Abstract

Moisturizers are one of the most widely used preparations in cosmetics and have been
extensively used to soften the skin for consumers. Moisturizers work effectively in
combating dry skin which may cause pain, tightness, itch, stinging, and/or tingling. The
aim of this review is to evaluate published studies on the history, ingredients,
preparation processes, characteristics, uses, and applications of moisturizers.
Moisturizers bridge the gap between medicine and consumer goods by being used to
make the skin more beautiful and healthy. In the future, in moisturizer therapy, the
capacity to adapt specific agents to specific dermatological demands will be crucial.
Cosmetically, moisturizers make the skin smooth by the mechanism of increasing the
water content in the st carenum, hence exerting its most vital action, which is
moisturizing action and maintaining a normal skin pH.
Introduction

There is a growing body of literature that recognizes the importance of moisturizers. It is

essential for a wide range of fields, such as cosmetics and pharmacy . Moisturizers are very
popular dermatological products prescribed due to their proven eficiency to prevent and
treat various dermatological conditions . The terms “moisturizer” and “emollient “are often
used interchangeably despite occlusive and humectants being usually included in
moisturizers with the purpose of increasing the water-binding capacity of the
stratumcorneum (SC) of the skin . Moisturizers are widely used for both normal and dry
skin. Application of these preparations can increase the water content in the stratum
carenum, hence exerting its most vital action, which is moisturizing action aside from
maintaining a normal skin pH, and allowing the lipid bilayers in the skin to more easily
normalize and re-establish their capacity to connect coenocytes together and allow for
moisture retention in the intercellular spaces . Subsequently, the hydration interrupts the
dry skin cycle, making the skin surface smooth, soft, pliable and more extensible . In
addition, some other plausible actions exerted by moisturizers include anti-inflammatory
action by blocking cyclooxygenase activity, antimitotic action, antipruritic action via
deregulation cytokines, photo protective action, antimicrobial action and wound healing.
Moisturizers are seldom associated with health hazards compared to prescription topical
drugs despite being applied on large surface areas of the body for a long duration

To date, few studies have used observational data to indicate that various ingredients with
diferent characteristics are used in the preparation of moisturizers [4]. Therefore,
dermatologists should consider characteristics, such as aesthetic beauty, which
influencepatient adherence, in addition to predicted clinical eficacy. Irritation and
allergenicity,which afect safety and tolerability, are also factors to consider when making
moisturizer recommendations to prevent unnecessary discomfort [4]. Moisturizers are
often associated with a variety of discomforts, such as burning sensations, tightness,
stinging and itching. The most common side efect is skin irritation, which is described as
subjective sensations or sensory reactions with or without indications of inflammation [2].
Therefore, the purpose of this review is to systematically review the published data for
moisturizers, aiming to bring forth information on the history, ingredients, methods of
preparation, characterization, uses and applications of moisturizers

History of Moisturizer

Even though cosmetics have most certainly existed for much longer, the first evi-dence of
cosmetics dates from about 6000 years ago in Ancient Egypt. Aloe, myrrh, and
frankincense are common among Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians believed these prod-ucts,
particularly frankincense, had anti-aging properties and used them as anti-wrinkle creams
[7]. Jain et al. (2009) also reported that men and women in Egypt used scented oils and
ointments to clean and smooth their skin and mask body odour as early as10,000
BC.Egyptian hygiene and wellbeing were inextricably linked to cosmetics. For protection
against the hot sun and dry winds, oils and creams were used [8]. Egyptian customs were
exported and utilized by Greeks and Roman [7,9].Crocodile excrement, white lead and
chalk were commonly used by ladies to enhance the appearance of their skin. They also
made face masks out of starch and eggs, which were thought to tighten the skin, reduce
wrinkles, and keep the face looking youthful [7].The term “cosmetic” comes from the Greek
word “kosmetos,” which means “adornment “or “ornament.” Ointments containing
cypress, cedar, and incense resins were applied at night. Lead acetate (white lead) and
cinnabar were used to treat the skin (Hg).After the conquest of Carthage, figs (Ficus carica
L.) became very common in Rome. In order to formulate facial cream, they were combined
with banana (Musa L.), oats (Avena L.),and rose water. Galen is credited with inventing the
Frigus crepito, a precursor to the present cold cream. It is used as a skin protector,
comprising almond oil, rose water and beeswax [9].Gels and salves were used to blanch
skin in China, especially during the Shang Dynasty(1760BC). New fixings and techniques
were developed and presented as skincare moved to Europe and the Middle East. The first
virus cream was made with rose oil and water, with beeswax liquidity it. Scabs were treated
with the mineral alum, and skin inflammation was treated with olive lead [7]. Creams, also
known as topical formulations, have been a staple in cosmetics since ancient civilizations.
Creams are cosmetic or pharmaceutical products based on the techniques applied.
Unmediated creams are widely used in a number of dermatological conditions. In ancient
times, creams were simply made through the combination of two or more ingredients with
water as a solvent [10]. Albert Kligmancoined the term “cosmeceuticals” (a mixture of
“cosmetics” and “pharmaceuticals”) in 1984to provide an expert description of products
with both cosmetic and therapeutic value [11].Newer approaches for cream formulation
are being used as technology advances; hence, the cosmetics industry today is very
diferent from the one described earlier [10,11].Surprisingly, there is no agreement about
what constitutes a moisturizer, despite having a deep history. The word is a neologism
invented by Madison Avenue advertisers to promote the simplistic notion that they
moisturize the skin [6]. The inclination toad oily materials to the skin is almost instinctive,
and it can date back to the dawn of time . Natural substances, such as honey, oils or lipids,
and fiber have been used in topical treatments to heal wounds since the ancient Egyptians
. Moisturizers were once

