Endocrine System

● The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs in the human body responsible for producing and
secreting hormones that regulate various functions such as growth, metabolism, sexual development, and
mood.
● These glands, including the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries, and testes, release hormones
directly into the bloodstream.

Glands:
● Glands are specialised organs or tissues within the human body that produce and secrete substances
essential for various physiological functions.
● These substances, known as secretions, can be hormones, enzymes, or other specific products.
● Glands play a crucial role in maintaining the body's internal balance by releasing secretions directly into
the bloodstream or through ducts to specific target areas.

Exocrine glands:
● Exocrine glands are specialised structures within the body that secrete substances through ducts onto
epithelial surfaces or into body cavities.
● These secretions can include enzymes, sweat, Tears, mammary glands, mucus, saliva, and oils, among
others, and serve various functions like digestion, temperature regulation, and protection.
● An example of an exocrine gland is the sweat gland, found throughout the skin. Sweat glands produce and
secrete sweat onto the skin's surface through tiny ducts, helping regulate body temperature by cooling the
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 body when it becomes overheated. Another example is the salivary glands, which release saliva into the
mouth through ducts, aiding in the initial digestion of food and maintaining oral health.

Endocrine Glands:
● Those glands which release their effects directly into the blood are called endocrine glands and the effects
of these glands are called hormones.
● Hormones: Hormones are non-nutrient chemicals which act as intercellular messengers and are produced
in trace amounts.

Pituitary Gland:
● The pituitary gland, a small, pea-sized gland located at the sella turcica in sphenoid bone at the base of the
brain, is often referred to as the "master gland" due to its pivotal role in regulating other endocrine glands
and various bodily functions.
● The total weight of this gland is about 0.5 grams or less.
● Composed of two distinct parts—the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and the posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis)—it functions as a vital component of the endocrine system.
● Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis): This part of the pituitary gland produces and releases several
hormones that control the activity of other endocrine glands:
● Hormones for this gland are:
○ Growth Hormone (GH): Regulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration. Excess secretion of
growth hormone in adults especially in middle age can result in severe disfigurement (especially of the
face) called Acromegaly.
○ Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones
that regulate metabolism.
○ Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Signals the adrenal glands to release cortisol, crucial for
managing stress and metabolism.
○ Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH): Regulate reproductive
functions, such as ovarian and testicular activity.
○ Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in females after childbirth and plays a role in
reproductive health.
○ Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis): This portion of the pituitary gland doesn't synthesize
hormones but stores and releases two hormones produced by the hypothalamus:

Hypothalamus Gland:
● The hypothalamus is a small but incredibly important region located at the base of the brain, just below
the thalamus. Despite its size, it plays a critical role in regulating various physiological functions and
linking the nervous system to the endocrine system.
● The hypothalamus serves as a bridge between the nervous and endocrine systems by controlling the release
of hormones from the pituitary gland. A hypothalamic hormone called Gonadotropin-Releasing hormone
(GnRH) stimulates the pituitary synthesis and release of gonadotrophins. Somatostatin from the
hypothalamus inhibits the release of growth hormone from the pituitary.

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● It produces several releasing and inhibiting hormones that stimulate or suppress the secretion of pituitary
hormones. These hormones, transported via the bloodstream, regulate the activity of other endocrine glands
throughout the body.

Pineal Gland:
● The pineal gland is situated deep within the brain's central structures, near the centre and slightly above
the middle of the brain, between the two hemispheres. It's shaped like a pine cone, hence its name, and is
part of the epithalamus.
● The pineal gland synthesises and secretes the hormone melatonin.
● Melatonin production is regulated by the perception of light. The gland is particularly sensitive to light
exposure, and its production of melatonin is inhibited by light, especially blue light. During the day, when
light exposure is high, the production of melatonin is suppressed. However, in darkness or low-light
conditions, such as at night, the pineal gland increases its production of melatonin.

