterus is attached to the
ovaries via the Fallopian tubes.

Menstrual cycle
1. The menstrual cycle is the preparation of a woman's body for a possible pregnancy.
2. It starts during puberty (10-14 years) and stops permanently at menopause (40-50 years).
3. It is also known as “monthly bleeding,” a “period,” and menses.
4. Each month, one of the ovaries releases an egg - a process called ovulation.
5. About 13 mature eggs are released from two ovaries of female in a year.
6. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Estrogen and Progesterone
hormones are involved in the Menstrual Cycle.
7. On an average menstrual cycle is completed in 28 days.
8. The entire duration of a Menstrual cycle can be divided into four main phases:
 Menstrual phase (From day 1 to 5)
 Follicular phase (From day 1 to 13)
 Ovulation phase (Day 14)
 Luteal phase (From day 15 to 28)

Birth Control Methods or Contraception Methods

 Birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to
prevent pregnancy. The various methods used for it are diaphragm, contraceptive pills,
tubectomy, vasectomy, copper-T etc.
 Amniocentesis (Amniotic Fluid Test or AFT) test is technique of finding out sex and disorder
of fetus.

Length of Pregnancy (Gestation Period) in some mammals

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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 It is study of glands of an organism that secrete

hormones directly into the circulatory system.
 The organs through which the life running
hormones are secreted are known as endocrine
glands or simply ductless glands.
 Hormone secreting glands are located in
different parts of body
 The scientific study of the endocrine system and
its disorders is known as endocrinology.

Hormone
 The hormone is a complex but very important
chemical substance released by the different
glands in the body.
 The hormone is mainly made up of amino acid,
catecholemines, and steroids.
 It is the hormone which is responsible for the
overall growth and development; safety and security; behavior, sexual characteristics, and
reproductive activities of a human body.
Types of Endocrine System
 Hypothalamus
 Pineal Gland
 Pituitary Gland
 Thyroid Gland
 Parathyroid Gland
 Adrenal Gland
 Pancreas Gland
 Reproductive Gland (Ovaries & Testes Glands)

Hypothalamus
 It is located at the base of the brain.
 It releases Growth hormone-releasing hormone, Somatostatin hormone, etc.,

Pineal Gland
 It is located at the base of the brain.
 It releases melatonin hormone helpful in lowering the core body temperature.

Pituitary Gland
1. With the size of a pea, the pituitary gland is found at the base of the human brain.
2. The average weight of pituitary gland is about 0.5 grams.

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3. It is also known as hypophysis.

4. Following are the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland −
 Growth hormone (somatotropin) − It is abbreviated as GH and it stimulates growth and
cell reproduction.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin) − It is abbreviated as THS and it stimulates
iodine absorption by thyroid gland.
 Seaweed is a type of algae that grows in salt water and (like terrestrial plants) needs sunlight
to thrive. There are over ten thousand varieties of seaweed, many of which are good to eat.
Seaweeds are best known as the richest natural source of iodine.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2015]
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin) − It is abbreviated as ACTH and it
stimulates corticosteroid and androgen.
 Beta-endorphin − it inhibits perception of pain.

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 Prolactin − it stimulates milk synthesis and release from mammary glands.

Thyroid Gland
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1. Thyroid gland is located just below the larynx in the throat (pharynx).
ai
2. The hormone secreted by the thyroid gland is known as thyroxine.
gm

3. Following are the important hormones secreted by the thyroid gland −

 Triiodothyronine(T3) − It stimulated body oxygen and energy consumption. It also
07

promotes protein synthesis.

 Thyroxine − It increases the basal metabolic rate.
03

 Calcitonin − It stimulates osteoblasts and bone construction.

[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003]
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m

Parathyroid Gland
 It is located in the neck of a human body.
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 It releases Parathyroid hormone that helps in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood as
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well as within the bones.

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Adrenal Gland
1. Adrenal gland is found above the kidneys.
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2. It releases the following major hormones −

 Glucocorticoids − It stimulates gluconeogenesis and fat-breakdown in adipose tissue.
 Mineralocorticoids − It stimulates active sodium reabsorption in kidneys.
 Adrenaline − It increases the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles.
 Adrenaline (Epinephrine) is commonly known as the 'fight or flight hormone'.[U.P.P.S.C.
(GIC) 2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2004, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A.
(Pre) 2002, U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2001]
 Dopamine − It increases heart rate and blood pressure.
 Enkephalin − It regulates pain.

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Page. 163
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Pancreas Gland
1. Pancreas gland is located in the abdominal cavity (behind the stomach).
2. Pancreas is a mixocrine gland, as it releases both enzymes and hormones.
3. It releases the following major hormones −
 Insulin − It regulates the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2015]
 Glucagon − It raises the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream.
 Somatostatin − It inhibits release of insulin and glucagon.
 The pancreas is an endocrine as well as an exocrine gland i.e. mixed gland. As an endocrine
gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin,
glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it
functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the
pancreatic duct.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
 ADH (Antidiuretic) hormone is released from pituitary gland which is responsible for
controlling secretion of urine from kidney.[U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl.) (Mains) 2010]

Reproductive Gland
 The reproductive gland is classified as Testes in Male and Ovary in Female.
 Testes releases androgens (hormone) that help in strengthening muscle, increasing bone density,
maturation of sex organs.
 Ovary releases progesterone hormone that helps during pregnancy period.
 Estrone is a weak postmenopausal estrogen and a minor female sex hormone. Estrogen
(Oestrogen) is the actual female sex hormone.[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2017]
 Oxytocin, sometimes called the hormone of love not only induces uterine contractions
during childbirth but is also released when a mother nurses her baby and is responsible at
first touch, for her feeling of attachment to the newborn. The instinct to want to cuddle
continues to intensity; hence oxytocin often referred as the ‘cuddle hormone’. It used to
prescribe to women to induce labour pain and facilitate breast-feeding.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2017],[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008]

HUMAN HEALTH AND DISEASES

 Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the
ability of individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental or
social challenges.
 The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its 1948
constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity."
 A disease is a particular abnormal condition, a disorder of a structure or function that affects
part or all of an organism.
 The causal study of disease is called pathology.
 Disease is often construed as a medical condition associated with specific symptoms and signs.