Thought to prevent trans epidermal water loss (TEWL) by occlusion, preventing dryness, in
addition to skin smoothness and elasticity maintenance [6,13].The bricks and mortar
model suggests that the stratum corneum (SC), while being dead layer, functions as an
active membrane [6]. Coenocytes are the bricks, with their tough cell membranes and
keratin microfibrils, while the lipid layers between the cells are the mortar [14]. The loss of
the predominant intercellular lipids that play a vital role in regulating skin humidity by
forming bilayers, such as ceramides, cholesterol, and fatty acids, results in damage to the
structure of the water barrier, resulting in dry skin [6,15].When the moisture content of the
skin falls below 10% and the SC loses its continuity, it is considered dry
Ingredients
Emulsifiers, moisturizing agents, polymer/thickeners, sensory modifiers, and preservatives
are among the ingredients used in commercially available moisturizers
[16,17].Humectants, occlusive, and emollients are the three main types of moisturizing
ingredients (Table 1) [16].In addition to such ingredients, advanced benefit ingredients
including vitamins, antioxidants, lipids, or sunscreens are often included in the formulation
of moisturizers [16].Humectants draw and bind water due to their chemical nature, making
them hygroscopic conditioning agents, that will most likely pull water from the deeper
epidermis and dermis [16,18]. The presence of several hydroxyl (−OH) functionalities
allows them to beater-soluble in nature, besides having the capabilities to absorb and
retain water in the molecules within the stratum corneum (SC), supplying moisture to the
skin tissues and improving skin hydration [16,19]. They also have the ability to draw water
from the dermis into the epidermis while also trapping water from the atmosphere.
Humectants, when used without an occlusive agent, will only increase water loss from the
injured skin surface in a low humidity environment [20–22]. This is because occlusive
agents help to slow down the loss of moisture from the skin [22].Humectants are not easily
retained on the skin by wash-of items, such as cleansers even though they are important
moisturizing ingredients in leave-on formulas. Despitethat, they are still recommended to
be used as leave-on products, especially humectants with a prolonged trans epidermal
water loss (TEWL) impact and the application should beat least twice a day or more based
on skin dryness severity [23,24]. Ingredients that exhibit humectant properties are
glycerine, lactic acid, pantheon, butylene glycol, propylene glycol, sodium pyrimidine
carboxylic acid (PCA) and urea [25].Glycerine is the most extensively used humectant
found in most moisturizers[5,18,22,26].The increase in hydration varies from 1% to 25% or
more, with the highest improvement seen between 20% and 40% depending on the chassis
[16,27]. Glycerine has been shown to help in barrier regeneration, including stratum
carenum integrity, stability, and mechanical properties, in addition to the hydrating
properties on the skin surface [16,28]. Desmosomaldegradation has also been shown to be
aided by glycerine [16].Pantheons is a viscous liquid that is colourless, clear and
odourless. In tissue, it is converted to D-pantothenic acid (vitamin B5). Pantheon has the
ability to facilitate wound healing and fibroblast proliferation in addition to its humectant
properties [25]. Other commonly used alcohols with humectant properties include
butylene glycol [29] and propylene glycol [30,31]. Propylene glycol has been regarded as a
penetration enhancer that is occasionally used as a solvent and vehicle for compounds
that are unstable or water-insoluble [31]. However, propylene glycol has been shown to be
a sensitizing agent that contributes to irritation and contact dermatitis [25]. Propylene
glycol is more irritating compared to butylene glycol [25].Occlusive agents help maintain a
moisturized state in the stratum carenum (SC) by avoiding excessive water loss from the
skin’s surface (Table 1) [16,18,22,26,32]. Although they are not 100% occlusive, they permit
water transfer that is required for the normal functioning of the skin [16]. The increased
water content has the efect of speeding up

