Module 1: Computer Fundamentals

What is a Computer?
 A computer is an electronic machine that collects information, stores it,
processes it according to user instructions, and then returns the result.
 A computer is a programmable electronic device that performs arithmetic
and logical operations automatically using a set of instructions provided by
the user.

Generations of Computers
In the history of computers, we often refer to the advancements of modern computers
as the generation of computers. We are currently on the fifth generation of
computers. So let us look at the important features of these five generations of
computers.
 1st Generation: This was from the period of 1940 to 1955. This was when
machine language was developed for the use of computers. They used vacuum
tubes for the circuitry. For the purpose of memory, they used magnetic
drums. These machines were complicated, large, and expensive. They were
mostly reliant on batch operating systems and punch cards. As output and
input devices, magnetic tape and paper tape were implemented. For example,
ENIAC, UNIVAC-1, EDVAC, and so on.
 2nd Generation: The years 1957-1963 were referred to as the “second
generation of computers” at the time. In second-generation computers,
COBOL and FORTRAN are employed as assembly languages and
programming languages. Here they advanced from vacuum tubes to
transistors. This made the computers smaller, faster and more energy-
efficient. And they advanced from binary to assembly languages. For
instance, IBM 1620, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, and so forth.
 3rd Generation: The hallmark of this period (1964-1971) was the
development of the integrated circuit. A single integrated circuit (IC) is made
up of many transistors, which increases the power of a computer while
simultaneously lowering its cost. These computers were quicker, smaller,
more reliable, and less expensive than their predecessors. High-level
 programming languages such as FORTRON-II to IV, COBOL, and PASCAL
PL/1 were utilized. For example, the IBM-360 series, the Honeywell-6000
series, and the IBM-370/168.
 4th Generation: The invention of the microprocessors brought along the
fourth generation of computers. The years 1971-1980 were dominated by
fourth generation computers. C, C++ and Java were the programming
languages utilized in this generation of computers. For instance, the STAR
1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, and Apple II. This was when we
started producing computers for home use.
 5th Generation: These computers have been utilized since 1980 and continue
to be used now. This is the present and the future of the computer world. The
defining aspect of this generation is artificial intelligence. The use of parallel
processing and superconductors are making this a reality and provide a lot of
scope for the future. Fifth-generation computers use ULSI (Ultra Large Scale
Integration) technology. These are the most recent and sophisticated
computers. C, C++, Java,.Net, and more programming languages are used.
For instance, IBM, Pentium, Desktop, Laptop, Notebook, Ultrabook, and so
on.
Early History of Computer
Since the evolution of humans, devices have been used for calculations for
thousands of years. One of the earliest and most well-known devices was
an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began
developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he
actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer.
It contained an ALU, some basic flow chart principles and the concept of
integrated memory.
Then more than a century later in the history of computers, we got our first
electronic computer for general purpose. It was the ENIAC, which stands
for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. The inventors of this
computer were John W. Mauchly and [Link] Eckert.
And with times the technology developed and the computers got smaller and the
processing got faster. We got our first laptop in 1981 and it was introduced by
Adam Osborne and EPSON.
19th Century
1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, a weaver and businessman from France, devised a
loom that employed punched wooden cards to automatically weave cloth designs.
1822 – Charles Babbage, a mathematician, invented the steam-powered calculating
machine capable of calculating number tables. The “Difference Engine” idea failed
owing to a lack of technology at the time.
1848 – The world’s first computer program was written by Ada Lovelace, an English
mathematician. Lovelace also includes a step-by-step tutorial on how to compute
Bernoulli numbers using Babbage’s machine.
1890 – Herman Hollerith, an inventor, creates the punch card technique used to
calculate the 1880 U.S. census. He would go on to start the corporation that would
become IBM.
Early 20th Century
1930 – Differential Analyzer was the first large-scale automatic general-purpose
mechanical analogue computer invented and built by Vannevar Bush.
1936 – Alan Turing had an idea for a universal machine, which he called the Turing
machine, that could compute anything that could be computed.
1939 – Hewlett-Packard was discovered in a garage in Palo Alto, California by Bill
Hewlett and David Packard.
1941 – Konrad Zuse, a German inventor and engineer, completed his Z3 machine,
the world’s first digital computer. However, the machine was destroyed during a
World War II bombing strike on Berlin.
1941 – J.V. Atanasoff and graduate student Clifford Berry devise a computer
capable of solving 29 equations at the same time. The first time a computer can store
data in its primary memory.
1945 – University of Pennsylvania academics John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert
create an Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was Turing-
complete and capable of solving “a vast class of numerical problems” by
reprogramming, earning it the title of “Grandfather of computers.”
1946 – The UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) was the first general-
purpose electronic digital computer designed in the United States for corporate
applications.
1949 – The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), developed by
a team at the University of Cambridge, is the “first practical stored-program
computer.”
1950 – The Standards Eastern Automatic Computer (SEAC) was built in
Washington, DC, and it was the first stored-program computer completed in the
United States.
Late 20th Century
1953 – Grace Hopper, a computer scientist, creates the first computer language,
which becomes known as COBOL, which stands for COmmon, Business-
Oriented Language. It allowed a computer user to offer the computer instructions in
English-like words rather than numbers.
1954 – John Backus and a team of IBM programmers created the FORTRAN
programming language, an acronym for FORmula TRANslation. In addition, IBM
developed the 650.
1958 – The integrated circuit, sometimes known as the computer chip, was created
by Jack Kirby and Robert Noyce.
1962 – Atlas, the computer, makes its appearance. It was the fastest computer in the
world at the time, and it pioneered the concept of “virtual memory.”
1964 – Douglas Engelbart proposes a modern computer prototype that combines a
mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI).
1969 – Bell Labs developers, led by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, revealed
