Contents:

 Introduction to Nuclear Reaction

 Classification of Nuclear Reaction
 Nuclear Fission
 History
 Fission Process
 Induced Fission
 Spontaneous Fission
 Stages of Fission
 Applications of Nuclear Reaction
Introduction to Nuclear Reactions:

A nuclear reaction is a process in which the nucleus of an atom changes, resulting in the
transformation of elements and the release or absorption of energy. Unlike chemical reactions,
which involve the rearrangement of electrons in atoms, nuclear reactions involve changes in the
nucleus and often produce far more energy.

Basic Characteristics of Nuclear Reactions

 Nuclei change: Atoms transform into different elements or isotopes.

 Energy release or absorption: Due to changes in nuclear binding energy.

 Mass-energy equivalence: A small mass difference between reactants and products

becomes energy, following E=mc2E = mc^2E=mc2.

 Nuclear force: The strong force governs interactions inside the nucleus and is much
stronger than electromagnetic or gravitational forces.

Classification of Nuclear Reaction:

Classification of nuclear reaction has been following ways.

Nuclear Fission:

Nuclear fission, subdivision of a heavy atomic nucleus, such as that of uranium or plutonium,
into two fragments of roughly equal mass. The process is accompanied by the release of a large
amount of energy.
In nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom breaks up into two lighter nuclei. The process may take
place spontaneously in some cases or may be induced by the excitation of the nucleus with a
variety of particles (e.g., neutrons, protons, deuterons, or alpha particles) or with electromagnetic
radiation in the form of gamma rays. In the fission process, a large quantity of energy is released,
radioactive products are formed, and several neutrons are emitted. These neutrons can induce
fission in a nearby nucleus of fissionable material and release more neutrons that can repeat the
sequence, causing a chain reaction in which a large number of nuclei undergo fission and an
enormous amount of energy is released. If controlled in a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction
can provide power for society’s benefit. If uncontrolled, as in the case of the so-called atomic
bomb, it can lead to an explosion of awesome destructive force.

The discovery of nuclear fission has opened a new era—the “Atomic Age.” The potential of
nuclear fission for good or evil and the risk/benefit ratio of its applications have not only
provided the basis of many sociological, political, economic, and scientific advances but grave
concerns as well. Even from a purely scientific perspective, the process of nuclear fission has
given rise to many puzzles and complexities, and a complete theoretical explanation is still not at
hand.

History of fission research and technology

The term fission was first used by the German physicists Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch in 1939 to
describe the disintegration of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of approximately equal size.
The conclusion that such an unusual nuclear reaction can in fact occur was the culmination of a
truly dramatic episode in the history of science, and it set in motion an extremely intense and
productive period of investigation.

The story of the discovery of nuclear fission actually began with the discovery of the neutron in
1932 by James Chadwick in England. Shortly thereafter Enrico Fermi and his associates in Italy
undertook an extensive investigation of the nuclear reactions produced by the bombardment of
various elements with this uncharged particle. In particular, these workers observed (1934) that
at least four different radioactive species resulted from the bombardment of uranium with slow
neutrons. These newly discovered species emitted beta particles and were thought to be isotopes
of unstable “transuranium elements” of atomic numbers 93, 94, and perhaps higher. There was,
of course, intense interest in examining the properties of these elements, and many radiochemists
participated in the studies. The results of these investigations, however, were extremely
perplexing, and confusion persisted until 1939 when Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann in Germany, following a clue provided by Irène Joliot-Curie and Pavle Savić in
France (1938), proved definitely that the so-called transuranic elements were in fact
radioisotopes of barium, lanthanum, and other elements in the middle of the periodic table.

In 1939, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Hans von Halban, and Lew Kowarski found that several neutrons
were emitted in the fission of uranium-235, and this discovery led to the possibility of a self-
sustaining chain reaction. Fermi and his coworkers recognized the enormous potential of such a
reaction if it could be controlled. On Dec. 2, 1942, they succeeded in doing so, operating the
world’s first nuclear reactor. Known as a “pile,” this device consisted of an array of uranium
and graphite blocks and was built on the campus of the University of Chicago.

