Measurements and

Measurement Systems

ilg MEASUREMENTS and Technology move ahead, new phenomena and

The measurement of a given quantity is essen­ relationships are discovered and these advances make
tially an act or the result of comparison between the new types of measurements imperative. New discove­
quantity (whose magnitude is unknown) and a prede­ ries are not of any practical utility unless the results
fined standard. Since two quantities are compared, the are backed by actual measurements. The measure­
result is expressed in numerical values. In fact, ments, no doubt, confirm the validity of a hypothesis
measurement is the process by which one can convert but also add to its understanding. Titis results in an
physical parameters to meaningful numbers. The unending chain which leads to new discoveries that
measuring process is one in which the property of an require more, new and sophisticated measurement
object or system under consideration is compared to techniques. Hence modern Science and Technology are
an accepted standard unit, a standard defined for that associated with sophisticated methods of measurement.
particular property. The number of times the unit There are two major functions of all branches of
standard fits into the quantity being measured is the engineering: \ .
numerical measure. The numerical measure is meaning­ (i) Design of equipment and processes, and
less unless followed by a unit used, since it (unit) (iz) Proper operation and maintenance of
identifies the characteristic or property measured. equipment and processes.
In order that the results of the measurement are
Both these functions require measurements. This
meaningful, there are two basic requirements : -
is because proper and economical design, operation
(/) the standard used for Comparison purposes and maintenance require a feedback of information.
must be accurately defined and should be \ Measurements play a significant role in achieving
commonly accepted, and . goals and objectives of Engineering because of the
(if) the apparatus used and the method adopted feedback information supplied by them.
must be provable. \ .
EBI METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
ggj SIGNIFICANCE OF MEASUREMENTS /
I he methods of measurements may be broadly
The importance of measurement is simply and classified into two categories :
eloquently expressed in the following statement of the (/) Direct Methods and (if) Indirect Methods.
famous physicist Lord Kelvin : -
1.3.1 Direct Methods
“I often say that when you can measure what you are
In these methods, the. unknown quantity (also
speaking about and can express it in numbers, you
called the fheasurand) is directly compared against :
know something about it; when you cannot express in
standard. The , result is expressed as a numerical
it numbers your knowledge is of a meagre and
number and a unit. The standard, in fact, is a physical
unsatisfactory kind."
embodiment ol a unq.
The advancement of Science and Technology is Direct methods are quite common for the
dependent upon a parallel progress in measurement measurement of physical quantities like length, mass
techniques Hie reasons for this are obvious. As Science and time. Suppose we want to measure the length el a
 2 Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

bar. The unit of length is metre. A bar is so many times these instruments worked are even in vogue today.
long because that many units on our standard have The earliest scientific instruments used the same three
the same length as the bar. A human being can make essential elements as our modem instruments do.
direct length comparisons with a preciseness of about These elements are :
0.25 mm. Therefore, on account of human factors it is (/) a detector,
not possible to make very accurate measurements. The (it) an intermediate transfer device, and
direct method for measurement of length can be
(iii) an indicator, recorder or a storage device.
utilized with a good degree of accuracy but when it
comes to measurement of mass, the problem becomes The history of development of instruments
much more intricate. It is just not possible for human encompasses three phases of instruments, viz. :
beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass. (i) mechanical instruments,
(if) electrical instruments, and
1.3.2 Indirect Methods
(zzz) electronic instruments.
Measurement by direct methods are not always
possible, feasible and practicable. These methods in 1.5.1 Mechanical Instruments
most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve These instruments are very reliable for static and
human factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence stable conditions. But they suffer from a very major
direct methods are not preferred and are rarely used. disadvantage which is because, they are unable to
In engineering applications Measurement Systems respond rapidly to measurements of dynamic and
are used which require need of indirect methods for transient conditions. This is due to the fact that these
measurement purposes. instruments have moving parts that are rigid, heavy
and bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass
INSTRUMENTS AND MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS presents inertia problems and hence these instruments
Measurements involve the use of instruments as a cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
physical means of determining quantities or variables. involved in dynamic measurements. Thus it would be
The instrument serves as an extension of human virtually impossible to measure a 50 Hz voltage by
faculties and enables the man to determine the value using a mechanical instrument but it is relatively easy
of unknown quantity or variable which his unaided to measure a slowly varying pressure using these
human faculties cannot measure, a measuring instru­ instruments. Another disadvantage of mechanical
ment exists to provide information about the physical instruments is that most of them are a potential source
value of some variables being measured. In simple of noise and cause noise pollution. - ./
cases, an instrument consists of a single unit which 1.5.2 Electrical Instruments \
gives an output reading or signal according to the Electrical methods of indicating the output of
unknown variable (measurand) applied to it. In more detectors are more rapid than mechanical methods. It
complex measurement situations, however, a mea­ is unfortunate that an electrical system normally
suring instrument may consist of several separate depends upon a mechanical meter movement as\
elements. These elements may consist of transducing indicating device. This mechanical movement has
elements which convert the measurand to an ana­ some inertia and therefore these instruments have a \
logous form. The analogous signal is then processed limited time (and hence, frequency) response. For
by some intermediate means and then fed to the end example, some electrical recorders can give full scale
devices to present the results of the measurement for response in 0?2 5/ the majority of industtial FeCpr*rs '
the purposes of display and or control.' The above have responses of 0.5 to 24 s. Some galvanometers can
mentioned components might be contained within follow 50 Hz variations, but even these are too slow
one or more boxes, and the boxes holding individual
for present day requirements of fast measurement-
measurement elements might bp either close together
or physically separate. Because of this modular nature 1.5.3 Electronic Instruments
. X’*-.X . X , \X /.X" ./ ’‘X _X
*Sk ’
of the elements within it,/it is common to refer the These days most of the scientific and . industrial
measuring instrument asza measurement system. measurements - requite very fast responses. The ■'
mechanical and electrical instruments and systems
PH MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL AND
cannot cope up with these requirements^The necessity
ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS to step up response time and also the detection of
The first instruments used by mankind were dynamic changes in certairi-pa'rameters, which Require
mechanical in nature and the principles on which the monitoring time of the order of ms anil many 4
Measurements and Measurement Systems 3