UNIX, an operating system developed in the C programming language that
addressed program compatibility difficulties.
1970 – The Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access Memory (DRAM) chip, is unveiled
by Intel.
1971 – The floppy disc was invented by Alan Shugart and a team of IBM engineers.
In the same year, Xerox developed the first laser printer, which not only produced
billions of dollars but also heralded the beginning of a new age in computer printing.
1973 – Robert Metcalfe, a member of Xerox’s research department, created
Ethernet, which is used to connect many computers and other gear.
1974 – Personal computers were introduced into the market. The first were the Altair
Scelbi & Mark-8, IBM 5100, and Radio Shack’s TRS-80.
1975 – Popular Electronics magazine touted the Altair 8800 as the world’s first
minicomputer kit in January. Paul Allen and Bill Gates offer to build software in the
BASIC language for the Altair.
1976 – Apple Computers is founded by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, who expose
the world to the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.
1977 – At the first West Coast Computer Faire, Jobs and Wozniak announce the
Apple II. It has colour graphics and a cassette drive for storing music.
1978 – The first computerized spreadsheet program, VisiCalc, is introduced.
1979 – WordStar, a word processing tool from MicroPro International, is released.
1981 – IBM unveils the Acorn, their first personal computer, which has an Intel
CPU, two floppy drives, and a colour display. The MS-DOS operating system from
Microsoft is used by Acorn.
1983 – The CD-ROM, which could carry 550 megabytes of pre-recorded data, hit
the market. This year also saw the release of the Gavilan SC, the first portable
computer with a flip-form design and the first to be offered as a “laptop.”
1984 – Apple launched Macintosh during the Superbowl XVIII commercial. It was
priced at $2,500
1985 – Microsoft introduces Windows, which enables multitasking via a graphical
user interface. In addition, the programming language C++ has been released.
1990 – Tim Berners-Lee, an English programmer and scientist, creates HyperText
Markup Language, widely known as HTML. He also coined the term
“WorldWideWeb.” It includes the first browser, a server, HTML, and URLs.
1993 – The Pentium CPU improves the usage of graphics and music on personal
computers.
1995 – Microsoft’s Windows 95 operating system was released. A $300 million
promotional campaign was launched to get the news out. Sun Microsystems
introduces Java 1.0, followed by Netscape Communications’ JavaScript.
1996 – At Stanford University, Sergey Brin and Larry Page created the Google
search engine.
1998 – Apple introduces the iMac, an all-in-one Macintosh desktop computer. These
PCs cost $1,300 and came with a 4GB hard drive, 32MB RAM, a CD-ROM, and a
15-inch monitor.
1999 – Wi-Fi, an abbreviation for “wireless fidelity,” is created, originally covering
a range of up to 300 feet.
21st Century
2000 – The USB flash drive is first introduced in 2000. They were speedier and had
more storage space than other storage media options when used for data storage.
2001 – Apple releases Mac OS X, later renamed OS X and eventually simply
macOS, as the successor to its conventional Mac Operating System.
2003 – Customers could purchase AMD’s Athlon 64, the first 64-bit CPU for
consumer computers.
2004 – Facebook began as a social networking website.
2005 – Google acquires Android, a mobile phone OS based on Linux.
2006 – Apple’s MacBook Pro was available. The Pro was the company’s first dual-
core, Intel-based mobile computer.
Amazon Web Services, including Amazon Elastic Cloud 2 (EC2) and Amazon
Simple Storage Service, were also launched (S3)
2007 – The first iPhone was produced by Apple, bringing many computer operations
into the palm of our hands. Amazon also released the Kindle, one of the first
electronic reading systems, in 2007.
2009 – Microsoft released Windows 7.
2011 – Google introduces the Chromebook, which runs Google Chrome OS.
2014 – The University of Michigan Micro Mote (M3), the world’s smallest
computer, was constructed.
2015 – Apple introduces the Apple Watch. Windows 10 was also released by
Microsoft.
2016 – The world’s first reprogrammable quantum computer is built.
Types of Computers
1. Analog Computers – Analog computers are built with various components
such as gears and levers, with no electrical components. One advantage of
analogue computation is that designing and building an analogue computer to
tackle a specific problem can be quite straightforward.
2. Digital Computers – Information in digital computers is represented in
discrete form, typically as sequences of 0s and 1s (binary digits, or bits). A
digital computer is a system or gadget that can process any type of information
in a matter of seconds. Digital computers are categorized into many different
types. They are as follows:
a. Mainframe computers – It is a computer that is generally utilized by
large enterprises for mission-critical activities such as massive data
processing. Mainframe computers were distinguished by massive
storage capacities, quick components, and powerful computational
capabilities. Because they were complicated systems, they were
managed by a team of systems programmers who had sole access to the
computer. These machines are now referred to as servers rather than
mainframes.
b. Supercomputers – The most powerful computers to date are
commonly referred to as supercomputers. Supercomputers are
enormous systems that are purpose-built to solve complicated scientific
and industrial problems. Quantum mechanics, weather forecasting, oil
and gas exploration, molecular modelling, physical simulations,
aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research, and cryptoanalysis are all done
on supercomputers.
c. Minicomputers – A minicomputer is a type of computer that has many
of the same features and capabilities as a larger computer but is smaller
in size. Minicomputers, which were relatively small and affordable,
were often employed in a single department of an organization and were
often dedicated to a specific task or shared by a small group.
d. Microcomputers – A microcomputer is a small computer that is based
on a microprocessor integrated circuit, often known as a chip. A
microcomputer is a system that incorporates at a minimum a
microprocessor, program memory, data memory, and input-output
system (I/O). A microcomputer is now commonly referred to as a
personal computer (PC).
e. Embedded processors – These are miniature computers that control
electrical and mechanical processes with basic microprocessors.
Embedded processors are often simple in design, have limited
processing capability and I/O capabilities, and need little power.
Ordinary microprocessors and microcontrollers are the two primary
 types of embedded processors. Embedded processors are employed in
systems that do not require the computing capability of traditional
devices such as desktop computers, laptop computers, or workstations.
f. Workstation - Workstation, a high-performance computer system
that is basically designed for a single user and has advanced
graphics capabilities, large storage capacity, and a powerful central
processing unit.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