Fundamentals of the fission process:

Structure and stability of nuclear matter

The fission process may be best understood through a consideration of the structure and stability
of nuclear matter. Nuclei consist of nucleons (neutrons and protons), the total number of which is
equal to the mass number of the nucleus. The actual mass of a nucleus is always less than the
sum of the masses of the free neutrons and protons that constitute it, the difference being the
mass equivalent of the energy of formation of the nucleus from its constituents. The conversion
of mass to energy follows Einstein’s equation, E = mc2, where E is the energy equivalent of a
mass, m, and c is the velocity of light. This difference is known as the mass defect and is a
measure of the total binding energy (and, hence, the stability) of the nucleus. This binding energy
is released during the formation of a nucleus from its constituent nucleons and would have to be
supplied to the nucleus to decompose it into its individual nucleon components.
The average binding energy per nucleon as a function of the mass number A.

A curve illustrating the average binding energy per nucleon as a function of the nuclear mass
number is shown in Figure 1. The largest binding energy (highest stability) occurs near mass
number 56—the mass region of the element iron. Figure 1 indicates that any nucleus heavier than
mass number 56 would become a more stable system by breaking into lighter nuclei of higher
binding energy, the difference in binding energy being released in the process. (It should be
noted that nuclei lighter than mass number 56 can gain in stability by fusing to produce a heavier
nucleus of greater mass defect—again, with the release of the energy equivalent of the mass
difference. It is the fusion of the lightest nuclei that provides the energy released by the Sun
and constitutes the basis of the hydrogen, or fusion, bomb. Efforts to harness fusion reaction
for power production have been actively pursued.

Potential energy as a function of elongation of a fissioning nucleus

The potential energy as a function of elongation of a fissioning nucleus. G is the ground state of
the nucleus; B is the top of the barrier to fission (called the saddle point); and S is the scission
point. The nuclear shape at these points is shown at the top. If the nucleus is excited by some
stimulus and begins to oscillate (i.e., deform from its spherical shape), the surface forces will
increase and tend to restore it to a sphere, where the surface tension is at a minimum. On the
other hand, the Coulomb repulsion decreases as the drop deforms and the protons are positioned
farther apart. These opposing tendencies set up a barrier in the potential energy of the system.

The curve in rises initially with elongation, since the strong, short-range nuclear force that gives
rise to the surface tension increases. The Coulomb repulsion between protons decreases faster
with elongation than the surface tension increases, and the two are in balance at point B, which
represents the height of the barrier to fission. (This point is called the “saddle point” because, in
a three-dimensional view of the potential energy surface, the shape of the pass over the barrier
resembles a saddle.) Beyond point B, the Coulomb repulsion between the protons drives the
nucleus into further elongation until at some point, S (the scission point), the nucleus breaks in
two. Qualitatively, at least, the fission process is thus seen to be a consequence of the Coulomb
repulsion between protons. Further discussion of the potential energy in fission is provided
below.

Induced fission

The height and shape of the fission barrier are dependent on the particular nucleus being
considered. Fission can be induced by exciting the nucleus to an energy equal to or greater than
that of the barrier. This can be done by gamma-ray excitation (photofission) or through excitation
of the nucleus by the capture of a neutron, proton, or other particle (particle-induced fission). The
binding energy of a particular nucleon to a nucleus will depend on—in addition to the factors
considered above—the odd–even character of the nucleus.

Most nuclei that are fissionable with slow neutrons contain an odd number of neutrons (e.g.,
uranium-233, uranium-235, or plutonium-239), whereas most of those requiring fast neutrons
(e.g., thorium-232 or uranium-238) have an even number. The addition of a neutron in the former
case liberates sufficient binding energy to induce fission. In the latter case, the binding energy is
less and may be insufficient to surmount the barrier and induce fission. Additional energy must
then be supplied in the form of the kinetic energy of the incident neutron. (In the case of
thorium-232 or uranium-238, a neutron having about 1 MeV of kinetic energy is required.)

Spontaneous fission
The laws of quantum mechanics deal with the probability of a system such as a nucleus or
an atom being in any of its possible states or configurations at any given time. A fissionable
system (uranium-238, for example) in its ground state (i.e., at its lowest excitation energy and
with an elongation small enough that it is confined inside the fission barrier) has a small but
finite probability of being in the energetically favoured configuration of two fission fragments.