Thyroid gland:
● This is the largest endocrine gland.
● The thyroid gland is positioned in the front part of the neck, and consists of two lobes connected by a
narrow band of tissue called the isthmus. It is a vital part of the endocrine system and produces hormones
that play a crucial role in regulating metabolism and various bodily functions.
● The thyroid gland is composed of follicles and stromal tissues. Each thyroid follicle is
● composed of follicular cells, enclosing a cavity. These follicular cells synthesise two hormones,
tetraiodothyronine or thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3).
● Diseases related to thyroid gland.
● Hypothyroidism: This condition occurs when the thyroid gland doesn't produce enough hormones,
leading to symptoms like fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, and depression. One common cause is
Hashimoto's thyroiditis, an autoimmune condition where the body attacks the thyroid gland.
● Hyperthyroidism: It results from an overproduction of thyroid hormones. Symptoms include weight loss,
rapid heartbeat, anxiety, and heat intolerance. Graves' disease is a common cause of hyperthyroidism, also
caused by an autoimmune response leading to excessive hormone production.
● Goitre: Enlargement of the thyroid gland due to various reasons, including iodine deficiency or underlying
thyroid disorders like hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism.
● Thyroid nodules: These are abnormal growths or lumps within the thyroid gland. While most nodules
are noncancerous (benign), some may require further evaluation to rule out thyroid cancer.
● Treatment for thyroid disorders often involves medication to regulate hormone levels (such as synthetic
thyroid hormones for hypothyroidism or medications to suppress hormone production for
hyperthyroidism), radioactive iodine therapy, or in severe cases, surgery to remove part or all of the thyroid
gland.

Parathyroid Glands:
● Found behind the thyroid gland, these small glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which plays a
vital role in maintaining calcium levels in the blood and bones.
Thymus gland:
● The thymus gland is a vital organ of the immune system located behind the breastbone (sternum) and in
front of the heart. It is most prominent in infants and children but gradually decreases in size and activity
with age, becoming mostly inactive in adulthood.
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● The thymus gland secretes hormones called thymosins that assist in the development and differentiation
of T cells. These hormones aid in the proper functioning and regulation of the immune system.
● Thymosins primarily aid in T-cell maturation (cell-mediated immunity).

Adrenal glands:
● The adrenal glands, situated at the top of each kidney, are critical endocrine organs divided into two distinct
parts: the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.
● The adrenal medulla secretes two hormones called adrenaline or epinephrine and noradrenaline or
norepinephrine. These are commonly called as catecholamines. These are rapidly secreted in response to
stress of any kind and during emergency situations and are called emergency hormones or hormones of
Fight or Flight.
● These hormones increase alertness, pupillary dilation, piloerection (raising of hairs), sweating etc. Both
the hormones increase the heart beat, the strength of heart contraction and the rate of respiration.
● Androgens: The innermost zone of the adrenal cortex produces small amounts of male sex hormones
(androgens).
● Disorders affecting the adrenal glands can lead to imbalances in hormone production. For instance,
Addison's disease results from insufficient hormone production by the adrenal cortex, leading to low levels
of cortisol and aldosterone.
Ovaries (in females) and Testes (in males):
● These reproductive organs produce sex hormones—estrogen and progesterone in females and testosterone
in males—that regulate reproductive functions and contribute to secondary sexual characteristics.

Mixed glands:
● Mixed glands, also known as mixed exocrine-endocrine glands, are glands that possess characteristics of
both exocrine and endocrine glands.
● These glands have structures or regions that perform both exocrine and endocrine functions, secreting
substances through both ducts and directly into the bloodstream.
● A suitable example of a mixed gland is the pancreas. It functions as both an exocrine and endocrine gland.
Other examples are Ovaries (in females) and Testes (in males).
● Exocrine Function of Pancreas: The pancreas produces digestive enzymes such as amylase, lipase, and
proteases, which are released into the pancreatic duct and then transported to the small intestine. These
enzymes aid in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
● Endocrine Function of Pancreas: Within the pancreas, specific clusters of cells called the Islets of
Langerhans function as an endocrine gland. The Islets contain different cell types, including alpha cells
that produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin. These hormones are released directly into the
bloodstream, regulating blood sugar levels and metabolism.

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