SPECIAL

INDIAN
EDITION

Tool Design
Fourth Edition
 SPECIAL
INDIAN
EDITION

Tool Design
Fourth Edition

Cyril Donaldson
Formerly of Rochester Institute of Technology

George H LeCain
Formerly of Rochester Institute of Technology

V C Goold
Kansas State College of Pittsburg

Joyjeet Ghose
Assistant Professor
Department of Production Engineering
BIT Mesra, Mesra

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

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 Tata McGraw Hill
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Tool Design, 4e (SIE)
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 CONTENTS

Preface to the Fourth Edition ix

Preface xv
1. TOOL-DESIGN METHODS 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Design Procedure 3
1.3 Drafting and Design Techniques in Tooling Drawings 5
Summary 19
Questions 20
References 21
2. TOOLMAKING PRACTISES 22
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 The Tools of the Toolmaker 23
2.3 Hand Finishing and Polishing 43
2.4 Screws and Dowels 55
2.5 Hole Location 60
2.6 Jig-Boring Practise 75
2.7 Installation of Drill Bushings 90
2.8 Punch and Die Manufacture 96
2.9 Electro Discharge Machining 103
2.10 Electro Discharge Machining for Cavity Applications 113
2.11 Tracer and Duplicating Mills for Cavity Applications 118
2.12 Low-Melting Tooling Materials 125
Summary 130
Questions 130
References 134
3. TOOLING MATERIALS AND HEAT TREATMENT 135
3.1 Introduction 135
3.2 Properties of Materials 135
3.3 Ferrous Tooling Materials 145
3.4 Cast Iron 153
3.5 Mild or Low-Carbon Steel 153
3.6 Nonmetallic Tooling Materials 154
3.7 Nonferrous Tooling materials 155
3.8 Heat Treating 157
3.9 Appearance of Carbon in Steel 161
3.10 Factors Affecting Heat Treating 164
vi Contents

3.11 Heat Treatment and Tool Design 173

Summary 177
Questions 178
Problems 180
References 181
4. DESIGN OF CUTTING TOOLS 182
4.1 Introduction 182
4.2 A Brief History of Metal Cutting 182
4.3 Metal-Cutting Process 183
4.4 Mechanics and Geometry of Chip Formation 187
4.5 General Consideration for Metal Cutting 221
4.6 Metal-Cutting Tools 271
4.7 Single-Point Cutting Tools 272
4.8 Milling Cutters 307
4.9 Drills and Drilling 333
4.10 Types of Drills 337
4.11 Reamers 346
4.12 Reamer Classification 354
4.13 Taps 360
4.14 Tap Classification 363
4.15 The Selection of Carbide Cutting Tools 367
Summary 374
Questions 375
Problems 381
Design Problems 382
References 388
5. GAUGES AND GAUGE DESIGN 390
5.1 Introduction 390
5.2 Fixed Gauges 391
5.3 Gauge Tolerances 403
5.4 The Selection of Material for Gauges 403
5.5 Indicating Gauges 407
5.6 Automatic Gauges 423
Solved Design Problem 425
Summary 428
Questions 429
Problems 430
Design Problems 430
References 433
6. LOCATING AND CLAMPING METHODS 434
6.1 Introduction 434
6.2 The Basic Principles of Location 434
 Contents vii

6.3 Locating Methods and Devices 444

6.4 The Basic Principles of Clamping 452
Solved Design Problems 468
Summary 488
Questions 488
Problems 489
Design Problems 489
References 491
7. DESIGN OF DRILL JIGS 492
7.1 Introduction 492
7.2 Definition of a Drill Jig 492
7.3 Types of Drill Jigs 493
7.4 Chip Formation in Drilling 500
7.5 General Considerations in the Design of Drill Jigs 501
7.6 Drill Bushings 507
7.7 Methods of Construction 511
7.8 Drill Jigs and Modern Manufacturing 511
Solved Design Problems 512
Summary 530
Questions 531
Design Problems 532
References 536
8. DESIGN OF FIXTURES 537
8.1 Introduction 537
8.2 Fixtures and Economics 537
8.3 Types of Fixtures 539
8.5 Boring Fixtures 552
8.6 Broaching Fixtures 558
8.7 Lathe Fixtures 561
8.8 Grinding Fixtures 571
Solved Design Problems 573
Summary 583
Questions 584
Design Problems 585
References 590
9. DESIGN OF SHEET-METAL BLANKING AND PIERCING DIES 591
9.1 Introduction 591
9.2 Introduction to Die-Cutting Operations 591
9.3 Power-Press Types 594
9.4 General Press Information 598
9.5 Material-Handling Equipment 598
9.6 Cutting Action in Punch and Die Operations 603
viii Contents

9.7 Die Clearance 605

9.8 Types of Die Construction 618
9.9 Die-Design Fundamentals 626
9.10 Pilots 637
9.11 Strippers and Pressure Pads 639
9.12 Presswork Materials 662
9.13 Strip Layout 663
9.14 Short-Run Tooling for Piercing 666
Summary 671
Questions 671
Problems 674
Design Problems 677
References 679
10. DESIGN OF SHEET–METAL BENDING, FORMING AND 680
DRAWING DIES
10.1 Introduction 680
10.2 Bending Dies 680
10.3 Forming Dies 688
10.4 Drawing Operations 699
10.5 Variables that Affect Metal Flow during Drawing 703
10.6 Determining Blank Size 715
10.7 Drawing Force 716
10.8 Single- and Double-action Draw Dies 716
Solved Design Problem 719
Summary 721
Questions 722
Problems 724
Design Problems 726
References 728
11. USING PLASTICS AS TOOLING MATERIALS 729
11.1 Introduction 729
11.2 Plastic Commonly Used as Tooling Materials 730
11.3 Application of Epoxy Plastic Tools 731
11.4 Construction Methods of Plastic Tooling 734
11.5 Metal-Forming Operations with Urethane Dies 749
11.6 Calculating Forces for Urethane Pressure Pads 760
Solved Examples 762
Summary 763
Questions 764
Design Problems 765
References 768
 Contents ix

12. TOOL DESIGN FOR NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED 769

MACHINE TOOLS
12.1 Introduction 769
12.2 The Need for Numerical Control 769
12.3 Basic Explanation of Numerical Control 770
12.4 Numerical Control Systems in Use Today 770
12.5 Fixture Design for Numerically Controlled Machine Tools 775
12.6 Cutting Tools for Numerical Control 791
12.7 Toolholding Methods for Numerical Control 800
12.8 Automatic Tool Changers and Tool Positioners 805
12.9 Tool Presetting 816
Summary 826
Questions 827
Design Problems 828
References 829
13. AUTOMATIC SCREW MACHINE 830
13.1 Introduction 830
13.2 General Explanation of the Brown and Sharpe Machine 830
13.3 Tooling for Automatic Screw Machines 845
Summary 856
Questions 856
References 858
Index 859
 PREFACE TO THE
SPECIAL INDIAN EDITION

INTRODUCTION
The book, Tool Design by C. Donaldson, G H LeCain and V C Goold, is universally
accepted for its readability and comprehensiveness.The SIE fourth edition is a value
added SI metrication of this classic book. In addition to serving the undergraduate
students of Mechanical, Production and Industrial Engineering, the present edition
will also be helpful for practising Tool Designers.
In the context of modern tool design, the basic aspects of tool design, devices and
methods remain the same as discussed in the book. However, there has been a para-
digm shift in the tool designing approach, facilitated mainly by the advent of various
computer-aided drafting and designing software programs, augmented with modern
computational facilities. With continuous research worldwide in the field of Tooling and
Tool Design, there has been some significant technological advancement in this field.
In the SIE edition of this book, an attempt has been made to present the book in SI
units and include more solved design problems. A summary of individual chapters
have also been added. The solved design problems added in this edition will prove
to be a valuable material for Tool Design tutorial class exercise or as course work
problems.