There are 5 main computer components that are given below:
 Input Devices
 CPU
 Output Devices
 Primary Memory
 Secondary Memory

Primary Memory
(RAM)

Input Output
Device Central Processing Device
Unit(CPU)

Secondary Memory or Storage (Hard Disk)

Von-Neumann Model / Von-Neumann Architechture / Princeton architecture
In 1945, John von Neumann introduced a computer architecture that later became known as the
Von Neumann Architecture. It consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
Registers, and Input/Output systems.
The key feature of this architecture is the stored-program concept, where both instructions and
data are stored in the same memory. This design remains the foundation for most modern
computers today.

Components of Von-Neumann Model:

 CPU(Central processing unit)
o CU(Control Unit)
o ALU(Arithmetic and logic unit)
o Registers
 PC
 IR
 AC
 MAR
 MDR
 BUSES

 I/O Device
 Memory Unit
 Central Processing Unit
A CPU is a part of the computer system, where the CPU is responsible for executing
all the bulk of data and programs in a specific manner. A CPU is the brain of the
 computer and it consists of an arithmetic and logicunit(ALU), Control Unit(CU),
and various registers. The CPU is also known as the central processor or
microprocessor of the computer.
o CU(Control Unit):

A CU is the control unit that is the part of a CPU. The CU is the circuitry
that does the direct operations in the main memory of the computer system
and it directs the input and output flow. The control unit determines the
sequence in which computer programs and instructions are executed. It is
worked by receiving input information and that It converts it into control
signals.
o ALU(Arithmetic and logic unit):

ALU is an arithmetic and logic unit which perform all the mathematical
operation on binary numbers and it is an important component of CPU
(Central Processing Unit), Which carry the actual execution of instructions.
The ALU is allowed to do some operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, etc. The data is transferred to ALU from the
storage unit when it is required. After processing, the output is returned to
the storage unit for further processing on getting stored.
o REGISTERS