barrier recovery [16,33]. Since most occlusive agents lack hydroxy functional groups in
their chemical structure, they are unable to bind to water [16]. They can, however,
eficientlyseal moisture into skin as they can form uniform hydrophobic films [16].
Ingredients that exhibit occlusive properties include petrolatum, lanolin, mineral oils and
silicone derivatives [25]. Petrolatum, also known as petroleum jelly, is the most popular
occlusive [16,22,26,34]. Petrolatum is a semi-solid at room temperature, consisting of a
highlyrefined mixture of short and long-chain alkanes, microcrystalline wax, and mineral
oils. Petrolatum liquefies when applied to the skin and penetrates the SC, where it
recrystallizes, creating a robust interstitial occlusive structure that results in a significant
reduction oftransepidermal water loss [16]. The hydrocarbon content in petrolatum is
hydrogenated during the refining process to produce oxidation-resistant molecules, from
liquid to solid waxes. This contributes to the long shelf life [35]. Nonetheless, the greasy
texture poses’ significant disadvantage for most occlusive and petrolatum [25]. On top of
that, PAHs(polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) are a type of contaminant that can be
contained in petrolatum; various studies have discovered that long-term exposure is
associated with cancer, besides allergies and skin irritation [36].Lanolin, a naturally
occurring keratin conditioner, is made up mostly of sterol esters, but also acids and sterols
[37–40]. It can compensate for several of the shortcomings of petrolatum with comparable
eficacy that can be detected 14 days after the substance has been discontinued [37]. Its
appeal stems from its ability to spread, as well as its melting point being near to skin
temperature and its ability to absorb water [37]. Because of the role of these materials in
skin biology, the sterol content is also significant [41,42].Lanolin tends to penetrate and
incorporate itself into the stratum carenum’s lipid structure, which explains its long-lasting
efects [37]. It is also known as wool alcohol and is not commonly used in the preparation
of moisturizers due to its unpleasant odour, allergenic potential, and high cost [43,44].
Mineral oils (parafinum liquidum) have a better texture, but they can only minimize TEWL
by 30%. Silicone derivatives, such as cyclomethiconeand dimethicone, have a less greasy
feel, are hypoallergenic, and are commonly used in” oil-free” formulations [41,43,45]. The
word “oil-free” means that the products contain neither vegetable nor mineral oils added
[25].Emollients are water-insoluble materials, such as oils and lipids that do not form an
occlusive film [16,46]. The molecular weight of the substance may often distinguish an
emollient from an occlusive [16,47,48]. They are often utilized because of their ability to
smooth and soften skin and give it a silky texture [16,47]. They are mostly made up of lipids
that are close to the skin’s intercellular lipids, and they can possibly replenish the lipid
matrix that is damaged [16,49]. By substituting the main lipid components, the
moisturizers ‘combinations of ceramide, fatty acids and cholesterol can help fix lipid
bilayers damaged by solvents, soaps and harsh dry or cold weather conditions [50].
Ingredients that exhibit emollient properties include cetylcaprylic/caprice triglyceride,
catenary or acetyls alcohol, orioles, such as soybean, sunflower seed and grapeseed oil
[16]. The double bond numbers in fatty acid and their distribution along the carbon chain
are the most important characterise-tics [35]. The degree of unsaturation has a significant
impact on handling ease. Unsaturated fatty acids are more readily oxidized compared to
saturated fatty acids [35]. Consumer desires, relevant benefit and therapeutic use, as well
as the ideal sensory experience, aloneness the form and level of emollient

• table 1. Common active ingredients present in moisturizers.

• Emollients Fatty emollients (Octyl stearate, jojoba oil, propyleneglycol, castor oil,
glyceryl stearate), dry emollients(Isopropyl palmitate, decyl oleate, isostearyl
alcohol),protective emollients (Isopropyl isostearate, diisopropyldilinoleate) and
astringent emollients (octyl octanoate,cyclomethicone, isopropyl myristate,
dimethicone)[41,51–53]
• Humectants Alpha hydroxyl acids (Lactic acid and glycolic acid),glycerine
(glycerol), sodium pyrrolidine carboxylic acid(PCA), allantoin, honey, panthenol,
propylene glycol,butylene glycol, PEG, hyaluronic acid, aluminiumlactate, sodium
lactate, urea, gelatine and sorbitol[6,50]
• Occlusive Hydrocarbons (Mineral oil, petrolatum, caprylic/caprictriglyceride,
parafin, squalene), fatty alcohols (Stearylalcohol, cetyl alcohol, lanolin), fatty acids
(Stearic acid, lanolin acid), polyhydric alcohols (Propylene glycol),vegetable waxes
(Canella, carnauba), phospholipids(Lecithin), sterols (Cholesterol) and wax esters
(Lanolin, beeswax, steady stearate)[41,51–53]
• Exfoliants Lactic acid, urea, malic acid

The amounts of occlusive, humectants and emollients in a moisturizer determineits

efectiveness [16,54]. A decent moisturizer should provide a good balance of allthree
[16,38,55]. To replenish and preserve moisture, a combination of these ingredientsin
suficient quantities is required in order to provide an atmosphere that allows for skin
barrier repair [16,56]. Since the thickness can be controlled independently of
efectiveness, this mixture can be created as a cream or lotion [16].Emulsifiers are
necessary for the stability of moisturizers. Moisturizers are generallyformulated either as
emulsions or kinetically stabilized colloidal suspensions of two immis-cible liquids (Table
2) [16,57]. This means there is no discernible phase distinction and thein-use experience
remains constant during the product’s shelf life [16,58]. Emulsifiers maybe anything from
small monomeric surfactants to large polymeric fragments, surfactants,and aggregations
of lamellar liquid crystal [16,59]. Emulsifiers have long carbon chains,similar to those
found in skin lipids, which allows them to have skin benefits [16,60]. As amatter of fact, the
closer the emulsifier’s chemistry is to skin lipids, the more skin benefit itcan provide [16].
Emulsifiers can be categorized into nonionic and ionic emulsifiers [35].Depending on the
surface-active component of the compound, the ionic groups are clas-sified into anionic or
cationic [35,61,62]. Long-chain fatty acids, such as stearic acid andpalmitic acid, are an
example of widely used anionic emulsifiers [35,63]. In the prepara-tion of cream, the acids
are often partially neutralized with cationic excipients, and theirconcentrations can vary
from 1 to 10% [35,64]. The epidermal tissue also contains fattyacids with a chain length of
14 to 22 carbons [35,64]. Cholesterol which is another lipidbilayer component can be
utilized as a nonionic emulsifier in moisturizers [31,35,65]. Thehydrophilic activity of
nonionic emulsifiers is primarily based on ether linkages and hy-droxyl groups [35,66].
Nonionic emulsifiers generally result in less skin irritation comparedwith ionic emulsifiers
[35]. Ingredients that are commonly used as emulsifiers includeethylene glycol
monostearate, Laureth 4 and 9, nonoxinols and octoxinols [67]. However,there is a newer
method for delivering active ingredients into the epidermis known asliposome dispersion
which results in better action [6].Polymers are another class of materials used to enhance
moisturizer stability and alterthickness, texture, and sensory feel [16,68]. Synthetic
polyacrylate-type polymers or naturalpolymers, such as starch may be used [16,69].
Depending on the emulsifier and polymerused, the appearance and texture of emulsions
vary significantly, independent of their efectiveness