Structure of the Book

Chapter 1 defines Tool Design and classifies tooling used in various manufacturing
processes. This chapter presents an overview of the methodology to be adopted in
tool designing practises. A designed tool needs to be manufactured. A toolmaker is
generally entrusted with the responsibility of manufacturing the tool, in accordance
with specified accuracy and tolerances. Chapter 2 familiarises the readers with com-
mon tool making practises.
Tools must be hard, wear-resistant, and have very low surface roughness. Conventional
materials do not cater to these needs; as such tooling requires special materials.
Chapter 3 acquaints the readers with the various available tool materials. Metal cut-
ting tools form an important aspect of tooling applications.
Chapter 4 systematically addresses the geometry, theory, design and related aspects
of cutting tool used in metal cutting. Modern manufacturing requires extensive use of
gauges for shop work. Gages and gauging, therefore is an important aspect of tool
engineering. Chapter 5 delves on the various gauges, gauging process and gauge
design.
Chapter 6 deals with principles, method and devices used for location and clamping
of work. The process of hole making is an integral and difficult part of manufacturing.
The requirement of accurate size hole at an accurate location and in large number
of parts further enhances the complexity of the process. Jigs are suitably applied
 xii Preface to the Fourth Edition

for this purpose. Chapter 7 discusses jig design principles, method and devices.
Production jobs often require accurate locating, and holding of the workpiece. This is
achieved using fixtures. Chapter 8 deals with principles, method and devices used
for fixturing.
The process of metal stamping is an integral and difficult part of manufacturing. The
requirement of accurate size blank and accurately pierced sheet metal enhances the
complexity of the process. Chapter 9 deals with methods and devices used for sheet-
metal blanking and piercing and principles of designing sheet-metal blanking and
piercing dies. Blanking and piercing operations are often followed by other related
sheet metal operations like bending, forming and drawing. Chapter 10 deals with
various sheet metal shaping operations like bending, forming and drawing. Modern
manufacturing forced industry to look for new engineering materials. Plastics are
being used as engineering materials, even as tooling materials.
Chapter 11 discusses different types of plastic materials, their applications, and con-
struction of plastic tooling.
Chapter 12 discusses the tooling and fixturing aspects of numerically controlled
machine tools. Automatic screw machine was developed from lathe for economical
manufacture of small screws and bolts. Chapter 13 deals with different aspects of this
specialised machine.
In addition, each chapter ends with Summary, Questions and References to help
students in further study and understanding.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank all the faculty members of Department of Production Engineering
at BIT Mesra, for their valuable suggestions, in particular, Dr. Vinay Sharma and Dr.
Ritesh Singh. The constant support and continued encouragement of my family and
friends is highly appreciated.
My heartiest thanks to the following reviewers for providing constructive comments:
Dinesh Khanduja National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra
K S Sangwan Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani
Mohd Zaheer Khan Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
N R De National Institute of Technology, Durgapur
Shailendra Kumar Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
H Bagchi Sinhgad Engineering College, Pune
A A Shaikh Sardar Vallabhbhai National Institute of Technology, Surat
G L Samuel Indian Institute of Technology, Madras
A Venugopal National Institute of Technology, Warangal
Vijay Desai National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
Appu Kuttan National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal
B K Nanda National Institute of Technology, Rourkela
 Preface to the Fourth Edition xiii

I thank all Tata McGraw Hill personnel associated with this project at various stages,
in particular, Mr. Swarnendu Ghosh, Ms. Harsha Singh, Ms. Preyoshi Kundu and
Ms. Yukti Sharma.

Feedback
I solicit your comments, suggestions and criticisms on this adapted version via email
to the publisher or directly to me at the following address: [email protected],
which would be helpful in upgrading the book in the next editions.

Joyjeet Ghose
BIT Mesra, Ranchi
March, 2012
 PREFACE

The third edition of “Tool Design” is written as a textbook for beginning courses in tool
design, toolmaking, and related areas of tooling. The content is basic in nature and
covers the major broad general areas of tooling.
Each chapter is designed to give the student an understanding of the fundamentals
of a specific area of tooling. With one or two exceptions, each chapter is indepen-
dent of the others. Chapter 1 serves as an introduction, and thereafter the instructor
may select chapters covering the areas that best suit the needs of his course or pro-
gram. Certain fundamentals of tool design that apply to different areas are sometimes
repeated for this reason.
An attempt has been made to supply the necessary information in each chapter to
enable the student to completely design simple tooling. For example, tables and for-
mulas from various handbooks are included in the chapters where they apply, and
the student should have no problem in their application. It is suggested, however, that
the instructor have handbooks and specialized references available for student use to
supplement the text material. The student should not get in the habit of relying totally
on textbook material, as it is impossible to include all the information he will need,
especially when he begins to design sophisticated tooling. A list of handbooks and
textbooks that apply to the subject matter is found at the end of each chapter.
“Tool Design” is written with the assumption that the student will have a knowledge of
general drafting and manufacturing processes. The units on drafting, therefore, cover
only those aspects which apply to tool design, while the units on toolmaking include
only tools and machines generally used in toolmaking. The student should understand
the basic machining processes of turning, milling, drilling, shaping and grinding.
A student with a knowledge of basic algebra and trigonometry will have no trouble
understanding the information given in this text. For the most part, the mathematics
used is applied rather than theoretical.
Considerable emphasis is placed upon the use of standard parts in the design of tool-
ing throughout the text. Manufacturing firms can no longer afford to pay toolmakers
to individually manufacture common tooling components that can be purchased as
standard items from tooling specialty houses. The goal of the modern tool designer
should be to design a tool made completely of standard parts. The toolmaker’s task
is therefore changed from one of manufacturing to one of precision assembly. The
names of tooling specialty companies are listed at the end of various chapters, and
catalogs may be obtained by writing directly to the company. The instructor is encour-
aged to have available to the student as many different tooling specialty catalogs as
possible to supplement this text.
A considerable amount of the subject matter found in this text will apply to other
areas of study besides tool design. For example, the chapter on the design of cutting
tools is well suited as supplementary material for courses in advanced machine-tool
processes. Chip formation, feeds and speeds, and standard metal-cutting tools are
 xvi Preface to the First Edition

probably covered in more detail than can be found in the majority of machine-tool
textbooks. The chapter on tooling for numerically controlled machine tools is also an
excellent supplement for courses in numerical control. Perhaps this is due in part to
the fact that the writer has spent more years in the machine shop than behind the
drawing board. The material presented is therefore written from the viewpoint of the
shop man as well as that of the tool designer.
In conclusion, it should be noted that a major focus of this text is not originality. Rather,
we attempted to collect information on tool design and tooling practices and organize it
in a manner that would make it suitable for use as a basic tool-design text. Information
came from the previous editions of “Tool Design”, handbooks, trade publications,
manufacturer’s literature, textbooks, professional organizations, and from machine
shops and manufacturing firms with which we have had long and close association.
We are grateful to all members of the metalworking manufacturing industries who will-
ingly contributed to the contents of this textbook. Without their help, the publication of
the third edition of “Tool Design” would have been impossible.