It is also an important part of a CPU. The registers are temporary storage

where it is built in a CPU and it also provides a better storage speed. In
registers when all the data are processed after that data are stored in the
registers. There are some internal registers are:
i) IR (instruction registers)– The instruction registers or current
instruction registers (CIR) means that the hardware element that holds and
receives the instruction is extracted from the memory of registers.
ii) PC (Program counter): – The program counter register are those
registers where the computer processor contains the address of the next
instruction to be executed. This register is also known as instruction
pointer.
.
iii) AC(Accumulator): – The accumulator register is a type of registers
included in a CPU. It holds the intermediate storage of arithmetic and
logic data in a computer’s CPU. Intermediate results of an operation are
progressively written to the accumulator (AC)

iv) MAR (Memory Address Registers): – The memory address register

isa CPU register That contains the main memory of data and instructions
or It contains a portion of the address which is used for the calculation of a
 complete address, And it also holds the memory location of data that needs
to be accessed.
v) MDR(Memory Data Register): – The memory data register is also known
as memory buffer register(MBR) .This is the register of the central processing
unit that stores the data being transferred to and from the immediate access storage

vi) BUSES- In co mputer architecture, the bus means

i t i s a communication system that is used to connects the computer components
from one part to other parts of the system. A computer bus is either parallel or
serial.

Parallel buses
transmit data across multiple wires.
Serial buses
transmit data one bit at a time

Buses consists in three parts are:

•A d d r e s s B u s - A n a d d r e s s b u s i s a c o m p u t e r - b a s e d
architecture that is used to transfer the data between the storage and the processor.
•Data bus-
A data bus is also known as a processor bus and it allows for the transferring of data from one
part of the computer to another on a motherboard or between two computers.
•Control bus-
A control bus is a part of the system bus, Its carries the signal from the CPU which helps to
communicate with the devices that are contained within the computer.

 I/O Devices
An I/O or input/output device is a Hardware device that is used to communicate with a
computer, where the Input device is used to provide data to a computer for entering data and
program in a computer system. On the other hand, Output devices are those devices where
it receives information from the computer and carries out the data that has been processed
by the computer to the user. An Output device display information on the screen(monitor) or the printer.
Examples of input devices
are: keyboard, mic, mouse, joystick, etc. and much more.
Examples of Output devices
are monitor, printer, headphone etc. and much more.

 MEMORY UNIT
A memory unit is the part of the computer system where it is used to store all the data and
information in a storage system permanently. This memory stores the binary digit(0&1)
information in groups of bits. In the computer system, it is the place where the computers
hold data and programs which are in use. Memory units consist of two types are:
Computer Memory
Computer memory is the most essential part of computers as without it computers
cannot perform any functions. Memory is the storage where the computers store all
their data and information. Computer memory is a generic term which includes all
types of data storage used by a computer to store information and data.
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data
and produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number of small
parts known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from 0 to memory
size minus one.
Computer memory is basically of 2 types: Primary Memory and Secondary
Memory.

Primary Memory
Primary Memory is the memory which enables the computers or the CPU to store
the data that the CPU needs immediately so that it does not have to wait for it.
Primary Memory holds the data and the instructions on which the computer is
currently working on.

Characteristics of Primary Memory

Some of the important characteristics of Primary Memory are listed below:
 Primary memory is faster than the secondary memory.
 Computers cannot run without primary memory.
 Primary memory is also usually called volatile memory.
 It loses its data when the power is turned off.

Types of Primary Memory:

 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Read Only Memory (ROM)
 1. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAMs are made up of a series of chipset that allow only for temporary data
storage. RAM is the holding zone to open the files and the critical information that
might be required immediately while working. RAM can be viewed as the
“placeholder” for valuable information while working and is not the storage of the
computer. RAM gets cleared once the power is turned off.

Data which is required for immediate processing is only moved to RAM where it
can be easily accessed and modified very quickly without making the computer
wait.
Some of the memory is designed to be very fast which enables the CPU to access
the data stored very quickly and some of the memory is designed to be low cost
which enables the user to store large amounts of data.

Units to Measure Memory

The units to measure the memory are as follows:
 Bit = 0 or 1 (Binary digit)
 Nibble = 4 bits
 1 byte (b) = 8 bits
 1 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 B
 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB
 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB
  1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB
 1 Petabyte (PB) = 1024 TB

RAM are basically of 2 types:

 DRAM
 SRAM
DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. DRAM is the most
commonly found RAM in computers.