In effect, when this occurs, the system has penetrated the barrier by the process
of quantum mechanical tunneling. This process is called spontaneous fission because it does not
involve any outside influences. In the case of uranium-238, the process has a very low
probability, requiring more than 1015 years for half of the material to be transformed (its so-called
half-life) by this reaction. On the other hand, the probability for spontaneous fission increases
dramatically for the heaviest nuclides known and becomes the dominant mode of decay for some
—those having half-lives of only fractions of a second. In fact, spontaneous fission becomes
the limiting factor that may prevent the formation of still heavier (super-heavy) nuclei.

The stages of fission

Sequence of events in the fission of a uranium nucleus by a neutron.

The phenomenology of fission

When a heavy nucleus undergoes fission, a variety of fragment pairs may be formed, depending
on the distribution of neutrons and protons between the fragments. This leads to probability
distribution of both mass and nuclear charge for the fragments. The probability of formation of a
particular fragment is called its fission yield and is expressed as the percentage of fissions
leading to it. The separated fragments experience a large Coulomb repulsion due to their nuclear
charges, and they recoil from each other with kinetic energies determined by the fragment
charges and the distance between the charge centres at the time of scission. Variations in
these parameters lead to a distribution of kinetic energies, even for the same mass split.

The initial velocities of the recoiling fragments are too fast for the outer (atomic) electrons of the
fissioning atom to keep pace, and many of them are stripped away. Thus, the nuclear charge of
the fragment is not fully neutralized by the atomic electrons, and the fission fragments fly apart
as highly charged atoms. As the nucleus of the fragment adjusts from its deformed shape to a
more stable configuration, the deformation energy (i.e., the energy required to deform it) is
recovered and converted into internal excitation energy, and neutrons and prompt gamma rays
(an energetic form of electromagnetic radiation given off nearly coincident with the fission
event) may be evaporated from the moving fragment.
Fission fragment mass distributions

Mass distribution dependence on the energy excitation in the fission of uranium-235:

Mass distribution dependence on the energy excitation in the fission of uranium-235. At still
higher energies, the curve becomes single-humped, with a maximum yield for symmetric mass
split. The distribution of the fragment masses formed in fission is one of the most striking
features of the process. It is dependent on the mass of the fissioning nucleus and the excitation
energy at which the fission occurs. At low excitation energy, the fission of such nuclides
as uranium-235 or plutonium-239 is asymmetric; i.e., the fragments are formed in a two-humped
probability (or yield) distribution favouring an unequal division in mass. This is illustrated in
Figure 4. As will be noted, the light group of fragment masses shifts to higher mass numbers as
the mass of the fissioning nucleus increases, whereas the position of the heavy group remains
nearly stationary. As the excitation energy of the fission increases, the probability for a
symmetric mass split increase, while that for asymmetric division decreases. Thus, the valley
between the two peaks increases in probability (yield of formation), and at high excitations the
mass distribution becomes single-humped, with the maximum yield at symmetry.

Fission decay chains and charge distribution

In order to maintain stability, the neutron-to-proton (n/p) ratio in nuclei must increase with
increasing proton number. The ratio remains at unity up to the element calcium, with 20 protons.
It then gradually increases until it reaches a value of about 1.5 for the heaviest elements. When a
heavy nucleus fission, a few neutrons are emitted; however, this still leaves too high an n/p ratio
in the fission fragments to be consistent with stability for them. They undergo radioactive
decay and reach stability by successive conversions of neutrons to protons with the emission of
a negative electron (called a beta particle, β-) and an antineutrino.

For a typical mass split in the neutron-induced fission of uranium-235, the complementary
fission-product masses of 93 and 141 may be formed following the emission of two neutrons
from the initial fragments. The division of charge (i.e., protons) between the fragments represents
an important parameter in the fission process. Thus, for the mass numbers 93 and 141, the
following isobaric fission-product decay chains would be formed.

(The left subscript on the element symbol denotes Z, while the superscript denotes A.) The 92
protons of the uranium nucleus must be conserved, and complementary fission-product pairs—
such as krypton-36 with barium-56, rubidium-37 with cesium-55, or strontium-38 with xenon-54
—would be possible.

The percentage of fissions in which a particular nuclide is formed as a primary fission

product (i.e., as the direct descendant of an initial fragment following its de-excitation) is called
the independent yield of that product. The total yield for any nuclide in the isobaric decay chain
is the sum of its independent yield and the independent yields of all of its precursors in the chain.
The total yield for the entire chain is called the cumulative yield for that mass number.