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Types of Diseases
1. Congenital Diseases: These are anatomical or physiological abnormalities present from birth.
They may be caused by
 a single gene mutation (alkaptonuria, phenylketonuria, albinism, sickle-cell anemia,
hemophilia, colour blindness);
 chromosomal aberrations (Down’s syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, Turner’s syndrome);
or
 environmental factors (cleft palate, harelip). Unlike the gene and chromosome induced
congenital defects, environmentally caused abnormalities are not transmitted to the children.
2. Acquired Diseases: These diseases develop after birth. They are further of two types:
communicable and noncommunicable.
 Communicable (Infectious) Diseases are caused by viruses, rickettsia, bacteria, fungi,
protozoans and worms.
 Noncommunicable (Noninfectious) Diseases remain confined to the person who develops
them and do not spread to others. The non-communicable diseases are of four kinds
o Organic or Degenerative Diseases due to malfunctioning of some of important organs,
e.g, heart diseases, epilepsy. Heart diseases result from abnormal working of some part
of this vital organ. Epilepsy may result from abnormal pressure on regions of brain.
o Deficiency Diseases are produced by deficiency of nutrients, minerals, vitamins, and
hormones, e.g., kwashiorkor, beriberi, goiter, diabetes are just a few from a long list.
o Kazimierz (Casimir) Funk is generally credited with being among the first to formulate
the concept of vitamins, which he called 'vital amines' or 'vitamins'. Umetaro Suzuki had
in 1910 succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice
bran and had named it 'aberic acid'.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]
o Frederick Gowland Hopkins was the first scientist to elucidate the 'accessory food
factor', the idea that food contains trace amounts of substances essential for nutrition.
Accessoiy food factors later came to be called vitamins.[U.P.R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2014]
o Most of the vitamins cannot be synthesized in the human body, so they are considered
as essential food factors. Vitamins are certain organic compounds required in small
amounts in our diet as they are essential for proper growth of the body and their
deficiency causes specific diseases.[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2016, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
2021]
o Allergies are caused when the body, which has become hypersensitive to certain foreign
substance, comes in contact with that substance. E.g. Hay fever.
o Cancer is caused by an uncontrolled growth of certain tissues in the body.

Immune System
 Immunity – The ability of the body to protect against all types of foreign bodies like bacteria,
virus, toxic substances etc. which enter the body.
 The science dealing with the various phenomena of immunity, induced sensitivity and allergy
is called immunology.
 Immune Response - Third line of defence. Involve production of antibodies and generation of
specialized lymphocytes against specific antigens.

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 Antigens – Substances which stimulate the production of antibodies, when introduced into the
body.
 Antibodies – Immunoglobulins (Igs) which are produced in the body in response to the antigen
or foreign bodies.
 All antibodies are immunoglobulins but all immunoglobulins are not antibodies.
 There are two major types of immunity: Innate or Natural or Non-specific immunity and
Acquired or Adaptive or Specific Immunity.
 Phosphorus (in the form of phosphate) is the element that maintains a balance between
acidity and alkalinity in our body.[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2004]
 Mother milk provides almost complete diet to the new-born but it lacks iron nutrient. During
the first few days after delivery, the mother produces colostrum. It is rich in protein and
antibodies that provide passive immunity to the baby. Colostrum also helps the newborn's

om
digestive system to grow and function properly. Mother's milk contains about 4.2% fat,
1.1% protein, 7.5% carbohydrates and 0.2% minerals. For better health of the new-born, the
mother's milk contains zinc, calcium, vitamin A, B6, B12, potassium, magnesium,

l.c
phosphorus etc. in adequate quantity.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
ai
Vaccine & Vaccination
gm

Vaccine: A product that stimulates a person’s immune system to produce immunity to a specific
disease, protecting the person from that disease. Vaccines are usually administered through needle
injections, but can also be administered by mouth or sprayed into the nose.
07

Vaccination: The act of introducing a vaccine into the body to produce immunity to a specific disease.
World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1974 officially launched a Global Vaccination Programme to
03

protect children from six fatal diseases: Diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus, polio, TB (Tuberculosis) and
measles. It was launched in India in 1985. The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae
ar

vaccinae (smallpox of the cow), the term devised by Edward Jenner to denote cowpox.
In 2014, Polio declared eliminated from India.
m

Jonas Edward Salk was an American medical researcher and virologist. He discovered and developed
to

the first successful polio vaccine.[U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl.) (Pre) 2010]

av
ur
ga

[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2013][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2005]

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Page. 166
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Diseases caused by Protozoa:

Disease Organ Parasites Carrier Symptoms Mosquito
Malaria RBC & Liver Plasmodium Female Fever with shivering
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) Anophelies
2008]
Pyorrhoea Gums Entamoeba gingivelis - Bleeding from gums
Sleeping Brain Trypanosoma Tse-Tse flies Fever with severe sleep.
sickness
Diarrhea Intestine Entamoeba histolytica - Mucous & Diarrhea with blood.
Kala-ajar Bone marrow Leismania donovani Sand flies High fever.
Charles Leveran discovered Malaria Parasite, plasmodium in blood of affected person in 1880.
Ronald Ross confirmed that Malaria is caused by parasite and told that mosquito is the carrier of it.
 Plasmodium vivax is a protozoan parasite and a human pathogen, the most frequent and
widely distributed cause of recurring malaria. P. vivax is one of the five species of malaria
parasites and it is responsible for about 65% cases of malaria in India. Actually Plasmodium
vivax accounts for 65% of malaria cases in Asia and South America.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2008]
 Quinine is a major drug used to treat malaria. Quinine is extracted from the bark of cinchona
tree. It is an angiosperm plant. Quinine is a white crystalline alkaloid and bitter in taste. It
is also used in the treatment of arthritis and prion- related disease.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)
2016],[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
 The Arteether medicine which is used to cure malaria is obtained from a seeded plant,
Artemisia annua. Chloroquine, atovaquine, barium and paludrine medicines are also used
to cure malaria.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2005]
 It is substituted by Chloroquine. It is a synthetic drug used to kill sensitive malaria
parasites.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2000]

Diseases caused by Bacteria:

Affected organ Bacteria Symptoms
Tetanus Nervous system Clostrdium Tetani High fever, spasm in body,
[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) Closing or LOCKING of jaws
(Mains) 2008] etc.

Cholera Intestine Vibrio cholera Continuous stool & vomit

[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2008]
Typhoid Intestine Lungs Salmonella typhosa High fever, headache.
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium
Tuberculosis Lungs Mycobacterium Repeated coughing.
tuberculosis
[U.P. RO/ARO (Mains)

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Page. 167
 Science Common GS
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2017]
[U.P. R.O./A.R.O.
(Pre) 2016]
Diphtheria Respiratory tube Corynebacterium Difficulty in respiration and
diphtheria suffocation.
Plague Lungs, area between Pasteurella pesties Very high fever, muscular
the two legs [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012] eruptions on the body.
Whooping Respiratory system Hemophilis pertussis Continuous coughing.
cough
Pneumonia Lungs Diplococcus High fever, swelling in lungs.
pneumonia
Leprosy Nervous System, Mycobacterium leprae Spots on body, nerves, affected.
Skin [U.P.P.S.C. (GIC)
2010]

Gonorrhea Urinary Path Neisseria Gonorrhoeae Swelling in urinary path.

Syphilis Urinary path Treponema pallidum Wounds in urinogenital tract
Louis Pasteur discovered the vaccine of Rabies and pasteurization of milk.

Diseases caused by Viruses:

Disease Affected organ Virus Symptoms
AIDS Defensive HIV Immune system becomes weak.
system (WBC) [U.P.P.C.S (Pre)
2011, U.P.P.S.C.
(GIC) 2010]
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2008]
Dengue fever Whole body Dengue is Pain in eyes, muscles, head and
particularly a mosquito-borne joints.
head, eyes and viral disease caused Platelets are rapidly decreased due to
joints. by the Dengue dengue fever. These are important to
virus. In this case, prevent bleeding in the body. So due
the dengue virus is to decreasing level of platelets the
transmitted by patient may suffer from internal
female mosquitoes bleeding.
– Aedes aegypti. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]

Polio Throat, Polio virus Fever, body pain, backbone and

backbone intestine cells are destroyed.
Nerve.
Influenza Whole body Mixo virus Suffocation, sneezing,
restlessness.
Chickenpox Whole body Variola virus High fever, redish eruptions on body.