Cyril Donaldson
George LeCain
V.C. Goold
 TOOL-DESIGN METHODS 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Tool design is a specialised phase of tool engineering. Tool-design functions may be
performed by a tool engineer in addition to his other duties in manufacturing, or they
may be performed by a tool-design specialist who devotes his entire working time to
tool design. The size of the company and the type of production generally determine
the extent of specialisation in the tool-design area. A small company may hire only
a tool engineer who is concerned with planning the process of manufacture in addi-
tion to developing tools and machines to produce the product. A larger company may
use a small group of tool engineers who specialise only in designing tools needed to
manufacture the product. A very large company may have a tool-engineering depart-
ment consisting of a tool-design supervisor, several tool designers responsible only
for tool-design layout, and several tool detailers (draftsmen) who finish the drawing.
This text is concerned only with the tool-design aspect of tool engineering, and here-
after all references to that branch of tool engineering will be to “tool design” or “tool
designer”.
The word “tooling” refers to the hardware necessary to produce a particular product.
A considerable amount of tooling is the result of work performed by the tool designer.
Tooling, as viewed by the tool designer, consists of a vast array of cutting devices,
jigs, fixtures, dies, gauges, etc., used in a normal production. The type of production
will determine to a large extent the type of tooling. The most common classification of
types of tooling is as follows:
1. Cutting tools, such as drills, reamers, milling cutters, broaches, and taps.
2. Jigs and fixtures for guiding the tool and holding the workpiece.
3. Gauges and measuring instruments.
4. Sheet-metal pressworking dies for all types of sheet-metal fabrication.
5. Dies for plastic moulding, die casting, permanent moulding, and investment
casting.
6. Forging dies for and cold forging, upsetting, extrusion, and cold finishing.
The tool designer is commonly a specialist in one or perhaps two of the above types
of tooling. For example, a designer of injection moulds for plastics usually has little to
do with the design of metal-cutting tools. On the other hand, a designer of cutting tools
should be knowledgeable in jig and fixture design because of the close relationship
between cutting tools and jigs and fixtures.
The basic task of the tool designer is to provide drawings of a tool or set of tools to
produce the workpiece. He will be provided with a blueprint of the workpiece to be
manufactured, the name and specifications of the machine to produce the workpiece,
and the number of workpieces required. If large numbers of workpieces are needed,
an expensive tool may be justified. If only a few workpieces are needed, the tool must
be inexpensive. In all cases, the tool must be made as economically as possible for
 2 Tool Design

the required service. The tool should be easy and safe to operate; it should also look
practical and attractive, but it certainly should not have unnecessary elaborate trim-
mings or needless complexity. The latter point is very important, since even experi-
enced designers sometimes let their enthusiasm for fine mechanisms lead them to
develop excellent tools that are not practical from the standpoint of cost. Of course,
striving to obtain economy may be overdone, and unsatisfactory tools produced. It is
a question of good judgement based on experience. In order to complete his task, the
tool designer may have to produce a complete set of drawings showing (i) an assem-
bly drawing, (ii) one or more subassemblies, if the design is complex, (iii) a detail
drawing of each part, (iv) a complete list of parts needed to make the tool. These are
handed to the toolmakers, whose task is to make the tools.
The tool designer must know the manufacturing procedures. He must be able to
visualise exactly how the workpiece is to be made. He should be competent to judge
the merits of different methods. For example, the tool designer should be able to
determine whether a workpiece A should be made on a shaper or a milling machine
or whether piece B should be a stamping or die casting. The product designer in the
engineering department will also have a share in making decisions relative to the
advantages of a particular stamping to a corresponding die casting. In large concerns,
the tool engineer rather than the tool designer may settle this point, but nevertheless,
the tool designer must understand all this thoroughly to do his job well.
The tool designer must have a knowledge of standards and procedures. The greatest
economy can be effected when standard parts (screws, bushings, handles, claps,
and so on) are used for the manufacture of new parts. Since they are made in large
numbers, standard parts can be manufactured at a lower cost than special jobs.
Furthermore, standard parts can be salvaged from obsolete tools and used again.
A thorough knowledge of procedures is important in modern organisations. This
includes methods used by the plant in manufacturing, in trucking or conveying stock
or parts from one department to another, in inspecting material and products, in draft-
ing, in releasing blueprints and stock lists, and in filling tracings and prints. All this is
largely a matter of experience, but it forms an important part of the assets of a good
tool designer.
In addition, a tool designer must be inventive and original. He must be able to incorpo-
rate his ideas in design layouts. In some of his work, especially as a junior designer,
he may be able to follow older designs, making only slight modifications in order to
meet new requirements. But as he is given more responsibility, the tool designer
generally finds that while his background of experience is invaluable, he is more and
more required to develop original tools. In his work, he should always be ready to try
out new ideas and also ready to abandon them once he sees that they will not work.
Flexibility of mind is important. No designer should be set in his ways. Designs can
always be improved; therefore, suggestions from others should be welcome. It is
sometimes unpleasant to redesign a tool after many hours of drawing, but the tool
designer exists only to produce the best design under the imposed conditions. Time
spent on redrawing will, in the end, cost less than the waste created by an unsatisfac-
tory tool. The beginner must remember that he is not only to rectify mistakes but also
to freely reform structures that may be found unsatisfactory after they were drawn to
scale.
The tool designer must understand how tools perform their function. For this, he needs
a good background in mechanics and mathematics. He should also know the physical
properties of materials used in making tools. These are mostly steel, but since there
 Tool-Design Methods 3

are now a large variety of alloy steels, each with its own individual properties, this
subject is a comprehensive one.
A mastery of drafting techniques is as essential to the tool designer as an ability to
read and write. His ideas are valueless unless they can be expressed in a manner
that toolmakers can understand. This means adherence to the standard graphical
language understood by all technical men is essential. But the tool designer has to do
much more than convey ideas. He must convey information in exact terms. All draw-
ings must be clear, complete, exact, and easily understood and must be a genuine
help to the toolmaker. The designer cannot rely on verbal instructions or on the previ-
ous experience of the toolmakers. Instructions like “Make it like the one you made
last time but with two more bushings” lead to trouble and confusion. Such remarks
are impossible in large organisations or where the tools are made by outside jobbing
shops.

1.2 THE DESIGN PROCEDURE

A mistake often made by beginners in tool design is to start the finished design on a
drawing board without prior planning or preparation. The experienced tool designer
does not sit down and systematically assemble a tool on paper unless it is based on
an older design and only slight modifications are necessary in order to make it meet
the requirements. When a new and different design is called for, some type of design
procedure is followed to utilise the designer’s time to best advantage, to prevent mis-
takes, and to bring forth the best and correct design. The design procedure followed
by an experienced tool designer is probably loose and informal because he is able
to take shortcuts he has learned through practise. The following section explains a
rather formal design procedure that works very well for the beginners. As she/he gains
experience, the procedure will become more and more easier, and she/he need not
be conscious of each step.