water, is the most essential and commonly used raw material in the formulationof
moisturizer cream as it is readily available and low cost [70,71]. Water is utilized asa
solvent in skin creams to dissolve other ingredients; it must be free of contaminantsand
microbes [70,71]. Oil-in-water emulsions or water-in-oil emulsions are
formulateddepending on the amounts of water phase and oil phase used [70].Niacinamide
(Vitamin B3) is an inactive ingredient included in moisturizers that is thewater-soluble
physiologically active form of vitamin B3 used in many moisturizers and hasa range of
dermatological therapeutic benefits [16,72,73]. Niacinamide boosts ceramide pro-duction,
decreases hyperpigmentation, has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties,and aids
in anti-aging [16,74]. Flushing is a possible side efect of niacinamide-containingproducts.
The ofender ingredient is niacin, a form of vitamin B3 that can show up as acontaminant if
raw material quality is not monitored properly [16,75].Alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs), an
additional ingredient in moisturizers, are commonlyreferred to as “fruit acids”. They are a
group of substances containing organic carboxyliccompounds that include citric acid,
glycolic acid, malic acid, lactic acid, and tartaric acid,all of which are naturally derived
[16,76]. At diferent concentrations, AHAs have beenused to improve desmosome
resolution and induce desquamation, with beneficial efectson the epidermis and dermis
[16,77]. AHAs are available at lower concentrations rangingfrom 5 to 10% that can be used
on a daily basis to improve barrier function and improvethe skin appearance related to
wrinkling, sun damage and hyperpigmentation. Meanwhile,higher concentrations ranging
from 20 to 70% are used as chemical peels [16]. Concernshave been raised about the
eficacy of using AHA in everyday skincare items. Studiesdemonstrated an increased
sensitivity to UV after using AHA-based products, promptingthe recommendation of sun
protection when using AHA-based products [37].Peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptors (PPARs) are transcription factors thatare ligand-activated, having efects on skin
barrier growth and maintenance, as well asincreasing keratinocyte diferentiation
[16,78,79]. They increase epidermal thickness andsynthesis of filaggrin, as well as the
development of barrier-important lipids, such asceramide and fatty acids, resulting in anti-
aging benefits [16,78,80]. Unsaturated fattyacids that are naturally-occurring, such as
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), are examples ofPPAR ligands [16]. When exposed to
sunlight, such compounds oxidize quickly and loseeficiency [16].Antioxidants, such as
vitamins C (ascorbic acid) and E (α-tocopherol) are efectivefor protecting the skin from
oxidative stress from the environment, such as UV rays andemissions [16,81]. However,
when exposed to sunlight, they become unstable[16,82]. Thereare more stable types of
these vitamins available, such as vitamin E acetate and magnesiumascorbyl phosphate
[16,83,84]. However, inside the skin, these must be absorbed andtransformed into the
active form [16]. Since tartaric acid, citric acid, ethylenediaminete-traacetic acid, and its
salts have minimal antioxidant activity, they serve as chelating agents,enhancing the
efectiveness of antioxidants by reacting with heavy metal ions [6].Hyaluronic acid (HA), a
disaccharide polymer, is an essential part of the extracellularmatrix, which helps
keratinocytes proliferate, migrate, and heal wounds [16,85]. Due toits various hydroxyl
moieties, HA is extremely hygroscopic and is frequently touted asa skincare wonder
ingredient [16,86,87]. Because of its high molecular weight, topically-applied HA is unable
to penetrate deeply enough into the skin to exert its biologicalefects [16].Botanical
substances are also used in the formulation of moisturizers [6,88,89]. How-ever, the use of
herbal extracts in moisturizers has not always been justified by clinicaltrials [90,91].
Instead, they could be added for marketing purposes to pique consumer in-terest in natural
ingredients’ alleged skin benefits. Aloe vera is the most well-known(Aloe barbadensis Miller
leaf extract) [6]. The chemical compositions of diferent aloespecies vary, and several
investigations on the constituents do not specify the speciesstudied [31,92]. Most of the
customer’s understanding of aloe’s efectiveness is based onanecdotal evidence
[31,93,94]. Burns and skin ulcers healing, as well as antibacterial and