times, gs, have led to the design of today's electronic apparatus. Space communications, especially, makes
instruments and their associated circuitry. These use of air borne transmitters and receivers and job of
instruments require use of semi-conductor devices. interpreting the signals is left entirely to the electronic
Since in electronic devices, the only movement instruments.
involved is that of electrons, the response time is Electronic instruments make it possible to build
extremely small on account of very small inertia of analog and digital computers without which the
electrons. For example, a Cathode ray oscilloscope modern developments in science and technology are
(CRO) is capable of following dynamic and transient virtually impossible. Computers require a very fast
changes of the order of a few ns (IO-9 s). time response and it is only possible with use of
Electronically controlled power supplies are used electronic instruments.
to provide stable voltages for studies in the field of Summarizing, it may be stated that in general
chemical reactions and nuclear instrumentation. electronic instruments have
Electronic instruments are steadily becoming more
(z) a higher sensitivity, (z'z) a faster response,
reliable on account of improvements in design and
(zz7) a greater flexibility, (m) lower weight,
manufacturing processes of semi-conductor devices.
Another advantage of using electronic devices is that (c) lower power consumption and
very weak signals can be detected by using pre­ (pz) a higher degree of reliability1 than their
amplifiers and amplifiers. The foremost importance of mechanical or purely electrical counterparts.
the electronic instruments is the power amplification
provided by the electronic amplifiers, which results in 1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS
higher sensitivity. This is particularly important in the There are many wraysin which instruments can be
area of Bio-instrumentation since Bio-electric potentials classified. Broadly, instruments are classified into two
are very weak i.e., lower than 1 mV. Therefore, these categories :
signals are too small to operate electro-mechanical (z) Absolute Instruments, and
devices like recorders and they must be amplified. (z7) Secondary Instruments.
Additional power may be fed into the system to
1. Absolute instruments. These instruments give
provide an increased power output beyond that of the
the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in
input. This has been only possible through the use of
terms of physical constants of the instrument. The
electronic amplifiers, which have no important
mechanical counterpart. This is particularly important examples of this class of instruments are Tangent
where the data presentation devices use stylus type Galvanometer and Rayleigh's Current Balance.
recorders, galvanometers, cathode ray oscilloscopes 2. Secondary instruments. These instruments are
and magnetic tape recorders. It is a fact that hydraulic so constructed that the quantity being measured can
and pneumatic systems may be used for power only be measured by observing the output indicated
amplification of signals. However, their use is limited by the instrument. These instruments are calibrated by
to slow acting control applications [Link]-systems, comparison with an absolute instrument or another
chemical processes and power systems. Another secondary instrument which has already been
advantage of electronic instruments is thd-nbility to calibrated against an absolute instrument.
obtain indication at a remote location which helps in Working with absolute instruments for routine
monitoring inaccessible or dangerous locations.'-The work is time consuming since every time a
most important use of electronic instruments is their measurement is made, it takes a lot of time to compute
usage in measurement of non-electrical quantities, the magnitude of the quantity under measurement.
where the non-electrical quantity is converted into Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly
electrical form through the use of transducers. used. Absolute instruments are seldom useci except in
Electronic instruments find extensive use in detection standards institutions while secondary instruments
of electro-magnetically produced signals such as find usage almost in every' sphere of measurement. A
radio, video, and microwave. Electrical and electronic voltmeter, a glass thermometer and a pressure gauge
instruments are particularly useful in the intermediate are typical examples of secondary' instruments.
signal modifying stage. Electronic instruments are
light compact, have a high degree of reliability and 1.7 DEFLECTION AND NULL TYPE INSTRUMENTS
their power consumption is very low. Instruments can be classified into two major
€omm unications is a field which is entirely depen­ categories - deflection and null types depending upon
dent upon the electronic instruments and associated the way they present the result of measurements.