1.2.1 Statement of the Problem

The first step in the design procedure is to define the problem in a clear and sim-
ple statement of the functional needs. The manufacturing engineer usually provides
the tool designer with the problem. He determines a need for necessary tools and
assigns the job to the tool designer. The tool designer will receive a part print, infor-
mation on why the tool is needed, what must be the capabilities of the tool, the type
of machine the tool must be used on, the number of parts to be produced, and other
pertinent information concerning the par. A considerable amount of discussion may
go on between the manufacturing engineer and the tool designer concerning the tool
in question. Part of the discussion may not be really applicable to the problem and in
fact may cause confusion about what is really applicable to the problem and diverting
from what is really needed. For this reason, a simple statement of the problem is nec-
essary. The problem statement should identify the problem in one or two sentences.
For example, satisfactory statements are “to design a drill jig to hold a support bracket
while drilling three 16 mm diameter holes” or “to design a lathe fixture for holding a
pump housing for in-line drilling and boring of bearing holes.”

1.2.2 The Needs Analysis

The needs analysis, sometimes called the predesign analysis, pinpoints the problem
in terms of functional need. The problem is analysed by asking who, why, how, when,
 4 Tool Design

what, and where questions about the functional requirements of the problem state-
ment. All information supplied by the manufacturing engineer is examined, and all
questions that arise are listed on paper to provide a permanent record. The result is a
series of questions pertaining to the requirements of the tool. For example,
1. Will the tool be used by skilled or unskilled operators?
2. How many parts can be held in the tool?
3. What are the hole-location tolerances on the part?
4. How should the part nest in the jig to maintain accuracy in hole location?
5. Will the forces from the clamping device affect hole location?
6. Are pneumatic lines located in the area?
7. What are the measurements of the T-slots on the machine table?
8. Will operating handles of the machine strike the tool?
9. Will the location of the tool prevent removal of cutters for resharpening?
10. Does the operator need more than one size of wrench or loose handle?
11. Are there variations in shape of the parts?
12. Is there any obstruction that may hinder the loading and unloading of the
fixture?
13. What previous operations have been done on the part?
14. If coolant is used, what provisions must be made for coolant passage?
15. What provisions should be made to prevent accumulation of chips?
16. What surface on the workpiece is best suited to locate in relation to the major
reference plan on the machine?
17. Are locating points easily visible to the operator?
18. Will burrs interfere with unloading?
19. Are clamps well out of the way during loading and unloading?
20. If a cutting fluid is used, will knurled knobs make the operator’s fingers sore?
21. Can the tool be made with the available components and facilities?
22. Is the cutting force heavy or light in this operation?
23. Is the cutting force directed towards the solid part of the fixture?
24. Is the work supported directly under the clamping points?
25. Will the clamping force bend the baseplate and cause inaccurate work?
A considerable amount of time should be spent on the needs analysis. Many tool
designers have developed a checklist of needs-analysis questions to make sure no
important points are overlooked. Questions that arise during research and ideation
stage of the design procedure should be added to the list as well.

1.2.3 Research and Ideation (Sketches)

In the research of the design, information and data based on the needs analysis
are gathered. This information will include such items as the dimensions of the part
to be held or produced, the kind of material from which the part is made, the toler-
ances of the part, the dimensions of the machine, the limitations of the machine,
and the amount of tonnage to blank the part. It may be obtained by talking to other
people, taking measurements, making calculations, looking through handbooks and
catalogues, consulting experts, and making experimental mock-ups. Ideas that would
 Tool-Design Methods 5

apply to a particular situation should be sketched on paper for future references. It is

also essential to record the source of the information.
While research is being done, many idea sketches should be made. They do not
have to be works of art, but design ideas not recorded in words or sketches many
become lost information. As research and sketching progress, each will affect the
other. Research will lead to new ideas, and the sketches will show the need for more
research. Idea sketches will be combined, eliminated, and reworked and will emerge
as developmental sketches leading to workable design solutions. All sketches should
be kept, although it may seem at the time that a design should be eliminated.

1.2.4 Tentative Design Solutions

The research and sketches should be combined into one or two tentative design solu-
tions, which may consist of rough working drawings showing a side and top view and
perhaps an end view, if needed. They many or may not be to scale, depending upon
the judgement of the tool designer. An isometric or perspective sketch may be made if
desired, although the tool designer is not as concerned with the visual aspects of the
design as the industrial designer is. The tentative design solutions will be evaluated,
the best design selected and reworked, and the final design is decided upon.

1.2.5 The Finished Design

The finished design may not be the actual finished product, for even in the final stages
of drawing changes and additions may be necessary. However, an accurate drawing
must be completed before the toolmaker is able to begin construction. The drawing will
probably consist of a three-view (or more) orthographic drawing, which will be drawn
to scale according to the tool-drawing procedures established by the company.

1.3 DRAFTING AND DESIGN TECHNIQUES IN

TOOLING DRAWINGS
Conventional drafting techniques are followed in tool design with the exception of a
few practises that vary somewhat. The following section explains the differences and
how they are used. No attempt has been made to teach the basics of drafting. It is
assumed that the student has a sound working knowledge of orthographic projection
and is familiar with conventional drafting techniques.
Often tool drawings are used only once, when the tool is constructed. They are
brought back into use only when changes become necessary, such as those caused
by product redesign or changes made to improve tooling performance. They are used
only by highly skilled toolmakers, toolroom personnel, and tooling buyers. For this
reason, many shortcuts can be used in tool drawings, however use of shortcuts would
cause problems on product drawings. Product drawings have a greater circulation
and are used more frequently and usually over a greater period of time, therefore, the
shortcuts used in tool drawings are not permitted on product drawings.

1.3.1 Drafting Practise

The following list of drafting rules generally applies to tool drawings and is intended
as a guide to help maintain uniformity:
 6 Tool Design

1. All lines must be dark enough to produce a clear and sharp print. Select a
grade of pencil that will produce lines according to the amount of pressure
applied by the individual. Grade 2H works well for lettering, 4H for object lines,
and 6H for light layout lines.
2. All drawings should be on a standard paper size.
3. All drawing should have a border line from each side of the paper.
4. The material and the title block should be located in the lower right-hand corner
of the drawing.
5. All dimensions should be expressed in inches, with the inch sign omitted.
6. Full-scale drawings should be used whenever possible. Otherwise, use half or
quarter scales.
7. Drawing and dimensioning must help the person who will use the drawing to
make the item in the toolroom. The toolmaker should not have to make calcula-
tions before he can begin producing the tool.
8. Only as many views as necessary to show all required details should be
given.
9. On tool drawings, the part outlines should be shown in red in all views. This
helps the designer while drawing. When black lines on the tool interfere with
red lines of the part, the red lines are drawn as if there were no black lines and
vice versa.
10. Use uppercase engineering lettering throughout the drawing.
11. A name is always assigned to each tool and placed in the title block. The name
usually is the tool name plus the name of the part as noted on the part drawing.
For example, if the name in the title block of a part drawing is “horizontal actuat-
ing rod” the correct title of the drill jig is “drill jig-horizontal actuating rod”.
12. Only critical dimensions, overall dimensions, and location dimensions should
be shown on tool drawings. Dimensions of individual pieces can be indicated
in the bill of materials and need not appear on the drawing.
13. Standard purchased tool components need not be dimensioned. These
include die sets, screws, dowels, springs, knobs, and tooling speciality items.
Dimensions are not necessary because the compenents come in ready-made
form and are identified in the material list by number.
14. Standard purchased tool components that are to be altered by the toolmaker
should have the altered portion dimensioned.
15. Special tooling components that have been standardised by a particular com-
pany do not need dimensions.
16. Dimensions that can be determined by, or calculated from, dimensions on the
part print need not be shown on the tool drawing. Examples would be the cen-
tre of the nest, cutting edges on a punch, die clearance, etc.
17. It is not necessary to dimension the location of screws and dowels in tool
drawings.