anti-inflammatory properties, are all proposed benefits of aloe vera, but there is not sufi-
cient evidence available to back up its usage [31,95]. Several studies on the efectiveness
ofaloe vera components have yielded contradictory findings, necessitating further
clinicalresearch with vehicle controls [31].Allantoin is a compound that can be found in
comfrey roots. It is a synthetic derivativecalled aluminum dihydroxy allantoinate [96,97]. It
has been promoted as a moisturizer andkeratolytic [6,98]. However, there is not suficient
evidence available to back up its usage.Oatmeal (Avena sativa) baths for calming rashes
have been used by nurses for decades [6].Meanwhile, the husk of oats can also be used as
an exfoliant [37].Bioflavonoids or plant-derived polyphenols, due to their antioxidant
properties, arebecoming more common in topical products [99]. Vitamin E, ascorbic acid,
ubiquinol, anduric acid are all antioxidants found in normal skin. Their levels in the skin are
afectedby oxidative stress, and topical antioxidant therapy has been suggested to be
beneficialto the skin. For instance, red tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) contains an
open-chain,unsaturated carotenoid that possesses protective efects against UV rays [31].
However, itremains to be proven how efective they are for reducing oxidative stress in the
skin [6].Fragrances and coloring agents are used more for their aesthetic value than for
theirmoisturizing properties (Table 2) [6,12,100]. Such ingredients include benzoin resin,
cinna-mates, cinnamic acid and menthol. Coloring agents produce subtle hues and other
opticalefects, resulting in greater acceptance, though they can sometimes cause irritant
dermati-tis [6]. Certain moisturizers have fragrance ingredients incorporated in the form of
maskingagents, preventing the brain from perceiving their odor, even though they are
advertised as“fragrance-free” or “unscented” [101,102]. Many unlisted fragrance
ingredients are irritantsthat can cause allergies, extreme headaches, and asthma
symptoms [36,103]. Perfumescan aggravate asthma in children and even lead to its
development. It is the second mostcommon source of allergy symptoms in patients
[36].Preservatives are used to kill or inhibit microorganism growth that is
accidentallyintroduced during manufacturing or use [104]. Pathogens and nonpathogens
are alsopossible contaminants [105–107]. The ideal preservative should have a wide
spectrum ofactivity, be stable in the product, safe to use and have no efect on the
product’s physicalproperties [108]. Since no single preservative can satisfy all of these
criteria, a mixtureof substances is commonly used [4]. Ingredients that are widely used as
preservativesin moisturizers include parabens (methyl-, propyl-, ethyl- and butyl-paraben)
and phe-noxyethanol [6].Previous research has suggested that parabens can pose serious
health risks, espe-cially to humans (Table 3). As a result, there is an increasing market for
preservative-freecosmetics [109,110]. Natural compounds, such as plant extracts or
essential oils, may beused to replace parabens and address the issue of microbial purity in
cosmetics [109].Parabens are a form of preservative that easily penetrates the skin and is
suspected of inter-fering with hormone function, resulting in endocrine disruption [36,111].
They interruptmale reproductive functions besides having the ability to mimic estrogens,
the female sexhormones [36,112].According to several studies, when methylparaben is
applied to the skin, it willinteract with other chemicals, causing skin aging and damage to
DNA [36,113]. However,when consumed, parabens in food are metabolized, making them
less estrogenic [114].Meanwhile, parabens in cosmetics are applied directly to the skin and
absorbed into thebody. They then bypass the metabolic process, entering the bloodstream
and body organsintact [111,115]. They have been linked to cancer and neurotoxicity among
other healthissues [36].In order to resist contamination and microbial growth, products
without preservativesadded have to depend on low water activity, such as high alcohol
concentration, low pH,and/or other agents that are not considered preservatives, such as
essential oils[31,116].However, other types of inconveniences can result from such
formulations, such as insufi-cient preservation, poor cosmetic properties, or the risk of
other adverse reactions [31,117]

When an allergy reaction is suspected, substances, such as ethylhexylglycerin and

prylylglycol are normally used to replace preservatives (Table 3) [31].Sunscreens are also
included in moisturizer formulations due to media coverageprovided on carcinogenicity
and the accelerated skin-aging efects of sunlight [118,119].The utilization of sunscreen
products has increasingly widened not only in sunscreens butalso in other cosmetics,
such as moisturizers, where they can cause photocontact and contactallergic reactions
[119–121]. Certain antioxidants, such as retinol palmitate, tocopherol(vitamin E) acetate
and ascorbic acid (vitamin C), are utilized more specifically in sunscreenand moisturizing
products to avoid aging [118,122]. However, in such preparations, theyare uncommon
causes of allergic contact dermatitis (Table 3) [118,123,124]. However, thelow incidence of
confirmed cases of allergic reactions may be due to a lack of recognitionof a contact
allergy or photoallergy to sunscreen products, as a diferential diagnosis of aprimary sun
intolerance is not always evident [118]. Highly toxic para-aminobenzoic acidagents have
been substitutedby compounds, such as titanium dioxide, cinnamates andzinc oxide [6]

table 2. Common Inactive Ingredients.

Thickener

Caromed, sorbitol, oleic acid, xanthan gum, isostearic acid,stearic acid and glyceryl
stearate[48]
Buffers

NaOH, TEA, maleic acid and citric acid

Solvent

Water

Preservatives

Potassium sorbate, rice bran oil, phenoxyethanol, disodiumEDTA, propylparaben,

methylparaben and vitamin C(L-Ascorbic Acid)[4,48]

Lipids

γ-linoleic acid

fragrance

Hazelnut fragrance [50]Colorants TiO2

Emulsifiers

early alcohol, sorbitan monolaurate and cetyl alcohol

Table 3. Adverse effects of moisturizers.