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Small pox Whole body Varicella virus Light fever, eruption of bile on body.
Goitre Parathyroid - Difficulty in opening mouth, fever.
gland
Measles Whole body Morbeli virus Reddish eruptions on body.
Trachoma Eyes - Reddish eyes, pain in eyes.
Hepatitis or Liver - Yellow urine, Eyes and skin become
Jaundice [U.P.P.C.S. yellow.
(Mains) 2011]

Rabies Nervous system Rabies virus Patient becomes mad with sever
headache and high fever.
Meningitis Brain - High fever.

om
Herpes Skin Herpes Swelling in skin.
Ebola Ebola virus The Ebola virus causes an acute,

l.c
serious illness which is often fatal if
untreated.
ai
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]
gm

AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.

Molecular epidemiological analysis has identified the predominance of HIV-1 subtype C (HIV-1C)
07

in India.[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2004]

03

Diseases caused by Vitamin Deficiency:

There are two types of Vitamins.
ar

1. Water Soluble Vitamins: - It includes Vitamins C and B-Complex.

2. Fat Soluble Vitamins: - Vitamin A, D, E and K are considered soluble in fat.
m

Vitamins Sources Diseases caused by their

to

deficiency
Vitamin A Milk, Eggs,Fish, Butter, Fortified Skin Abnormalities, Night
av

Magarine, Cheese, Green & Blindness

Yellow fruits and Vegetables, [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre)
ur

Vitamin A is known as
Retinol Sweet Potatoes, Pumpkin, 2002, U.P. Lower Sub.
ga

[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021] Mangoes, Beet greens, Dark (Spl) (Pre) 1999]
Green leaf Vegetables, Cod liver [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017]
oil
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019]
Vitamin D Eggs, Fatty Fish, Butter, Rickets in Children and
Vitamin D„ sometimes Magarine, Milk, Cod liver oil osteomalacia in adults.
referred to as ergocalciferol Direct Sunlight is the best & an [U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A.
and Vitamin D3 sometimes abundant source of Vitamin D. (Mains) 2010]
referred to as cholecalciferol [U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Mains) 2017]
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]

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Page. 169
 Science Common GS
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Vitamin E Meats, Poultry, Eggs, Vegetable  Sterility

Tocopherol oils, nuts, Olives, Tomatoes,
Papaya, Blueberries, Sunflower
seeds and Kiwi fruits.
Vitamin K Soyabean, Spinach, Cottonseed, Impaired Blood Clotting
Napthoquinone Canola and olive, Alfa-alfa that can cause easy
[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) (Re. bruising and bleeding
Exam) 2016] diathesis.
Vitamin K is synthesized by [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2020]
bacteria in human intestine. [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2016]
[U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl.)
(Mains) 2010]

Vitamin C Almost every fruits and Scurvy, Anemia,

vegetables contains some amount Decreased ability to fight
Vitamin C is known as of Vitamin C. But Generally infections and Slow
ascorbic acid Green peppers, Chillies, White Metabolism that results in
Potatoes, Citrus fruits and weight loss and Dryness.
vegetables, Strawberries,
Tomatoes, Amla, Broccoli and
Turnip Greens.
[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]
[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2018]
Vitamin B1 Yeast, Whole Grains, Lean pork, Beri-Beri
Thiamin or Thiamine Nuts, Legumes, thiamine [use of polished rice also
(Vitamin B1) is a water- enriched Cereal Products. caused this problem]
soluble vitamin that is [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2015]
necessaiy for carbohydrate [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2019,
and amino acid metabolism. 2020]
[U.P.P.C.S (Pre) 2010]

Vitamin B2 Whole Grains, Yogurt, Organ Fissures in the corner of

Riboflavin Meats, Nuts, Cheese, Eggs, Milk, Mouth, Tongue
Lean meat, Legumes inflammation.
Vitamin B3 Peanuts, Lean Meats, legumes, Diarrhea, Skin Disease
Niacin whole grain or enriched bread and Dementia
and cereal products. Pellagra

Vitamin B5 Liver, Kidney, Eggs and all dairy

Pantothenic acid Products

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Page. 170
 Science Common GS
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Vitamin B6 Liver, Organ Meats, Corn, Whole Low production of

Pyridoxine grain Seeds & Cereals. hemoglobin, Nervous
system and memory
disorders.
[U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre)
2013, U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A.
(Spl.) (Pre) 2010]
Vitamin B7 Egg Yolk, Kidney, Liver, No disease still found.
Biotin Tomatoes, Yeast
Vitamin B9 Green Vegetables and Fruits like Its Deficiency during
Folic acid is the name of apples, Oranges, Dried Beans, pregnancy is associated
Vitamin B9. Avacados, Sunflower seeds and with birth defects, such as
Wheat germ. neural tube defects.
Para-aminobenzoic acid It is incorporated into Folic Acid
molecule and there is no source
of it in the Plants and Animal
Domain.
Vitamin B12 It is found in animal tissues as Megaloblastic Anemia.
Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin) is a liver, kidney and Heart of
water-soluble vitamin. Ruminants.
It contains metallic ion Vitamin B12 is synthesized by
cobalt. Its chemical formula bacteria in human intestine.
is C63H88CoN14O14P. [U.P.U.D.A./L.D.A. (Spl.)
[U.PPC. S. (Pre) 2001, (Mains) 2010]
U.PP.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains)
2004, U.PPC. S. (Mains)
2006]
[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]

Diseases caused by Protozoa:

 Diarrhea: The reason of this disease is the presence of internal protozoa namely Entamoeba
histolytica which is spread through house flies. It causes wounds in the intestine. Protein
digesting enzyme, trypsin is destroyed in this. This disease is mostly found in children. Disease
caused by helminthes.
 Filaria: This disease is caused by Wuchereia baoncrofti. This worm is circulated by the stings
of culex mosquitoes. This disease causes swelling in legs, tests and other parts of the body. This
disease is also known as Elephantiasis.
 Pyrethrum is a natural botanical insecticide. It has potent insecticidal activity by targeting the
nervous systems of insects which affect the nervous system of mosquitoes and diverge
them.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009]Pyrethrins are a class of organic compounds normally derived
from Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium, a seed plant that has potent insecticidal activity by
targeting the nervous system of insects.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2005]
 The chief mosquito repellent is obtained from neem. Neem has medicinal quality, medicines
are prepared by its seeds and leaves.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2004]

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Page. 171
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Diseases caused by Fungus:

 Asthma: The spores of the fungi, namely Aspergillus fumigates reaches the lungs of the human
and constitutes a net like formation, thus, obstructs the function of lungs. This is an infections
disease.
 Athlete’s foot: This disease is caused by the fungi namely Tenia Pedes. This is an infections
disease of skin which spreads mainly due to the cracking of feet.
 Scabies: This disease is caused by the fungi namely Acarus scabies. In this disease the skin
itches and white spots found on the skin.
 Baldness: This is caused by the fungi namely Taenia capitis. Due to this hair of the head
falls.[U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]
 Ringworm: This disease spreads through the fungi namely Trycophytom Lerucosum. This is
an infections disease. Round red spot found on the skin.

om
Some Other Diseases:
 Paralysis or Hemiplegia: In this disease within a few minutes half of the body is paralyzed.

l.c
The nerves of the paralyzed part become inactive. The reason of this disease is due to high blood
ai
pressure bursting of any nerve of brain or insufficient supply of blood to brain.
 Allergy: Some substance like sand, smoke, chemical, clothes, cold are dangerous to some
gm

persons and there are reactions in their body, which causes various diseases. Itching, pimples,
swelling in body, black spot, eczema etc. are the examples of allergy.
 Schizophrenia: This is a mental disease which usually found in youth. The patient considers
07

the imagination as a truth, not to the facts. These patients are lazy, emotionless etc. Electropathy
is helpful in this disease.
03

 Epilepsy: This disease is caused by the internal disturbance of brain. In this disease, saliva or
foam coming out of the mouth and the patient falls down unconscious.
ar

 Diplopia: This disease is caused by the paralysis of muscles of the eyes, in which double image
m

is formed.
 Bronchitis: It is caused by the inflammation of tubes leading from the wind pipe to lungs.
to

 Colds: This is highly infectious disease and is caused by a virus which result in bad throat,
av

headache and watery nose.

 Colic: Severe pain in the abdomen caused by spasm of the internal organs usually the intestines.
ur

 Delirium: It is a serious mental disturbance occurring under the influence of poisonous drugs.
 Hydrophobia: A disease cause by bite of a mad dog.
ga

 Hyper metropia (long sightedness): One can see the object of longer distance but not the
object of nearer one. It can be corrected by convex lens.
 Myopia (short sightedness): In this disease person can see the object of nearer distance but
can not see the object of longer distance. It is corrected by using concave lens.
 Leukemia: There is a great increase in the number of white blood corpuscles in system.
Swelling of spleen takes place. Death occur within few days.
 Migraine: An allergic disease in which there is a periodic attack of headache takes place. It in
an incurable disease.
 Obesity: Excessive fatness is called obesity.

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Page. 172
 Science Common GS
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 Piles: There are a various vein in the rectum. Due to extra pressure on vein it prevent the free
flow of blood creating problem. It is caused due to constipation.
 Rheumatism: The symptom of this disease is fever with joints pain.
 Arthritis is caused by deposition of uric acid crystals (monosodium urate) in joints and fluids
within the body. Gout is a painful form of arthritis. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009, 2013]
 Bubble Baby Disease (severe combined immunodeficiency: SCID) is a rare genetic disorder
characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by
numerous genetic mutations. There are several forms of SCID. The famous ‘Bubble Baby
Disease’ is named so as the suffering baby is treated in a germ-free plastic bubble.
 A colour blind man marries with a normal woman, they produce normal sons and heterozygous
(carrier) normal daughter. If a carrier daughter is then married to a normal husband, about
50% of their sons and daughters will inherit the recessive gene of colour blindness. The sons
inheriting this gene will be colour blind and the daughters will be carriers. The remaining
50% sons and daughters will be normal.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009]
 Blue baby syndrome is an illness that begins when a large amount of nitrates in water (or food)
are ingested by an infant and converted to nitrite by the digestive system The nitrite then
reacts with oxyhaemoglobin to form methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen.[U.P.
P.C.S. (Pre) 2021]
 Mercury - Minamata disease
 Cadmium - Itai-Itai disease
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2017],[U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2004, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2008][U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2008]
 In older persons (60 years and beyond) the eye lenses become opaque reducing visibility.
Cataract can be nuclear (central portion opacity) or cortical (peripheral opacity). Cataract is
corrected by
removing of the opaque lens and wearing special spectacles,
replacing the opaque lens with artificial intraocular lens, and
laser treatment of opacity. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]

Other Disease:
 Atherosclerosis: Deposition of cholesterol particles in the lumen of arteries which prevent the
flow of blood is called atherosclerosis.
 Arteriosclerosis: Due to deposition of cholesterol and calcium salt arteries became stiff and
rigid. It loses the property of elasticity due to which wall of arteries may rap fun.
 Uremia: Presence of excess of urea in blood is called uremia, This is caused by malfunctioning
of kidney.
 Glycosuria: Presence of excess of glucose urine is known as glycosuria.
 Arthritis: It is disease in which inflammation of joints takes place.
 Osteoporosis: It is an age dependent disorder of bone in which low bone mass and increased
fragility takes place.
 Hyperglycemia: It is disorder in which the concentration of glucose in the blood is high.
 Hypoglycemia: It is a condition in which the concentration of glucose in the blood is very low.
 Pneumonia: Acute inflammation of alveoli of lung.

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Page. 173
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 Emphysema: It is the abnormal distension of alveoli which result in the loss of elasticity.
Cigarette smoke and chronic bronchitis are two main causes.
 Liver cirrhosis is a serious condition where normal liver tissues are replaced by scar tissues
(fibrosis). It is caused by the excessive use of alcoholic beverage. It tends to progress slowly
and often does not cause symptoms in its early stage. However, as the function of the liver
gradually becomes worse, serious problems can develop. [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2008]
 Oral submucous fibrosis is a chronic debilitating disease of the oral cavity characterized by
inflammation and progressive fibrosis of the submucosal tissues. Oral submucous fibrosis
is a premalignant condition caused mainly due to chewing of betel quid or areca nuts. Gutka
is a manufactured version of betel quid.[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014]

IMPORTANT MEDICAL TESTS

It is a kind of medical procedure performed to detect, diagnose, or monitor diseases, disease processes,
susceptibility, and determine a course of treatment. Immunological Tests and Diseases
Test Disease
Diagnostics Ames Test Carcinogenicity
It is a procedure performed to confirm, or determine the Dick Test Scarlet Fever
presence of disease in an individual suspected of having Montoux Test Tuberculosis
the disease, usually following the report of symptoms, or Rose-Waaler Test Rheumatoid Fever
based on the results of other medical tests. This includes
Wassermann Test Syphilis
posthumous diagnosis. Such tests include:
Widal Test Typhoid
 Utilizing nuclear medicine techniques to examine
Wayson Stain Test Plague
a patient having a lymphoma.
Tourniquet Test Dengue Fever
 Measuring the blood sugar in a person suspected
of having diabetes mellitus, after periods of ELISA Test AIDS
increased urination. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre)
 Taking a complete blood count of an individual 2007, U.P. Lower
experiencing a high fever, to check for a bacterial Sub. (Pre) 2004]
infection. The Montoux tuberculosis
 Monitoring electrocardiogram readings on a Tuberculin Skin infection[U.P.
patient suffering chest pain, to diagnose or Test (TST) Lower Sub. (Mains)
determine any heart irregularities. 2015]
 EEG - Electroencephalography is a process
related to the brain in which the electrical activities of the brain are recorded.
 ECG - Electrocardiography is the process of the recording of heart’s electrical activities.
 EOG - Electrooculography is the technique of measuring the resting power of retina.
 EMG - Electromyography is a test in which the veins of muscles are checked.
 Audiogram - Ear & Mammogram - Breast
[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2009][U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2014] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]
o BMD (Bone Mineral Density) test is used for the diagnosis of osteoporosis. It is a disease
of bones in which the chances of fracture increases. In this disease, the bone mineral density
decreases and bone microstructure is destroyed. A BMD test measures how much calcium
and other types of minerals are in an area of the bone. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2011],[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2014, 2015]