1.3.2 Drawing Layout

There are two different methods of preparing tool-design drawings. One is to show
all information, including the details, on one sheet. The tool is shown assembled with
only the necessary views to give pertinent information. Detailed drawings are included
when necessary. The method is generally adopted by companies whose toolmaking
 Tool-Design Methods 7

department is such that one toolmaker builds the entire tool or die and does most of
the work on it. This method will be explained in detail in the following sections.
The other method of preparing tool-design drawings is similar to the method of pre-
paring product-design drawings. The assembly is drawn on one sheet, and each com-
ponent is detailed completely on a separate sheet. In this case, the tool is generally
built by several people, each doing one operation on each component. The assembly
may be completed by another person. This allows the company to utilise different
skill levels in the toolroom. This method of drawing also ensures interchangeable
components, which may be a real asset when repairing tools used on continuous
production.

Information blocks These include the title block, stock list and change block. The
title block is generally placed in the lower right-hand corner of the drawing and is
printed on the drawing paper or stamped on with a rubber stamp. It may also be
drawn by a draftsman with the information filled in after the drawing is completed.
The information contained in the title block varies with companies, but generally the
following information is listed:
1. Name of the company
2. Name of the part
3. Name and number of tools
4. Part number
5. Name of the designer
6. Name of the checker
7. Name and number of machine on which tool is to be used
8. Dates
9. Signature of approval
10. Operation name and number
11. General tolerances
12. Sheet number and total number of sheets
13. Scale of drawing
Figure 1.1 shows some typical title blocks.
The stock list is placed directly above the title block and shows the following
information:
1. Detail number (given in detail balloons)
2. Number required
3. Kind of material
4. Rough size of material (may be finished size if no machining is called for; when
special machining is called for, add machining allowances)
5. Name or description of detail (see Table 1.1 for abbreviations)
The stock list should be filled in after the design is completed and all the details
have been assigned a number. Most tool designers begin with detail number 1 at the
bottom of the list and go upward. This practise allows space at the top of the page
for additional details that may be added at a later date because of an engineering
change.
 8 Tool Design

TITLE

DRAWN

CHECKED

APPR. DWG. NO.

SHT. OF SCALE

(Company Name, Department and Address)

Drawn By Date Scale

Checked by Date
Ref. Drawings
Machine Name Mach. No.
Part Name Part No.

Tool Name Tool No.

Associated Drawings Drawing No.

APPROVED BY
Name Date (Company Name, Department and Address)

Part Name

Part No.
Operation

Scale
Drawn by Date
No. Sheets A B C D DD Checked by Date
Sheet No.

Fig. 1.1 Typical title blocks

Since one of the major purposes of the stock list is to simplify ordering, an effort
should be made to number and group details according to when they are ordered.
This practise makes the purchasing agent’s task easier, both when ordering and
when checking reviewed merchandise (see Fig. 1.2 for a typical stock list).
The change block is placed in the upper right-hand corner of the drawing; the informa-
tion is entered in a downward direction (toward the stock list). Ample room should be
left for the change block, although it may never be needed. The change block is filled
 Tool-Design Methods 9

Table 1.1 Abbreviations commonly used in tool drawings

Abbreviation Meaning Abbreviation Meaning
APPROX Approximately MACH Machine
BP Boiler plate MAN Manual
BUSH Bushing MFG Manufacturer
CI Cast iron MULT Multiple
CS Cast steel NTS Not to scale
CRS Cold-rolled steel OD Outside diameter
C’BORE Counterbore OPP Opposite
C’SINK Countersink PUR Purchase
CHAMF Chamfer PF Press fit
C to C Centre to centre PRC Pierce
DIA Diameter QTR Quarter
DR Drill rod REQ’D Required
DET Detail R Radius
DIM Dimension REL Relief
FAO Finish all over RGH ROUGH
FIG Figure RH Right-hand
FORG Forging SCR Screw
GRD Grind SF Slip fit
GA Gauge S’FACE Spot face
HDN Harden SH Sheet
HEX HD Hexagon head SHLD Shoulder
HSS High-speed steel SOC HD SCR Socket-head screw
HRS Hot-rolled steel SPL Special
HD Head SQ HD Square head
HDLS Headless STD Standard
ID Insider diameter STK Stock
KS Key stock SHT Sheet
MS Machine steel SW Spring wire
MI Malleable iron THD Thread
MAT’L Material TOL Tolerance
MAX Maximum TPR Taper
MIN Minimum TYP Typical
MISC Miscellaneous WELD CONST Welded construction

out only when changes must be made in the design after the drawing is completed.
The original designer may not make the changes, as it is possible for them to be made
several years later.
 10 Tool Design

CONTD

10 12 DANLEY DIE SPRING # 920 PUR

9 1 3 DIA × TO SUIT CRS

4
1
8 2 3×3×88 1020

7 1 4×5×6 0–1

6 4 1 DIA × 1 DR
8
5 1 SPRING TO SUIT PUR
1 PUR
4 6 2 DIA × 2 DOWEL
3 1 1 – 20 × 1 SOC HD SCW PUR
4
2 1 31 × 31 × 35 CRS
2 2 8
1 1 DANLY DIE SET—SEE NOTE PUR
DET NO MAT.
DESCRIPTION
NO REQ

TITLE BLOCK

Fig. 1.2 Typical stock list

There are several reasons for changes in the design. An engineering change on the
part may require adaptations. The toolmaker may find mistakes on the part of the tool
designer. Changes may have to be made on the tool when it is brought to production
speed. Or the tool just may not function as the designer had planned.
The following information is shown in the change block:
1. Change symbol
2. Change description
3. Date of change
4. Person making change
5. Person approving change
The alphabet is used as the change symbol. Change symbols are placed as near as
possible to the item being changed. A line should be drawn through the item being
changed without erasing. This provides a record of past figures. In some cases it may
be necessary to erase, as when a new detail replaces an old one. Here the detail
should be erased in all views, and care should be taken not to use the old detail num-
ber. Draw a line through the old detail balloon and add a new one with a new number.
Add the new number to the stock list. Figure 1.3 shows a change block and examples
of methods of denoting change.
 Tool-Design Methods 11

Fig. 1.3 Typical change block

Figure 1.4 shows a universal title block often used by contract design and engineer-
ing firms. It may be used in part drawings or tool drawings for virtually any customer.
The revision block is part of the title block and is filled from bottom to top and then
repeated to the left. Space would have to be left for this expansion. Note that the
logotype of the contract design and engineering firm appears in the border rather than
where the proprietary logo normally would appear. This practise allows the contract
designer and engineering firm to place client’s name in the usual logo area.