Adverse Effect. Plausible Causes

Cosmetic acne. Water in oil preparations that contains occlusive oils

Irritant reactions. Propylene glycol, solvents, proteins in vegetable oils,

urea,hydroxyl acids

Allergic contact dermatitis Preservatives, propylene glycol, fragrances,

sunscreens,lanolin, vitamin E, Kathon CG, herbal products (Aloe),chamomile oil, olive oil,
tea tree oil

Subjective irritation Humectants (urea, lactic acid, PCA), preservatives

(sorbicacid, benzoic acid)

Photosensitivity eruptionsand photomelanosis. Sunscreens, fragrances, hydroxyl

acids, preservatives

Occlusive folliculitis Mineral oils, petrolatum

Contact urticaria Fragrances, balsam of peru, preservatives (sorbic acid)

Poisoning in burn patients. Propylene glycolIntoxication

Intoxication. Salicylic acid

4.1 Preparation of Oil in Water (o/w) MoisturizerThe emulsifier and oil-soluble

components are combined in a beaker and melted at75 ◦Cin a water bath. Water, water-
soluble materials and preservatives are melted at75 ◦Cin another beaker. The oil phase is
placed in a mortar and pestle after heating, and the waterphase is gradually added and
triturated until a clicking sound is heard. Finally, perfumingagents and/or preservatives
are added as the temperature cools down. The amount ofwater in this preparation will
be greater than the amount of oil [70].

4.2. Preparation of Water in Oil (w/o) MoisturizerThe emulsifier and oil soluble
components are melted together at 75◦C in one beaker.Water and water-soluble
materials are taken to another beaker and melted at 75◦C. Thewater phase is placed in a
mortar and pestle after melting, and the oil phase is graduallyadded and triturated until
a clicking sound can be heard. The perfuming agent is added

after the cream has cooled to the desired temperature. This preparation would have a
loweramount of water phase and a higher amount of oil phase [70].Depending on the
dispensing medium, moisturizers come in a variety of formulations.A cosmetic emulsion
is the most common delivery method. The emulsification methodincorporates several
steps that contain the active ingredients (Table 4) [6].

5. Characterization5.1. Determination of pHAt room temperature, the pH of the cream

can be determined using a standard digitalpH meter by diluting an appropriate quantity
of the formulation with a suitable solvent ina beaker [70]. However, it is advisable to
calibrate the pH meter before use with a standardbuffer solution at pH 4 and pH 7
[133,134]. Meanwhile, according to Maha et al. (2018), thepH of a topical preparation
should be between 4.5 to 6.5, which corresponds to the pH of the skin. The pH should
not be too acidic, as this can irritate the skin, nor should it be tooalkaline [135]

5.2. Organoleptic Properties/Physical AppearanceInvolves grading of its texture and

color [70]. To be more precise, the clarity, smell,texture, and foreign particles present
were evaluated. The grittiness and stickiness weredetermined by rubbing them between
two fingers [136]. Esoje et al. (2016) suggested thatthis test was to be conducted
randomly, at different temperatures and storage duration toobserve for any changes
[137].

5.3. Centrifugation TestIt is conducted to assess the chemical and physical stability of the
formulation underthe influence of centrifugal force [138,139]. Five to ten grams of
sample were centrifugedat 3000 rpm for 30 min at room temperature. The formulation
was examined for phaseseparation after the centrifugation process, which is an Indicator
of formulation instabil-ity [109,138,139]. Meanwhile, Fernandes et al. (2018) evaluated
both organoleptic (look,color, feel, thickness) and physical (phase separation and
creaming) properties. Phaseseparation is denoted by the presence of caking,
coalescence, and flocculation [140].

5.4. Mechanical Vibration TestThis test assesses the formulation’s stability when
subjected to mechanical vibration,which can result in phase separation and indicate
instability. Five grams of sample werevibrated for 10 s on a vortex shaker (Haidalph)
[109].

5.5. SpreadabilitySpreadability is a term used to describe the area a topical application

spreads afterbeing applied to the skin of the affected areas, with shorter intervals
indicating betterspreadability [141]. Between two glass slides, the formula was applied
and pressed toachieve a uniform film thickness. Following that, a weight of 10 g was
added to the pan,and the top plate was pulled using a string attached to a hook. The
time it takes for theupper glass slide to travel 10 cm over the lower plate is recorded,
and the spreadability (S)is calculated using the formula [142].

Spread ability =Weight tied to u p per slide ×gl ass slide length Time taken to separate
slides (1)

5.6. Saponification ValueThe saponification value is a measure of saturation, with higher

values indicatingshorter chain fatty acids in the glycerol bond [143]. Meanwhile, Saraf et
al. (2011) stated that the saponification value is a measurement of the amount of free
fatty acid esters in a samplewhich affects the formulation’s stability, pH, and cleaning
properties. The formulation’s

saponification value should be appropriate; if the fat content is too high, it can contain
toomuch fatty acid, which is susceptible to hydrolysis and may lead to rancidification
andmicrobial growth [144]. Two grams of substance were refluxed for 30 min with 25 mL
of0.5 Nalcoholic KOH; then, 1 mL of phenolphthalein was applied and titrated with 0.5
NHCl right away, marking the result as ‘a’. The procedure was repeated, this time
omittingthe material to be tested, marking the result as ‘b’ in the reading [70].

Saponification value =(b−a)×28.05wei ght o f substance (gram)(2)

5.7. DensityThis is the proportion of a substance’s mass to the volume it takes up. This
parameteris an indication of air incorporation or the loss of volatile ingredients in liquids
or semi-solids. A graduated cylinder and a balance were used to determine the
(apparent) densityof the formulations. The test was performed in triplicate with 10 mL of
each formulation,and an average was determined. The apparent density is correlated
with the recipient’scapacity [109].