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Page. 174
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

Imaging
o These tests provide a picture of the inside of the body - in its entirety or only of certain parts.
Ordinary x-rays are the most common imaging tests. Others include ultrasonography,
radioisotope (nuclear) scanning, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), and angiography.
o MRI is a non-invasive medical test that physicians use to diagnose and treat medical
conditions. It uses a powerful magnetic field, radio frequency pulses, and a computer to
produce detailed pictures of organs, soft tissues, bone and all other internal body structures
visually. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is based on the phenomenon of nuclear
magnetic resonance.
o [U.P.P.C.S. (Spl.) (Mains) 2008][U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2012]

om
Endoscopy
A viewing tube (endoscope) is used to directly observe the inside of body organs or spaces (cavities).
Most often, a flexible endoscope is used, but in some cases, a rigid one is more useful. The tip of the

l.c
endoscope is usually equipped with a light and a camera, so the examiner watches the images on a
television monitor rather than looking directly through the endoscope. Tools are often passed through
ai
a channel in the endoscope. One type of tool is used to cut and remove tissue samples. Endoscopes.
They are based on the principle of total internal reflection within a fibre optic bundle of
gm

fibers.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2010, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009, U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Mains) 2008][U.P. Lower
Sub. (Pre) 2009]
07

Biopsy
03

Tissue samples are removed and examined, usually with a microscope. The examination often focuses
on finding abnormal cells that may provide evidence of inflammation or of a disorder, such as cancer.
ar

Tissues that are commonly examined include skin, breast, lung, liver, kidney, and bone.
m

Cytotron is the device by which artificial climate is produced. Cytotron is also the trade name given to
to

a device that uses rotational field quantum nuclear magnetic resonance (RFQMR) which has been
developed by the Centre for Advanced Research and Development (CARD), a division of Scalene
av

Cybernetics in Bengaluru. It is a new device used in regenerative and degenerative tissue engineering
and repairing. The cytotron is now being used for treating diseases like osteoarthritis and cancer.[U.P.
ur

P.C.S. (Mains) 2016]

ga

Genetic Testing
Usually, cells from skin, blood, or bone marrow are analyzed. Cells are examined to check for
abnormalities of chromosomes, genes (including DNA), or both. Genetic testing may be done in the
following:
 Fetuses: To determine whether they have a genetic disorder
 Children and young adults: To determine whether they have a disorder or are at risk of
developing a disorder
 Adults: Sometimes to help determine the likelihood that their relatives, such as children or
grandchildren, will develop certain disorders
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2006]

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Radiologic tests
In which, for example, x-rays are used to form an image of a body target.
In vivo diagnostics which test in the body, such as: Manometry(Esophageal inflamation)
In vitro diagnostics which test a sample of tissue or bodily fluids. It can be classified according to the
location of the sample being tested, including: Blood tests, Urine tests, Stool tests, Sputum (phlegm).

Some Viral Diseases in Animals

Some Bacterial Diseases in Animals

Types and Forms of Medicine

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l.c
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gm

BOTANY
07

Botany, also called plant science(s) or plant biology, is science of plant life and a branch of biology.
03

Classification of Plants
While there are many ways to structure plant classification, one
ar

way is to group them into vascular and non-vascular plants, seed

m

bearing and spore bearing, and angiosperms and gymnosperms.

Plants can also be classified as grasses, herbaceous plants, woody
to

shrubs, and trees.

 Vascular: plants that use roots and stems to take in water
av

and nutrients
 Non-vascular: plants that don’t use roots and stems
ur

 Angiosperms: also known as flowering plants; all have

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seeds that are protected by an ovule (think of an apple or

other fruit).
 Gymnosperms: a term meaning “naked seed;” refers to
plants with seeds that aren’t protected by an ovule.
Examples are conifers, which have pinecones.
 Grasses: plants that have slender leaves and reproduce
by sending out underground stems called rhizomes that usually grow horizontally
 Herbaceous plants: those with leaves and stems that die at the end of the growing season
 Woody shrubs: plants that have stems that are covered by a layer of bark
 Trees: woody shrubs that have a main trunk and many branches

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Plant Morphology or Phytomorphology

 It is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants.
 It is useful in the visual identification of plants.
 The concept was put in circulation by the author Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in the early
1800s.
 Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for study of the internal structure of plants.

Morphology of Flowering Plants

 The flowering plants, also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse
group of land plants, with about 350,000 species.
 Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants. Their reproductive structures are flowers in
which the ovules are enclosed in an ovary.
 Adaptation: Any alteration in the structure or function of an organism or any of its part that
results from natural selection and by which the organism becomes better fitted to survive and
multiply in its environment.

Root System (Root)

The root is underground part of the plant and develops from elongation of radicle of the embryo.
Functions of root are:
 Absorption of water and mineral from soil
 Anchorage of the plant body
 Storing reserve food material.
 Synthesis of plant growth regulators.

Various types of root

1. Tap root
 Originated from the radicle.
 Persistent in dicot plant. E.g. gram, pea, mango
2. Fibrous root
 Originates from the base of the stem.
 Large number of roots replaces the primary root.
 This type of root found in monocot plant.
 E.g. wheat, paddy, grass.
3. Adventitious root
 Roots developed from any part of the plant other than radicle.
 Found in grass, Monstera and the banyan tree.

Regions of root
 Root Cap : The root is covered at the apex by the thimble-like structure which protects the
tender apical part.
 Region of meristematic activity : Cells of this region have the capability to divide. The cells
of this region are very small, thin-walled and with dense protoplasm.

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 Region of elongation : Cells of this region are elongated and enlarged.

 Region of Maturation : This region has differentiated into matured cells. Some of the epidermal cells
of this region form thread-like root hairs, which absorbs water and minerals from the soil.[U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2007]

Modifications of Root
Roots are modified for support, storage of food, respiration.
 For support : Prop roots in banyan tree, stilt roots in maize and sugarcane.
 For respiration: pneumatophores in Rhizophora (Mangrove).
 For storage of food: Fusiform (radish), Napiform (turnip), Conical (carrot), Sweet Potato. [U.P.P.C.S.
(Mains) 2005] [U.P. U.D.A./L.D.A. (Mains) 2010]

Shoot System (Stem)

 Stem is the aerial part of the plant and develops from plumule of the embryo.
 It bears nodes and internodes.
 Bears bud, may be axillary or terminal
 Main function is to spreading branches bearing leaves, flower and fruits.