4 WELDED ASSY. —
1 × 1 × 1 1
4A BRACKET 1020 2 2 4 2 × 2 × 4

RIB 1020 1 × 1×9

4B 2
B.P. 3 × 18 × 36
4C PLATE 4
3 LEVER 1112 1×2×3 MAKES THREE
1 × 1 ×
2 TIP 3140 2 2 1 SEE DET: HON.
1 ANVIL 1020 2×2×4

DET. REQD DESCRIPTION MAT’L. STOCK SIZE REMARKS

AJAX COMPANY

TITLE
SUPPORT BRACKET DRILL JIG
DRAWN J. PRICE 11/17/73
CHECKED JECO 11/18/73
A .100 WAS.125 11/19/73 APPR. WDJ. 11/18/73 DWG. NO.
17-1973
VISIONS DATE LET. DATE SHT. 1 OF 1 SCALE FULL

Fig. 1.4 Universal information block showing title block, stock list, and change block (Jensen
Engineering Co.)

View layout Usually, a minimum of two assembled views of a jig or fixture are nec-
essary to give all pertinent information. A complicated jig or fixture may require three
views of the assembly with sectional views, enlarged views, or detail drawings to
show complicated areas. Detailed drawings should not be used when it is possible to
show dimensions in an assembled, sectional, or enlarged view. Enlarged views aid in
dimensioning a small area. A circle is drawn around the area to be enlarged.
 12 Tool Design

Figure 1.5 shows a typical tool-drawing layout for a jig or fixture. Standard procedure
is to show the top views in the upper left-hand corner of the sheet. The side view is
shown in the bottom left-hand corner, with the end view to the right of the side view.
Sectional views are shown in the area between the assembled views and the informa-
tion blocks. However, the position of views may be altered to improve clarity and ease
of dimensioning.

REVISIONS

13 4
12 1
11 1
10 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 9 6
8 2
7 1
6 2
5 2
4 2
3 1
2 1
1 1
No. REQD STOCK LIST
TITLE BLOCK

Fig. 1.5 Typical tool-drawing layout for jig or fixture

Figure 1.6 shows a typical tool-drawing layout for a die design. On a die drawing, the
following views are shown:
1. Plan view of die located in the upper left-hand corner of die. It shows a top
view of the die shoe with components mounted to it. The punch shoe has been
removed in this view.
2. Plan view of punch located directly to right of the die shoe. It is shown looking
directly toward the cutting edges of punch or punches. It consists of the punch
shoe with components attached. It appears as though the punch shoe of the
die set had been removed and turned directly over to the right of the die shoe.
3. Cross-sectional view from right to left located directly below the die shoe. The
section is usually taken along the centreline of the die. Both punch and die
shoes are shown, with the die in the closed position. The cross section may be
taken along a jagged lien in order to improve clarity.
 Tool-Design Methods 13

Revisions

6
7
Plan view Plan view
of die 8 of punch

13 14 15 16
1 2 3 4 5

9
10
11
12

STOCK LIST
TITLE BLOCK
Cross section from Cross section from
right to left front to back

Fig. 1.6 Typical tool-drawing layout for die design

These views are always shown on die drawings. Complicated dies may require addi-
tional views to improve clarity:
1. Cross section from front to back (die in closed position).
2. Partial cross-sectional view to show details not included in main cross
sections.
3. Side and front view to show details not easily shown in cross-sectional views.
4. Enlarged view with circle drawn around area to be enlarged, used to show
minute details.
Die designs require special dimensions not ordinarily used in other tool drawings.
The shut height of the die is always shown. The shut height of a particular die is the
distance from the top of the punch shoe to the bottom of the die shoe and is shown
on the cross-sectional view of the die. Travel lengths of strippers, pressure pads, and
knockouts should always be dimensioned. All centrelines should be shown. When the
centreline of the part does not coincide with the centreline of the die, the centreline
of the part should be dimensioned in relation to the centreline of the die. Location
dimensions of die details (components) are shown in relation to one or both of the die
centrelines.

Detail balloons Details are identified by numbers located in a straight line and in
numerical order (as near as possible). They are horizontal, vertical or both. Each
 14 Tool Design

detail number is enclosed in a “balloon” (circle). The balloon is usually 12 mm in

diameter. A leader is drawn from the balloon to the detail it is to identify. An arrowpoint
attached to the leader should touch the outer edge of the detail. Leaders are generally
curved lines drawn with French or irregular curves. Figure 1.7 shows a typical layout
of detail balloons.

1 12 14 21 30

ALTER

CARB
RC60
HDN

HDN
GRD

FAO
Fig. 1.7 Method of noting heat treatment, special machining, or special treatments on
detail balloons

Detail balloons and leaders should be drawn in only after all dimensioning has been
completed. This practise allows leader lines to be drawn without crossing dimension
lines. Detail 1 should appear in the extreme left balloon and details should be read
consecutively from left to right. Vertical balloons read from top to bottom. Detail 1 is
usually reserved for the die set in die drawings.
Only one balloon is drawn for a group of screws, dowel pins, springs, etc., that are
identical in size. The leader is connected to only one of the identical details in such
a case. The quantity is called out in the stock list. The other identical details are not
identified. Details that are left and right (identical but reversed) should have a separate
detail number.
Every different detail must have its own number except where a standard purchased
assembly is used in the design, for example stock stops, die sets, clamp assemblies,
and gauges. In this case, one number would be given to the entire assembly.
Heat-treating specifications are often shown on the detail balloon leader as shown in
Fig. 1.7. Surface finish, special machining, or special treatments may also be noted
on the balloon leader.

Abbreviations used on tool drawings Abbreviations are used in tool drawings in

a manner similar to that in production drawings. They are especially useful in filling
out the stock list where space is limited. Abbreviations are for the most part stan-
dard; however, there are variations between various companies and industries. For
example, abbreviations used throughout the aircraft industry may be foreign to the
farm-machinery industry.

Detail shortcuts Tool drawings have limited use compared to product drawings, as
explained earlier. The people who use them are familiar with tool-design practises
and can interpret the information given on a drawing without elaborate details. The
following discussion deals with simplifying details in order to save time spent in detail-
ing. Some of the shortcuts verge on the extreme and probably would be used only
within one company. Others would be easily understood between companies.
 Tool-Design Methods 15

The main objective in shortcut methods is to save drawing time. Figures 1.8 to 1.12
show the various shortcuts. Figure 1.8 gives various methods of showing dowels,
screws, springs, and cap screws, while Fig. 1.9 shows an assembly using shortcut
methods. Figure 1.10 shows shortcut methods of knurling and cross-hatching. Figure
1.11 covers repeated details. Figure 1.12 shows the use of rights and lefts and the
symmetry concept.
Standard-part tracing templates should not be overlooked as a means of saving time
when preparing tooling drawings. Many manufacturers of tooling specialty items offer
sets of tracing templates covering their entire line of products that will simplify and
save many hours of design and detailing time.
Figure 1.13 shows a typical jig-and-fixture component template printed on high-qual-
ity, translucent white paper so that it can be duplicated right on the blueprint with
any diazo direct-print process equipment. It can be used left or right hand simply by
reversing the template. To duplicate on drawings, a direct-print copy of the desired
component template is made on translucent paper. The duplicated template area is
placed on the drawing and run through diazo direct-print process equipment. The
template shown can also be placed under the drawing for tracing. Additional design
time can be saved by tracing only the heavy outline of each drawing and specifying
the corresponding part number.