5.8. Light TestThe formulations were placed in clear plastic containers and exposed to
intense lightfor 15 days using a daylight bulb with a photoperiodicity system consisting
of 16 h of lightand 8 h of dark. The samples were analyzed for any changes in physical
properties, such asclarity, appearance, or color, as well as liquefaction, at the end of the
exposure period. Anyvisible phase separation or color change is an indication of product
instability [109].

5.9. Acid ValueThe acid value is a measurement of the amount of free acid in fats or oils
that causesrancidity upon exposure to heat or light [145]; 10 g of substance was
dissolved in a preciselyweighted 50 mL mixture of equal parts alcohol and solvent ether.
The flask was attachedto a reflux condenser and slowly heated until the sample was fully
dissolved; 1 mL ofphenolphthalein was added and titrated with 0.1 N NaOH until the
appearance of a slightlypink color after 30 s of shaking [70].Acid value =no.o f m L o f
0.1 N KOH solution ×5.61wei ght o f s ubtanc e (gram)(3)

5.10. ViscosityThe viscosity is used to evaluate the formulation’s stability with regard to
consistencyand as a result, to predict how the substance will behave over time [109]. The
BrookfieldViscometer can be used to calculate the viscosity of formulated creams [70].
Viscosity valuesare calculated by multiplying the dial reading with correction factors in
the Brookfieldviscometer. Increased viscosity during storage indicates kinetically
unstable emulsions, in which free-moving droplets collide and appear to coalesce [135].

5.11. HomogeneityShows the distribution of materials in the formula [135]. Touch and
visual appearancewere used to check for homogeneity [70]. The homogeneity of cream
can be assessed bysmearing 50 mg of preparations onto a clean object-glass, showing a
homogeneous arrange-ment with no clear grain observation [135]. Homogeneity and
texture were conductedsimultaneously by Chen et al. (2016) by pressing a small amount
of the formulation be-tween the thumb and index finger to assess the presence of
coarse particles. The immediateskin feel was also assessed

Cosmetics 2022, 9, 61 12 of 19

5.12. Dye Test

To determine the type of emulsion [133]. A drop of cream was placed on a slide afterthe
cream was mixed with scarlet dye. Then, the slide was covered with a coverslip and
examined under a microscope; o/w creams have dispersed globules that appear red
and the ground is colorless and vice versa for w/o creams

5.13. After Feeling Test

After application of a fixed amount of cream, the slipperiness, emollience and residue
left were assessed [70].

5.14. Type of Smear

The smear pattern developed on the skin after the cream application was assessed

5.15. Irritancy Study

This test determines the characteristics of produced formulations in terms of skin

irritation On the left-hand dorsal surface, draw a 1 sq.cm section. The cream was applied
to the designated location, and the duration was recorded. Erythema, irritation and
edema were assessed and recorded at regular intervals for up to 24 h Another type of
skin irritation test was conducted using albino rabbits. During the test time, these
animals were held in separate cages and given fresh food and water; 24 h before the
test,the fur on the neck and thighs was shaved to reveal a sufficiently wide test area.
Surgical spirit was used to disinfect the test site briefly. The test area was then covered
with cream.

For 24 h, 48 h, and 72 h after application, the test site was monitored for erythema and
enema Irritancy studies should be performed on animals prior to human studies Once
the prepared formulation demonstrated high compliance in animal tests, then it could
be applied to healthy human volunteers to determine its safety for topical use Both
animal and human studies are preferably conducted in skin irritancy tests as some
substances are harmful to rabbits but not to humans, and vice versa [148,149].

5.16. Spectrophotometric Test

It is another form of stability testing involving the dilution of formulations in ultra-pure

water at a ratio of 1/100 (m/v); then they are analyzed using spectrophotometry

in the UV-VIS region (210 nm to 600 nm), with the spectrum compared to the control
formulation’s reference spectrum. Formulation instability is described as variations in
intensity or absorption bands’ wavelength. This indicates that some changes have
occurred in the color intensity or even modification of the coloring content [109].

5.17. Microbial Stability

The microbial contamination test was used to assess the formulations’ microbial
stability. After preparing the bacteria and yeast culture medium, it was autoclaved for
20 min at 125 C, and then 20 mL of the culture medium was poured into a sterile Pet
dish. The Petri dishes were then inoculated with 0.2 g of each formulation in the center
of each plate, and incubated for 3 days at 37 C or 25C, depending on the inoculated
microorganisms. Plates were removed after the incubation period and tested for
microbial growth, which indicates contamination

5.18. In Vitro Occlusivity Test

The occlusion factor was used to assess the formulations’ occlusivity. When the
occlusion factor is zero (“0”), there is no occlusion effect when compared to the
reference; “100” is the highest occlusion factor, indicating complete surface coverage by
the topical formulation Creams with a higher occlusion effect result in more moist skin
that is more pliable and maintains its moisturizing effect Each beaker with a height of
4.6 cm and a diameter of 3.2 cm was filled with 10 g of distilled water. Then, the open
end

was covered with Whatman filter paper (0.45 pore size) on which 200 mg of sa,mple
was uniformly distributed. After that, the beakers were set at 37±2◦C/607±5% RH for48
h. Thein vitroocclusivity of all formulations, prototype formulations, and the
negativecontrol in which the filter paper was left uncovered were investigated to
determine thewater flux. The occlusion factor F was determined as follows
[152]:F=A−BA×100where A= Water flux via uncovered filter (percent water loss) and B=
Water flux via filterwhen covered by test preparation (percent water loss)

5.19. Accelerated Stability StudyAccording to ICH guidelines, all formulations were

subjected to accelerated stabilitytesting for a duration of 2 weeks at a temperature of
25±2◦C and 40◦±2◦C, withtwo relative humidity conditions, specifically 60±5% RH and
75±5% RH. The cosmeticformulations were examined for organoleptic characteristics
(texture, smell, color, phaseseparation and consistency) and their pH value was
determined after 8 days. At the end of the storage period, the process was repeated
[70,109].