SRAM
SRAM stands for Static Random Access Memory. SRAM is comparatively faster
than DRAM but is more bulky and costly also. SRAMs are mostly used in very
high end server systems.
Difference between SRAM and DRAM:
SRAM DRAM
It stores information as long as It stores information as long as the power is supplied or
the power is supplied. a few milliseconds when the power is switched off.
Transistors are used to store Capacitors are used to store data in DRAM.
information in SRAM.
Capacitors are not used hence To store information for a longer time, the contents of
no refreshing is required. the capacitor need to be refreshed periodically.
SRAM is faster compared to DRAM provides slow access speeds.
DRAM.
It does not have a refreshing It has a refreshing unit.
unit.
These are expensive. These are cheaper.
SRAMs are low-density DRAMs are high-density devices.
devices.
In this bit are stored in voltage In this bit is stored in the form of electric energy.
form.
These are used in cache These are used in main memories.
memories.
 Consumes less power and Uses more power and generates more heat.
generates less heat.
SRAMs has lower latency DRAM has more latency than SRAM
SRAMs are more resistant to DRAMs are less resistant to radiation than SRAMs
radiation than DRAM
SRAM has higher data transfer DRAM has lower data transfer rate
rate
SRAM is used in high-speed DRAM is used in lower-speed main memory
cache memory
SRAM is used in high DRAM is used in general purpose applications
performance applications

2. Read Only Memory (ROM)

As the name suggests, it is the type of memory in which we can only read the data
stored but cannot write the data. ROM is a type of non-volatile memory which
eventually means that the data stored in the ROM does not get lost when the power
is turned off.

The ROM usually contains the “bootstrap code” which is the basic set of
instructions that a computer needs to carry out to become aware of the operating
system that is stored in the secondary memory which makes the computer ready to
use.

ROM are basically of 3 types:

 PROM
 EPROM
 EEPROM
1. PROM
PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. PROM is manufactured
in an empty state but later, it is programmed using the PROM burner.

2. EPROM
EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. In EPROM,
the data can be erased from it by removing it from the computers and exposing it to
ultraviolet light. It later can be burned using the EPROM burner.

3. EEPROM
EEPROM stands for Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory. In EEPROM, it can be erased and programmed by using the computer
system itself. It is not strictly read only.

The major differences between RAM and ROM are:

RAM ROM
 Definition of RAM is Random Access Definition of ROM is Read-only Memory
Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is ROM is cheaper when compared to RAM.

expensive when compared to ROM

The speed of Random Access Memory The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM) is
(RAM) is higher when compared to ROM slower when compared to RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM) has a ROM has a lower capacity compared to RAM
higher capacity when compared to ROM

Data in RAM can be modified, erased, or Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot be
read. modified or erased.

The data stored in RAM is used by the The data stored in ROM is used to bootstrap the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) to process computer.
current instructions

Data stored on RAM can be accessed by the If the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to
Central Processing Unit. access the data on ROM, first the data must be
transferred to RAM, and then the Central
Processing Unit (CPU) will be able to access
the data.

Data of RAM is very volatile, it will exist as Data present in Read-Only Memory (ROM) is
long as there is no interruption in power. not volatile, it is permanent. Data will remain
unchanged even when there is a disruption in
the power supply.

Secondary Memory
Secondary memory are the different types of storage media which can be directly
attached to the computer systems. These memories are used to store data for long
periods of time. These memories can also be used to transfer the data. Computers
are unable to directly access these memories but instead they can be accessed by
the input-output routines. The data in the secondary memory is first transferred to
the main memory which enables the CPU to access it.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

 These are also known as the backup memory.
 The secondary memory is slower than the primary memory.
 These are the non volatile memory which do not lose their data on power
off.
 They store the data for a long period.

Different Types of Secondary Memory are as Follows:

 Hard Disk Drives (HDD): HDD is the storage device that stays inside the
computer which has a spinning disk inside, in which the data is stored
magnetically.

 Solid State Drives (SSD): SSDs are the storage devices that are built using
integrated circuits to store the data. These are faster than the HDDs.
  Optical Drives: Optical disk drives are the storage devices that use laser
light or electromagnetic waves as a part of reading or writing the data to the
disks.

Points to Remember
 Primary Memory is essential for computers to run.
 SRAMs are faster than DRAMs.
 RAM, or random access memory, is a type of data storage device that
allows for a quick read and write access.
 Secondary storage helps in storing data and information for a long period
of time.
 ROMs are non-volatile in nature.
 DRAMs are used in normal computers and SRAMs are used in high-end
server systems.