Top view Top view

invisible visible Side view
(a)

Top view Side view

(b)

or or

D D

Top view Top view Side view

visible invisible (c)
 16 Tool Design

or or

(d)

Fig. 1.8 Methods of showing holes, dowels, screws, and springs in tool drawings (a) Tapped
holes: used hole template (b) Springs (c) Dowel pins (d) Side views: draw with
tolling template (e) Socket-head cap screws

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 1.9 (a) Conventional (b) and (c) Shortcut methods of drawing details
 Tool-Design Methods 17

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.10 (a) Conventional method (b) Shortcut for drawing knurling (c) Conventional
method (d) Shortcut for cross-hatching

Fig. 1.11 The elimination of repeated details and dimensions

18 Tool Design

C–L SYM

Fig. 1.12 Use of symmetry shortcut

127
102

89

32

29
35
48
 Tool-Design Methods 19

Fig. 1.13 Typical standard jig-and-fixture component tracing template (Jergens, Inc.)

Summary

This chapter defines Tool design and classifies tooling used in various manufacturing
processes. This chapter presents an overview of the methodology to be adopted in
tool designing practises.
• Tool design is the process of designing and developing the tools, methods, and
techniques necessary to improve manufacturing efficiency and productivity.
• Tooling requires manufacturing of complex shape parts of difficult to machine
materials coupled with very high accuracy. Thus, the process of tool design
and its implementation in actual tooling requires large amount of time and
resources. In order to be globally competitive, manufacturers worldwide are in
need for special tooling which can be manufactured within minimum amount of
time and resources, and with the required level of quality.
• Tooling refers to the hardware necessary to produce a particular product.
• Tooling includes cutting devices, dies, jigs, fixtures, gauges, etc.
• A tool designer must be conversant with all available manufacturing processes,
standards and procedures. The tool designer must be clear about the functions
20 Tool Design

that the tool will perform. In addition, a tool designer must be inventive and
original.
• The tool design process includes statement of the problem, the need analysis,
research and ideation, tentative design solution and the finished design.

Questions
1. In your own words, outline the professional requirements of a tool designer.
Mention the courses you have studied that will help you meet these require-
ments. Describe any industrial experience you may have had that will help you
become a good designer.
2. What is the meaning of the word “tooling” as viewed by the professional tool
designer?
3. List and describe the common classifications of tooling types.
4. What is the difference between the toolmaker and the tool designer?
5. What is a design procedure? Why is it necessary?
6. List the five basic steps in a design procedure and briefly explain each step.
7. Why is it necessary to retain all sketches and record where all information was
obtained during the design procedure?
8. Why should all ideas, no matter how vague, be recorded in sketch form during
the design procedure?
9. Why are shortcuts permissible in tool drawings when the same shortcuts would
cause problems in product drawings?
10. Why is the part outline drawn in red on tool drawings?
11. What dimensions are necessary when showing the use of standard purchased
tool components?
12. Why is it not necessary to dimension the location of screws and dowels in most
tool drawings?
13. When listing standard in the stock list, why is it important to include the manu-
facture’s name and stock number?
14. What is meant by the shout height of a die?
15. What basic reference is used when dimensioning locations of die com-
ponents?
16. How many detail balloons are necessary to identify one identical group of
screws?
17. Why are balloon leaders drawn with a French or irregular curve?
18. Why are detail balloons and leaders drawn only after all dimensioning is
completed?
19. Where does the tool designer obtain standard-part tracing templates?
20. Where does the tool designer obtain information on standard parts?
21. List the principal companies manufacturing gauges.
22. Name one company in your area that sells mill supplies, tool steel, and machine
tools.
23. Name two periodicals that deal with production tools and their design.
 Tool-Design Methods 21

24. Name one company that supplies standard jig bushings.

25. A number of standard 16 mm. bolts were purchased for a tool being made in
large numbers. Each required a 1.6 mm hole to be drilled in the head. Should
a detail drawing be made? Why?
26. A tool was being designed in one city and manufactured in another. An impor-
tant dimension was omitted from the print sent to the toolmaker. The toolmaker
scaled the print but measured it wrong, and the mistake cost the company
$200. To whose account should it be charged—the toolmaker, the draftsman,
or the checker?

References
Books
• ASTME: “Manufacturing Planning and Estimating Handbook,” F W Wilson (ed.), McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1963.
—: “Tool Engineering: Organization and Operation,” Dearborn, Mich., 1968.
—: “Tool Engineers Handbook,” 2d ed., FW Wilson (ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
• Doyle, L E: “Tool Engineering,” Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1950.
• Eary, D F, and EA Reed: “Techniques of Pressworking Sheet Metal,” Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J., 1958.
• NYSVPAA: “Jig and Fixture Design,” 2 vols., Delmar Publishers, Albany, NY, 1947.
Periodicals
• American Machinist, New York.
• Machine and Tool Bluebook, Wheaton, III.
• Machinery, New York.
• Manufacturing Engineering and Management, Dearborn. Mich.
• Modern Machine Shop, Cincinnati, Ohio.
• Tooling and Production, Cleveland, Ohio.
2 TOOLMAKING PRACTISES

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The tool designer must always keep in mind that the tool he designs must be made
by a toolmaker. He should also remember that the toolmaker generally has to use the
facilities available to him in the toolroom or toolmaking department. It is very important
that the designer be familiar with machine-shop and toolmaking practise and have a
good knowledge of the existing facilities with which the toolmaker has to work. The
tool designer must always remember that it is extremely easy to call out clearances of
less than 25 mm between the punch and dies and extremely difficult to manufacture
them, especially on an odd-shaped contour.
One of the greatest shortcomings of a beginning tool designer is the lack of under-
standing of shop processes and toolmaking practises. He should make every effort to
enroll in courses in shop practise while in school and then spend as much time in the
shop as possible observing after he is on the job. He should become well aquainted
with the toolmakers and ask their advice and opinion. He must always remember that
the expert toolmaker probably knows more about tool design than the average tool
designer. The majority of good tool designers in industry today were first toolmakers.
This is not to say that all good toolmakers would make good tool designers, because
in many cases the toolmaker lacks the ability to communicate and express his ideas
in the form of tool drawings. A technical graduate may make a better tool designer if
he understands machine tools and manufacturing processes. What is important is to
understand that the tool designer and toolmaker must work closely together and that
one is as important as the other.
The tool designer must never appear superior to the toolmaker because he wears
a white shirt and tie. Toolmakers and other shop workers have a natural tendency
to resent the white-collar workers anyway, and every effort on the part of the tool
designer to establish friendly relations will pay dividends in the long run. This is partic-
ularly true for the beginning designer because the toolmaker and machinist can teach
him much that is of value. If the tool designer will remove his jacket, roll up his sleeves,
and enter the shop area not caring that he may get grease on his shirt, he will find that
he will generally be cordially accepted by the shop people, especially if he lets them
know that they are as important as he when it comes to getting the job done.
This chapter is intended to familiarise the beginning tool designer with common tool-
making practises that are generally not mentioned in machine-tool texts. No attempt
will be made to cover common machine-shop or manufacturing practises. There are
excellent texts available for students who wish to read about these subjects. Students
must also understand that there are many other toolmaking techniques that are not
listed in this chapter. A toolmaker develops techniques that are unique to him and his
company and never recorded. The techniques listed here are only a few that have
been practised or observed by the author.
 Toolmaking Practises 23

2.2 THE TOOLS OF THE TOOLMAKER

The toolmaker is a generalist by necessity as his work varies from job to job. His tools
are therefore general-purpose tools capable of being applied to a wide variety of jobs.
The standard machine tools and the accessories that make them more versatile are
therefore the tools of the toolmaker. Machine tools that have added features to make
them universal are often called toolmakers’ machines. For example, a small accurate
engine lathe with a wide range of speeds and feeds, along with a complete set of
accessories and attachments to make it more versatile, is often referred to as a tool-
makers’ lathe.
It is apparent that listing all the tools of a toolmaker would be impossible in the few
pages allowed to toolmaking. Standard machine tools and other tools of the general
machinist will therefore not be included. The following discussion will be limited to
special items used by the toolmaker to increase his versatility. A few of the tools dis-
cussed are tools of general machinist, but their importance to the toolmaker makes
their listing essential.