5.20. Preference TestColor, scent and skin sensation were the criteria of preference tests
focused on sensoryassessment. A numerical scale was used to determine the degree of
preference as based on

Uses and ApplicationsMoisturizers

are beneficial for a variety of purposes. There is evidence of biologicaleffects that

support the use of moisturizers in medicine [118]. Many moisturizers
blockcyclooxygenase activity, which inhibits the development of proinflammatory
proteinoids,and thus have a calming effect on inflamed skin, leading to their anti-
inflammatory action.Mineral oil-based moisturizers have a low-level antimitotic effect on
the epidermis, mak-ing them effective in inflammatory dermatoses, such as psoriasis,
which have increasedepidermal mitotic activity. Emollients reduce itching by inhibiting
the development ofcytokines. In addition, the cooling effect of water evaporating from
the skin surface afterusing water-based moisturizers contributes to the antipruritic
effect. Sunscreens withvarying sun protection factors are also used in moisturizers,
offering extra sun protec-tion (photoprotective action). Moisturizers also have
antimicrobial and wound-healingproperties [6].Skin hydration, friction, scaling, and
mechanical properties are all affected by mois-turizers. A series of changes occur after a
single application of a moisturizer, all of whichreflects the moisturizer’s composition.
Initial changes tend to be related to the moistur-izer’s water content, which includes
increased evaporation from the skin surface, decreasedtemperature, and skin softening.
Changes occur with repeated applications over time,which are assumed to be caused by
the moisturizer’s lipid phase, involving a reduction inscaling, increased hydration and
discrete color changes. Specific additives, such as urea,alpha-hydroxy acids, or glycerol,
may help to reinforce some of these Improvements

Moisturizers are often prescribed as preventative measures and adjunct therapy for a
variety of dermatological conditions. Moisturizers seem to be able to reverse some of
the barrier defects seen in conditions, such as atopic dermatitis, allowing for
improveddisease control. Moisturizers have been studied for their adjuvant properties.
The use of amoisturizer as an alternative to active corticosteroid treatment of the skin
has been shown tominimize the quantity of corticosteroids required, without
compromising treatment efficacy.It is postulated that the moisturizer’s lipid content may
play a role, but the mechanismunderlying this remains unclear [118].There is also a
possibility that applying a moisturizer meets an atavistic psychologicaldesire for physical
contact, which is reinforced by the moisturizer’s immediate physicalimpact. Using a
moisturizer necessitates extensive touching, either by oneself or by anotherperson,
resulting in enhanced sensory perception. It is also likely that additional psycho-logical
factors may be overlooked when moisturizers are used, such as stress coping and asense
of security, thus reinforcing the use of moisturizers [118].Moisturizers are often
advertised and, as a result, are able to generate significantrevenue for all advertising
companies. While emolliency is an essential feature of mois-turization, advertisement
has almost fully replaced the conventional definition of creamsor emollients. Marketing
concepts promote that skin that is dry and dull is unattractive,while young and attractive
skin is supple and moist. Moisture is needed for dry skin,which obviously can be
compensated by the usage of moisturizers. Although there isno sufficient evidence of a
sex disparity in dryness parameters, the strong focus on thischain of reasoning has
persuaded a large number of women that their skin is dry, furtherpromoting the
expanded use of moisturizers [118].7.

Conclusions Moisturizers

are often used for both healthy and diseased skin, bridging the gapbetween medicine
and consumer goods. The ability to tailor particular agents to specificdermatological
needs will be critical in the future of moisturizer therapy. Knowing thecharacteristics and
interactions of active ingredients with the skin will allow for betterutilization of available
moisturizers. Dermatologists who have a thorough understandingof moisturizers and
have the initiative to explain the importance of moisturization to theirpatients may
improve patient compliance. It is important to keep in mind that moisturizerformulas do
not come without flaws. Patients who apply moisturizers on a regular basiscan develop
contact dermatitis, which is often caused by preservatives or fragrances usedin many
commercial products. Hence, dermatologists should weigh the risk of allergenicityand
irritancy against cost, availability, and customer preferences for patients with
sensitiveskin or established skin conditions
Acknowledgment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who helped me in the successful
completion of this Chemistry investigatory project titled “A Study on Moisturizers”.

First and foremost, I thank latha mam my subject teacher, for their constant support,
valuable guidance, and encouragement throughout the project. Their suggestions and
critical feedback were extremely helpful in shaping this investigation.

I also extend my heartfelt thanks to the school principal, for providing the necessary
facilities and a supportive learning environment. A special thank you to my parents and
family members for their cooperation, patience, and continuous motivation. Their
support was crucial in the successful execution of the experimental work at home.

Finally, I am grateful to all my classmates and friends who shared their ideas and
feedback during the project. Their input helped me refine my work further.

This project has been a great learning experience and has helped me deepen my
understanding of the chemistry behind skin care and cosmetic products.

[M.Nandhini]

Class 11 – Chemistry

[Brimming high international school]

Index
1.Abstract
2.introduction
3.history of moisturizers
4.ingredients
5.Chemical Properties of moisturizer
5.uses and applications of moisturizers
7.conclusions of moisturizers