Types of Stem
1. Underground stem
 Stems of some plants remain in the ground and serve the function of perennation and storage of
food. They produce aerial shoots annually.
 They resemble roots superficially but are distinguishable by the presence of scale leaves and buds
at nodes. Such stem also act as a means of vegetative propagation. The modified underground stems
are the following
o Tuber : e.g. Potato [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011]
o Rhizome : e.g. Ginger [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
o Corm : e.g. Saffron
o Bulb : e.g. Onion
o Sub – aerial stems
 Lower buds of the stem in some plants grow out into short, lateral branches. These are named
according to their origin, nature and mode of reproduction.
o Runner : e.g. Doob grass
o Stolon : e.g. Jasmine
o Offset : e.g. Pistia
o Sucker : e.g. Mentha
2. Aerial stems: These modified aerial stems perform unusual functions. Different forms of these stems
are the following
 Stem tendril : e.g. Passiflora
 Stem thorn : e.g. Duranta
 Pylloclade : e.g. Opuntia
 Cladode : e.g. Asparagus
 Bulbil : e.g. Dioscorea
3. Subaerial Stem: The stem, which partial remains inside the soil and partial above (i.e. in the air),
is known as subaerial stem. E.g. Cynodon

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Modifications of Stem
 For food storage: Rhizome (ginger), Tuber (potato), Bulb (onion), Corm and Colocasia).
 For support: Stem tendrils of watermelon, grapevine, and cucumber.
 For protection: Axillary buds of stem of citrus, Bougainvillea get modified into pointed thorns.
They protect the plants from animals.
 For vegetative propagation: Underground stems of grass, strawberry, lateral branches of mint
and jasmine.
 For assimilation of food: Flattened stem of opuntia contains chlorophyll and performs
photosynthesis.

Leaf
 Leaves, usually, are thin and flattened organs, borne above ground.

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 There are varieties of leaves in terms of shapes, sizes, and textures. Likewise, different species
of plants have different shapes, sizes, and textures of leaves.

l.c
 Some varieties of leaves are thick and juicy (especially of succulent plants).
 Leaves are usually of green color because of the presence of chloroplast.
ai
 However, some show plants have colorful leaves –
gm

 Succulent plants often have thick juicy leaves, but some leaves are without major photosynthetic
function and may be dead at maturity, as in some cataphylls and spines.
07

Functions of Leaves
 Leaves prepare food through photosynthesis.
03

 Leaves are the most important parts through which plants respire.
 Some leaves also store foods for the contingency period.
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 Leaves assist in reproduction and pollination.

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 Some leaves (especially of succulents plants), store chemical energy and water.
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Modified Leaves
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To survive in an adverse environment, some of the plant species (especially leaves) modified
themselves. Following are the list of such leaves −
ur

 Spine leaves − Such leaves are look like spines, e.g. cactus plants.
 Bract leaves − Also known as pseudanthia (or false flowers), they are colorful leaves.
ga

 Succulent leaves − These leaves store water and organic acids.

 Tendril leaves − Such leaves take the form of tendril and support plant to climb, e.g. pea plants.
 Scaly leaves − Some leaves modify themselves to protect buds known as scaly leaves, e.g.
onion, garlic, etc. (see image below).
 Hook leaves − Such leaves modified as nails known as hook leaves, e.g. Bignonia.
 Pitcher leaves − Such leaves trap insects, e.g. pitcher plant. This is known as carnivorous plant

Flower
 Atypical flower has four different kinds of whorls arranged successively on the swollen end of
the stalk or pedicel called thalamus or receptacle.
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Page. 181
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 The four whorls are Calyx, corolla, Androecium and Gynoecium.

 Calyx and corolla are accessory organs.
 Androecium and Gynoecium are reproductive organs.
 In flower like lily, the calyx and corolla are indistinct and are called perianth.
 Bisexual: flower having both Androecium and Gynoecium.
 Unisexual: flower having either stamens or carpel.

Pattern of flower
 A flower may be trimerous, tetramerous or pentamerous when the floral appendages are in
multiple of 3, 4 or 5 respectively.
 Reduced leaf found at the base of the pedicel are called bract.
 Flowers which bears bract are said to be bracteates.
 Flowers without bract are said to be ebracteate.

Parts of a flower
1. Calyx
 It is the outermost whorl
 Each member is called sepal.
 Sepals are green leaf like protect flower in bud stage.
 Gamosepalous: sepals are united.
 Polysepalous: sepals are free.
2. Corolla
 It is the second whorl of a flower.
 Each member called petal.
 Usually brightly colored to attract insect for
pollination.
 Polypetalous: petals are free.
 Gamopetalous: petals are united or fused.
 Valvate : sepals or petals in whorl just touch one another at margin, without overlapping.
E.g. Calotropis.
 Twisted : one margin of appendage overlaps that of next one and so on. E.g. China rose.
 Imbricate : the margin of sepals or petals overlap one another but not in any particular
direction as in Cassia and gulmohur.
 Vexillary : The large petal (standard) overlaps the two lateral petals (wings) which in turn
overlap the two smallest anterior petals (keel).
3. Androecium
 It is the male sex organ of the flower.
 Composed of stamens.
 Each stamen consists of a stalk or filament and an anther.
 Each anther is usually bilobed and each lobe has two chambers, pollen sac.
 Pollen grains are produced inside the pollen sacs.

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 A sterile stamen is called staminode.

 Epipetalous: stamens attached to the petals. E.g. brinjal.
 Epiphyllous: stamens attached to the perianth. E.g. lily.
 Polyandrous: stamens are free.
 Monoadelphous: stamens united into one bunch or one bundle e.g. China rose.
 Diadelphous: stamens fused to form two bundles as in pea.
 Polyadelphous: stamens fused to form more than two bundles as in citrus.
4. Gynoecium
 It is the female reproductive part of the flower.
 Members are called carpel.
 Each carpel has three parts namely stigma, style and ovary.
 Ovary is the enlarged basal part on which lies the elongated tube, the style.
 The stigma usually at the tip of the style.
 Stigma is the receptive surface for pollen grain.
 Each ovary bears one or more ovules.
 Ovule attached to a flattened cushion-like placenta in the ovary.
 When more than one carpel is present they may be: Apocarpous: all carpels are free. E.g.
rose, lotus; Syncarpous: carpels fused. E.g. Tomato mustard.
 After fertilization: Ovules develop into seed ; Ovary developed into fruit.
 Marginal: Placenta forms a ridge along the ventral suture of ovary.
 Axile: Margins of carpels fuse to form central axis.
 Parietal: Ovules develop on inner wall of ovary.
 Free central: Ovules borne on central axis, lacking septa.
 Basal: Placenta develops at the base of ovary.
 Aestivation : It is the mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in the floral bud with respect
to the other members of the same whorl is known as aestivation.
 Placentation : It is the arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as Placentation.
 Cloves are the aromatic closed, dried floral buds, which is used in Ayurvedic medicines, making
food and as an anodyne for dental emergencies. The botanical name of clove tree is Syzygium
aromaticum (Eugenia caryophyllata) which belongs to Myrtaceae family. Cloves are native of
Indonesia and used as a spice in cuisines all over the world. The clove tree grows to a height
ranging from 10-20 metres, having large oval leaves.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre) 2002, U.P.
Lower Sub. (Spl.) (Pre) 2003] [U.P. P.C.S. (Pre) 2021] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2011] [U.P.P.C.S.
(Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015]
 Saffron is obtained from the gynoecium parts (stigma and styles) of the flower of Crocus sativus
which are seed forming parts of flower. [U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2002]

Fruit
1. It is the ripened or matured ovary after fertilization.
2. Parthenocarpic fruits developed from the ovary without fertilization.
3. Generally, fruits consist of a wall or pericarp and seeds.
4. Pericarp may be dry or fleshy.
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5. Pericarp differentiated into – Outer epicarp, Middle mesocarp., Inner endocarp.