Extensive radiochemical investigations have suggested that the most probable charge division is
one that is displaced from stability about the same distance in both chains.
This empirical observation is called the equal charge displacement (ECD) hypothesis, and it has
been confirmed by several physical measurements. In the above example the ECD would predict
the most probable charges at about rubidium-37 and cesium-55. A strong shell effect modifies the
ECD expectations for fragments having 50 protons. The dispersion of the charge formation
probability about the most probable charge (Zp) is rather narrow and approximately Gaussian in
shape and is nearly independent of the mass split as well as of the fissioning species. The most
probable charge for an isobaric chain is a useful concept in the description of the charge
dispersion, and it need not have an integral value. As the energy of fission increases, the charge
division tends toward maintaining the n/p ratio in the fragments the same as that in the fissioning
nucleus.

Delayed neutrons in fission

A few of the fission products have beta-decay energies that exceed the binding energy of
a neutron in the daughter nucleus. This is likely to happen when the daughter nucleus contains
one or two neutrons more than a closed shell of 50 or 82 neutrons, since these “extra” neutrons
are more loosely bound. The beta decay of the precursor may take place to an excited state of the
daughter from which a neutron is emitted. The neutron emission is “delayed” by the beta-decay
half-life of the precursor. Six such delayed neutron emitters have been identified, with half-lives
varying from about 0.5 to 56 seconds. The yield of the delayed neutrons is only about 1 percent
of that of the prompt neutrons, but they are very important for the control of the chain reaction in
a nuclear reactor.

Energy release in fission

The total energy release in a fission event may be calculated from the difference in the rest
masses of the reactants (e.g., 235U + n) and the final stable products (e.g., 93Nb + 141Pr + 2n). The
energy equivalent of this mass difference is given by the Einstein relation, E = mc2. The total
energy release depends on the mass split, but a typical fission event would have the total energy
release distributed approximately as follows for the major components in the thermal neutron-
induced fission of uranium-235:
 (The energy release from
the capture of the prompt neutrons depends on how they are finally stopped, and some will
escape the core of a nuclear reactor.)

This energy is released on a time scale of about 10 -12 second and is called the prompt energy
release. It is largely converted to heat within an operating reactor and is used
for power generation. Also, there is a delayed release of energy from the radioactive decay of the
fission products varying in half-life from fractions of a second to many years. The shorter-lived
species decay in the reactor, and their energy adds to the heat generated; however, the longer-
lived species remain radioactive and pose a problem in the handling and disposition of the
reactor fuel elements when they need to be replaced. The antineutrinos that accompany the beta
decay of the fission products are unreactive, and their kinetic energy (about 10 MeV per fission)
is not recovered. Overall, about 200 MeV of energy per fission may be recovered for power
applications.

Applications of Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear reactions have a wide range of applications across various fields. Here are the main
applications:

1. Energy Production

 Nuclear Power Plants: Use controlled fission reactions (mainly of uranium-235 or

plutonium-239) to generate electricity.

 Fusion Research: Efforts like ITER aim to harness fusion (like in the Sun) for clean,
abundant energy.

2. Medical Applications
  Cancer Treatment (Radiotherapy): Uses radioactive isotopes to target and destroy
cancer cells.

 Medical Imaging: Techniques like PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT
rely on nuclear reactions and radioactive tracers.

 Sterilization: Gamma radiation is used to sterilize medical equipment.

3. Industrial Applications

 Radiography: Inspection of welds and structural integrity using gamma rays.

 Thickness Gauging: Measuring thickness of materials in manufacturing.

 Tracing and Leak Detection: Radioisotopes help track the flow of materials or detect
leaks.

4. Agricultural Applications

 Food Irradiation: Extends shelf life and eliminates pests or pathogens.

 Mutation Breeding: Inducing genetic mutations in crops to develop better varieties.

5. Scientific Research

 Particle Physics: Studying fundamental particles using nuclear reactions.

 Dating Techniques: Carbon-14 and other isotopes are used in radiometric dating.

 Astrophysics: Understanding stellar processes like nucleosynthesis.

6. Military and Defense

 Nuclear weapons: Uncontrolled fission or fusion reactions are used in atomic and
hydrogen bombs.

 Submarine Propulsion: Nuclear reactors power submarines and aircraft carriers.