Solutions:
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances at molecular level. A solution
may exist in any phase.
OR
A homogeneous mixture of chemical substances, which has same physical properties and
chemical composition is called solution.
Components of solution:
A solution consists of two or more substances;
The substance which is greater in amount is called the Solvent.
The substance which is lesser in amount is referred as solute.
TYPE OF DISPERSION:
True solution
Colloidal dispersion
Coarse dispersion
Types of Solute
🔹 1. Non-Electrolytes
Do NOT ionize in water & Do NOT conduct electricity
Examples: Sucrose (sugar), Urea, Glycerin
2. Electrolytes
Ionize in water & Conduct electricity
Further divided into:
a. Strong Electrolytes
Completely ionize in water & Conduct electricity well
Examples: Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄)
b. Weak Electrolytes
Partially ionize in water & Conduct electricity weakly
Examples: Ephedrine, Phenobarbital
Properties of solution:
1. Additive Properties
Depend on the total sum of all atoms or constituents
Examples:
o Molecular weight
2. Constitutive Properties
Depend on the type and arrangement of atoms in a molecule
Examples:
o Light refraction
o Electric properties
o Solubility (partially additive too)
3. Colligative Properties
Depend only on the number of particles (not their type)
Examples:
o Osmotic pressure
o Lowering of vapor pressure
o Depression of freezing point
o Elevation of boiling point
Routes of Solution Formulation:
Oral: Syrups, elixirs, drops
Mouth & Throat: Mouthwashes, gargles
Body Cavities: Ear drops, nasal syrups, enemas
Skin (Body Surface): Lotions, collodions
Applications of Solutions:
Used therapeutically in oral, injectable, skin, eye, ear, and nasal products
Used as flavoring, buffering, preservatives, and suspending agents
Stock solutions are used to make other medicines
Test solutions help in quality testing of medicines
Concentration of Solution:
It is the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution.
Dilute solution: Low amount of solute.
Concentrated solution: High amount of solute.
Ways to Express Concentration:
1. Percentage Expression
2. Molarity
3. Normality
4. Molality
5. Mole Fraction
6. Parts per million (ppm)
[Link] Expression:
It shows how much solute is present in 100 parts of the solution.
Types:
1. % Weight/Weight (% W/W)
o Grams of solute in 100 grams of solution
Weight of solute
% age of solute= x 100
Weight of solution
2. % Volume/Volume (% V/V)
o Milliliters of solute in 100 mL of solution
volume of solute
% age of solute= x 10 0
volume of solution
3. Weight/Volume (% W/V)
o Grams of solute in 100 mL of solution
Weight of solute
% age of solute= x 10 0
volume of solution
4. Milligram Percent
o Milligrams of solute in 100 mL of solution
2. Molarity (M)
Definition: Number of moles of solute per liter of solution
Unit: mol/L
Use: Most common for chemical reactions (stoichiometry)
3. Normality (N)
Definition: Gram equivalents of solute per liter of solution
Unit: eq/L
Use: Titration and acid-base reactions
4 . Molality (m)
Definition: Moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
Unit: mol/kg
Use: Used in colligative properties (like boiling point elevation)
5. Mole Fraction (X)
Definition: Ratio of moles of one component to total moles
No units (unitless)
Total Mole Fraction:
Use: Mostly in thermodynamics
5. PARTS PER MILLION:
Number of parts (by wt. or volume) of solute per million parts (by wt. or volume) of
solution is called parts per million.
Significance:
It is used for very low conc. of solution.
It is used to express the amount of impurities in H2O.
Property Ideal Solution Real Solution
Definition Behaves perfectly during Shows changes in heat and
mixing; no heat or volume volume during mixing
change
Raoult’s Law Follows Raoult’s Law Does not follow Raoult’s
Law
Heat Change (ΔH) No heat change (ΔH = 0) Heat is either absorbed or
released (ΔH ≠ 0)
Volume Change No volume change (V = V₁ + V₂) Volume may increase or
decrease (V ≠ V₁ + V₂)
Molecular Interaction Equal attractive forces between Unequal attractive forces
all particles between components
Molecule Size/Property Components have similar size Components have different
and properties size and properties
Expansion/Shrinkage No expansion or shrinkage of Expansion or shrinkage may
molecules occur
Examples Methanol + Ethanol, Benzene + Water + HCl (negative
Toluene deviation), Acetone + Water
(positive deviation)
Deviation from Raoult’s Law No deviation Positive or Negative
deviation possible
Escaping Tendency Regular behavior (matches Can change due to unequal
Raoult’s law) forces between particles
Colligative properties:
A. LOWERING OF VAPOUR PRESSURE:
Vapour Pressure:
Pressure exerted by vapours of a liquid in equilibrium with the pure liquid at a given
temperature.
Lowering of Vapour Pressure:
When a non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, it reduces the escaping tendency of
solvent particles.
As a result, vapour pressure of the solution decreases (Raoult’s Law).
Raoult’s Law:
P=P0×X1
(Vapour pressure is directly proportional to the mole fraction of solvent.)
Method Used: Manometric method is used to measure vapour pressure.
Graphical form:
B. Elevation of Boiling Point:
Boiling Point:
Temperature at which a liquid’s vapour pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Elevation of Boiling Point:
When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the vapour pressure decreases, so
the solution boils at a higher temperature than the pure solvent.
This increase in boiling point is called elevation of boiling point.
Reason:
Solute particles block solvent molecules from escaping, so more heat is needed to boil.
Apparatus Used: Cottrell Apparatus is used to measure the boiling point elevation.
Graphical presentation:
C. Depression of Freezing Point:
Freezing Point Depression:
When a non-volatile solute is added to a pure solvent, the solution freezes at a lower
temperature than the pure solvent. This decrease is called freezing point depression.
Why It Happens:
The solute lowers the vapour pressure of the solvent, so more cooling is needed to
reach freezing point (equilibrium between solid and liquid).
Apparatus Used:
o Beckmann’s Apparatus
o Equilibrium Apparatus
Graphical form:
D. Osmotic Pressure (Colligative Property)
Osmosis:
Movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from pure
solvent side to solution side to balance concentrations.
Osmotic Pressure:
The pressure that must be applied to the solution to stop solvent from passing through
the membrane. It is higher than the pressure of pure solvent.
Why It Happens:
Solvent moves because the chemical potential (escaping tendency) of solvent in solution
is less than in pure solvent.
Measurement:
Osmotic pressure is measured by the height difference (h) in a capillary tube on solution
side vs solvent side:
Osmotic pressure π (atm)=Height (h) × solubility(ρ) × gravitational acceleration
Applications of Colligative Properties
Colligative properties help determine the molecular weight of substances.
Boiling point elevation method works well only if:
o The solute does not evaporate (nonvolatile).
o The solute does not break down at boiling temperature.
Freezing point depression method is good for:
o Solutions with volatile solutes like alcohol.
o It’s simple, accurate, and works well for small molecules.
Osmotic pressure method:
o Can be used anytime, not limited to specific temperatures.
o But it’s harder to perform, so not commonly used.
For very large molecules (like polymers), osmotic pressure is preferred.
Since all colligative properties are related, knowing one property can help calculate the
others.