6. Fruit developed from monocarpellary superior ovary and are one seeded. Such fruit is said to
be drupe as in mango and coconut.
 Edible part of the mango is mesocarp.
 Mesocarp of coconut is fibrous.

Types of Fruit
 Fruits can be eaten raw, frozen, stewed, cooked, or dried. All fruits may be classified into three
major groups: simple, aggregate, or multiple.
 Simple Fruits : one fruit that has developed from the ovary of a single flower. Simple fruits
may either be fleshy, like plums and peaches, or dry, such as walnuts and hazelnuts. e.g. apples,
pears, plums, tomatoes, peaches

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 Aggregate Fruits : a fruit formed from several ovaries of one flower that produces many tiny
fruits clustered tightly together. e.g. raspberries, blackberries, strawberries
 Multiple Fruits : a fruit formed from the fusion of the ovaries of many different flowers which

l.c
develop closely together to form one bigger fruit. e.g. pineapples, figs, breadfruit, mulberries
ai
Seed
gm

 After fertilization ovules developed into seed.

 A seed is made of seed coat and embryo.
07

 The embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal axis, and one or two cotyledons.
03

Photosynthesis
 It is the process by which plants, some bacteria, and some
ar

protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce sugar, which

cellular respiration converts into adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
m

the "fuel" used by all living things.

to

 The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts,

specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in
av

photosynthesis.
 The photosynthetic process uses water and releases the oxygen
ur

that we absolutely must have to stay alive.

ga

 The chemical reaction of photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O (+

light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2012]
 Plant hormones are naturally occurring special organic compounds found in plants. They
affect and control many metabolic activities after being transported to different parts of the
plants in very low quantity. Auxins, gibberellin, cytokinin, abscisic acid, and ethylene are
examples of the plant harmone.[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) (Re. Exam) 2015, U.P.P.C.S. (Mains)
2016]

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Page. 184
 Science Common GS
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BIOTECHNOLOGY

It is the use of plants, animals and micro-organisms to create new products or processes. It includes
using bacteria or enzymes to make industrial processes work more efficiently and create less pollution,
or to clean up the environment.
One kind of biotechnology is gene technology, sometimes called 'genetic engineering' or 'genetic
modification', where the genetic material of living things is deliberately altered to enhance or remove
a particular trait and allow the organism to perform new functions. Genes within a species can be
modified, or genes can be moved from one species to another.

Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture

Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).

Advantages of Genetic Modification in plants.

 Made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat)
 Reduce reliance on chemical pesticides (pest resistant crop)
 Helped to reduce post-harvest losses.
 Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants.
 Enhanced nutritional values of food e.g. vitamin A enriched rice.

Bt Cotton
 Some strains of Bacillus thuringiensis produce proteins that kill certain insects such as
lepidopterans (tobacco budworm, armyworm), coleopterans (beetles) and dipterans (flies,
mosquitoes).
 Bacillus thuringiensis forms protein crystals during a particular phase of their growth. These
crystals contain a toxic insecticidal protein.
 These proteins are present in inactive protoxin form, but become active toxin in the alkaline pH
of insect gut.
 The activated toxin binds to the surface of midgut epithelial cells and create pores that cause
cell swelling and lysis and eventually cause death of insect
 Specific Bt toxin genes were isolated form Bacillus thuringiensis and genetically transferred to
several plants such as cotton.
 Crystal proteins are produced by a gene called cry in Bacillus thuringiensis.
 The protein coded by genes cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton bollworms.
 The protein coded by gene cryIAb controls corn borer.

Pest resistant plants

 Several nematodes parasitize a wide variety of plants and animals including human beings.
 A nematode Meloidegyne incognitia infects the root of tobacco plants and causes a great
reduction in yield.
 Strategy based on RNA interference (RNAi) prevents this infestation.

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Page. 185
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 Process by which double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) directs sequence-specific degradation of

mRNA

Steps of RNA interference

 Double stranded RNA is produced endogenously or exogenously.
 Using Agrobacterium vectors nematode specific genes were introduced into the host plant
(tobacco plant).
 Introduction of DNA produces both sense and antisense RNA in the host.
 These two RNA’s being complementary to each other formed a double stranded (dsRNA) that
initiated RNAi.
 The dsRNA injected into the host plant from outside called exogenous dsRNA.
 The dsRNAs are cleaved into 21-23 nt segments (“small interfering RNAs”, or siRNAs) by an
enzyme called Dicer.
 siRNAs are incorporated into RNA induced silencing complex (RISC)
 Guided by base complementarity of the siRNA, the RISC targets mRNA for degradation.
 The consequence was that the parasite could not survive in a transgenic host.

Biotechnological Applications in Medicine

 Biotechnology enables mass production of safe and more effective therapeutic drugs.
 Recombinant therapeutics does not induce unwanted immunological responses as is common
in case of similar products isolated from non-human sources.

Genetically Engineered Insulin

 Taking insulin at regular interval of time is required for adult-onset diabetes.
 Previously the source of insulin was the slaughtered cattle and pigs. This insulin caused allergy
in some patients.
 Each insulin made of two short polypeptide chains; chain A and chain B that are linked together
by disulphide linkage.
 Insulin synthesized in pancreas as prohormone which is a single polypeptide with an extra
stretch called C-peptide.
 C-peptide is removed during matured insulin.
 In 1983 Eli Lilly, US company prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A and B, chains
of human insulin and introduced them in plasmids of E.coli to produce insulin chains.
 Chain A and chain B produced separately, extracted and combined by creating disulfide bonds
to form mature human insulin.

Gene therapy
 Gene therapy is an attempt to cure hereditary or genetic diseases.
 Genes are inserted into a person’s cells and tissue to treat the disease.
 The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4-yr old girl with adenosine deaminase
(ADA) deficiency.
 This enzyme is required for breakdown of deoxyadenosine into uric acids.

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 In the absence of ADA toxic deoxyadenosine is accumulated and destroy the infection fighting
immune cells called T-cells and B-cells.
 This disorder is caused due to deletion of gene for adenosine deaminase in chromosome 20.

Test tube baby

 A test tube baby is the term that refers to a child that is conceived outside the woman's body.
The process is referred to as "in vitro" (outside the body) fertilization.
 The World’s first test tube baby (girl) named as Louise Joy Brown was born on July 25, 1978
in Great Britain.
 India’s first test tube baby (girl) as named as Harsha was born in Mumbai on August 6, 1986.

om
Cloning
 Cloning describes the processes used to create an exact genetic replica of another cell, tissue or

l.c
organism. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as the original, is referred
to as a clone.
ai
 Dolly, a Sheep, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell by
Dr. Ian Wilmut, UK.
gm

 Noori is a female pashmina goat, the first pashmina goat to be cloned using the process of
nuclear transfer.
07

Three different types of cloning:

03

 Gene cloning, which creates copies of genes or segments of DNA

 Reproductive cloning, which creates copies of whole animals
ar

 Therapeutic cloning, which creates embryonic stem cells. Researchers hope to use these cells
to grow healthy tissue to replace injured or diseased tissues in the human body.
m

[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2003, U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2001]

to

[U.P.P.C.S. (Pre) 2000]

av
ur
ga

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Page. 187
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AGRICULTURE

 It is science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops.
 Agriculture is derived from Latin words ‘ager’ (field) and ‘cultura’ (cultivation).

Agronomy
It is the science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, fiber, and land reclamation.
It has come to encompass work in the areas of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil
science.[U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2015]

Agricultural Seasons in India

1. Kharif Season
 Crops are sown at the beginning of southwest monsoon and harvested at the end of the
south-west monsoon.
 Sowing Season: May to July.
 Harvesting Season : September to October.
 Important Crops: Jowar, Bajra, Rice, Maize, Cotton, Groundnut, Jute, Hemp, Tobacco etc.
2. Rabi Season
 Crops need cool climate during growth period but warm climate during the germination of
seed and maturation.
 Sowing Season: October to December
 Harvesting Season: February to April
 Important Crops: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Linseed, Mustard, Masoor & Peas.
3. Zaid Season: These Crops are raised throughout the year due to artificial irrigation.
 Zaid Kharif Crops
o Sowing Season: August to September
o Harvesting Season: December-January
o Important Crops: Rice, Jowar, Rapeseed, Cotton, Oilseeds.
 Zaid Rabi Crops
o Sowing Season: February to March.
o Harvesting Season: April-May.
o Important Crops: Watermelon, Toris, Cucumber & other vegetables.

Farming Systems In India

1. Irrigation Farming: An irrigation farming system relies on help from an irrigation system
supplying water from a river, reservoir, tank, or well. As India grows and there is an increasing
demand for food, water is becoming more and more crucial. Farming methods should be
focused on sustaining or recycling water.
2. Shifting Cultivation: Shifting cultivation systems cultivate one plot of land for a period of
years until the soil becomes infertile. As crop yield decreases, the plot is deserted and the ground
is re-fertilized using the slash and burn technique. This method is popular in the northeast and
the east coast of the country, and is used to cultivate rain-fed rice, corn, buckwheat, millet, root
crops, and vegetables. However, as the population increases, more land is being used up without

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 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

enough time to regenerate the natural condition of the soil. This has led to severe soil
degradation in many areas.
3. Commercial Agriculture: Commercial agriculture systems involve largescale plantations,
such as those used for wheat, cotton, sugarcane, tea, rubber, and corn. The yields are exported
to other countries for a profit. There are three types of commercial agriculture systems:
 Intensive commercial farming: With small landholdings and a high population, many
farms use a lot of manpower on a relatively small piece of land.
 Extensive commercial farming: This is the opposite of intensive commercial farming. A
small workforce is applied to a large piece of land. Cultivation depends on mechanical
methods.
 Plantation agriculture: A plantation is a large piece of land with an estate (typically in
subtropical or tropical countries) where crops are cultivated and then sold internationally as
opposed to locally.
4. Hay Farming
 This type of farming is used to restore soil fertility in India’s drylands. A plot of land is used
for grain or other crops and when the soil starts to degrade, the land is left uncultivated.
 It is used to grow hay or as a pasture for grazing animals. After a number of years, it can be
used for crops again as the nutrients are restored by ploughing. Land erosion during the ley
period is also prevented by the roots of the grass.
5. Plantation Farming: As mentioned before, this is the large-scale cultivation of one crop on an
estate or vast property. This system is designed to make a profit and as such requires that all
technology and techniques be efficient. Tea, coffee, and rubber are all commonly-grown on
plantation farms. Teak wood, bamboo, and timber are also occasionally farmed using this
method.
 Caffeine is a naturally occurring compound found in the leaves and fruits of certain plants.
It is found in coffee, tea, cocoa, cola, soft drinks. As a stimulant, caffeine acts on the brain
and nervous system. In small doses, it can make anyone feel refreshed and focused. While
in large doses, it can make to feel anxious and have difficulty in sleeping.[U.P. P.C.S. (Pre)
2016][U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2017]
6. Crop Rotation: This system is a type of subsistence farming. Usually, there are one or more
farmers responsible for the labour and the produce is for their own consumption. A crop rotation
schedule includes different varieties of crops such as wheat, barley, mustard, or millet being
grown during alternating seasons. The benefits are that weeds, pests, and diseases are controlled,
while soil fertility is maintained. Main Crops for Rotations
 One yearly : paddy and wheat
 Two yearly : maize and cotton
 Three yearly : Tomato and Lady’s finger
 Four yearly : Cotton and wheat

Some important Plant Diseases:

 Powdery mildew is related with wheat, grape, barley, onion, apple and pea etc. not with
sugarcane.

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Page. 189
 Science Common GS
Notes Code 1.6

 Green hair disease is found in bajra. The symptom of green hair disease is the hairs of bajra
become twisted. Green leaves and the hairs of bajra seem like a broom, as a result the plants
remains dwarf.
 ‘Zn’ (Zinc) is a micronutrient element which is required in little quantity by plants. Due to
deficiency of Zn, chlorosis occurs in maize plants in which leaves of plants are undeveloped
and plants become dwarf. The tip of maize leaves get white and they are mottled and yellow
because of Zn deficiency.
 Karnal Bunt is a fungal disease caused by the smut fungus Tilletia indica. It affects the
quality of wheat. It was first reported in 1931, infecting wheat growing near the city of
Kamal, Haryana.
 Tungro is a disease of rice found in South-East Asia. The cause of disease are two group of
virus :
o RTSV : Rice Tungro Spherical Virus

om
o RTBV : Rice Tungro Bacilliform Virus
o Both are transmitted together by green leafhoppers.

l.c
 Blackheart is an abiotic disease which is caused due to low availability of oxygen during
storage of potato.
ai
 Yellow vein mosaic disease in okra is a viral disease. Whitefiy is a factor of this virus.
gm

 The spongy tissue, a ripening disorder is often described as soft centre white corky tissue or
internal breakdown in Alphonso mangoes. This disorder is peculiar to South India only.
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2002] [U.P. P.C.S. (Mains) 2016] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2002]
07

[U.P.P.C.S. (Spl) (Pre) 2008] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009],[U.P. R.O./A.R.O. (Pre) 2016]
[U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2010] [U.P. Lower Sub. (Pre) 2015] [U.P.P.C.S. (Mains) 2009]
03
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