The bench block The bench block shown in Fig. 2.1, is used for holding work when
driving pins, drilling, etc. A V groove across the face accommodates round and odd-
shaped work. The bench block shown is approximately 38 mm high and 76 mm diam-
eter. This tool is generally found on the toolmaker’s bench and is used in the assembly
of small tools and dies.

Fig. 2.1 The toolmaker’s bench block (The L S Starrett Co.)

The toolmaker’s V block and clamp The V block shown in Fig. 2.2, is typically a
toolmaker’s item as it has features to increase its versatility. It can be used on base,
on end, and on either side as the clamp is within the outside width of the block. The
clamp is provided with an adjustable side screw with caps to support the block and
prevent tilting when drilling, grinding, or milling. The groove at the stepped end is at a
right angle to the base and is handy for holding shouldered studs, round pins, etc. A
hole clearance for drilling and removing dowel pins is provided in the block. The block
also has four tapped holes, two in the base and one in each side, so that it can be
attached to a lathe faceplate or held by magnetic chuck.
 24 Tool Design

Fig. 2.2 Use of the toolmaker’s V block (The L S Starrett Co.)

The toolmaker’s hammer A small hammer is used for spotting and punching centre
lines and intersections. The hammer shown in Fig. 2.3 contains a magnetising lens
built into the head and eliminates having to look away, as when a separate glass and
hammer are used. High-power magnification makes it easy to spot the punch and
strike without once removing the eyes from the work. The lens is mounted in rubber
for shock resistance.

Fig. 2.3 The toolmaker’s hammer (The L S Starrett Co.)

 Toolmaking Practises 25

The toolmaker’s dial test indicator Figure 2.4 shows a typical dial test indicator
that is preferred by toolmakers because of its small size and versatility. The indicator
is mounted so that it can be turned to any angle, and the contact point is so designed
that it can also be swiveled to almost any angle. This type or indicator is very accurate
and should be handled carefully. Because of its accuracy, it is often used to reference
height gauges as well as on machine tools.

Fig. 2.4 The toolmaker’s dial test indicator (The L S Starrett Co.)

The major difference between dial test indicators and regular dial indicators lies in the
method of sensing displacement. Regular indicators sense displacement that is paral-
lel to the axis to the indicator spindle, while test indicators sense displacement that
occurs in a direction perpendicular to the contact point (see Fig. 2.5a). This feature
permits a greater flexibility not thoroughly understood. Although the swivel contact
point can be used at practically any angle with reference to the indicator itself, the line
of motion of the point must be perpendicular to work itself. This is important for accu-
rate readings. Too often a beginner will try to pick up the work as shown in Fig. 2.5b.
When indicator displacement occurs in a direction that is not perpendicular to the
swivel contact point (Fig. 2.5c), the accuracy of the measurement is affected. This
type of measuring discrepancy is commonly known as cosine error. For most work,
this error is negligible. Furthermore, the toolmaker generally uses the dial indicator to
check parallelism and the centreing of circular surfaces, as shown in Fig. 2.6. Here
the toolmaker is interested only in indicator reading variation.
 26 Tool Design

There are occasions, however, when the toolmaker is required to determine an accu-
rate indicator reading. When conditions do not permit the swivel-point motion to be
perpendicular to the work surface, corrections for inaccuracy due to setting can be
made by determining angle q (see Fig. 2.5c) and multiplying the indicator reading by
a correction factor.

90°

90°

90°

(a)
(b)

Angle Correct. Angle Correct.

q q factor q factor
80° 0.985 50° 0.766
70° 0.940 40° 0.643
60° 0.866 30° 0.500

(c)

Fig. 2.5 The relationship of the swivel contact point to the workpiece using dial
test indicator (a) Correct (b) Incorrect (c) Correction table for
angle q (multiply indicator reading by correction factor)

Indicator reading shows 0.1652 mm, Angle q = 60°. From

Example 2.1 Fig. 2.5c, the correction factor = 0.866. Therefore, 0.1652 mm ×
0.866 = 0.1431 mm.
Solution: Dial test indicators generally have a switch lever on the body that enables
the toolmaker to reverse the indicator action. In other words, either side of the pickup
may be used, depending upon the position of the switch lever. The bezel can be
rotated to zero the pointer with the dial. An assortment of contacts and attachments
may be obtained for the dial test indicators, including the magnetic base shown in
Fig. 2.4b. A powerful permanent magnet in the base holds firmly to any steel or iron
 Toolmaking Practises 27

surface, horizontally, vertically, or upside down, eliminating time spent clamping the
indicator to the machine. A convenient push button turns the magnetic force on or off
for quick one-hand setup and removal of the base.
Figure 2.6 shows the use of the dial test indicator. At a, the indicator is used on a sur-
face grinder to check parallelism of a workpiece held on a magnetic chuck. At b, the
magnetic base is mounted on the lathe cross slide to check the workpiece in a four-
jaw chuck. Centreing a rotary table on the jig borer is shown at c, while the alignment
of a milling-machine vise is shown at d. Centreing a drilled hole for a boring operation

Fig. 2.6 The use of the toolmaker’s dial test indicator (The L S Starrett Co.)
 28 Tool Design

on a lathe is shown at e. At f, the indicator is mounted in a vernier height gauge to a

certain reading and then swivels the dial-indicator body until a pickup on the parallel
is shown on the indicator dial (making sure that the contact point is nearly parallel
with the surfaces to be measured). He then rotates the bezel until a zero reading is
shown. The height gauge is adjusted until the indicator contact point is slightly above
the surface to be measured. The contact point is brought against the work surface with
fine adjustment until the indicator again reads zero. A second height-gauge reading is
taken. The distance from the bottom of the binding tool to the top is equal to the differ-
ence in the first and second vernier height-gauge reading.

The diemaker’s squares These instruments, shown in Figs 2.7 and 2.8 are primarily
designed for measuring die clearances. The square shown in Fig. 2.7 contains sliding
blades that can be adjusted at an angle with the beam. The larger knurled thumbscrew
locks the blades at any position, and the smaller one tilts the blades at any angle. To
set the blades at an angle, first release the blade clamp screw; then the blade can be
tilted to the desired angle (determined with a protractor) by turning the small knurled
screw into the beam. The blade can be held in position by tightening the clamp screw.
The offset blade is used when it would be impossible to sight a straight blade.

Fig. 2.7 The diemaker’s square (The L S Starrett Co.)

 Toolmaking Practises 29

The square shown in Fig. 2.8 is an improved model in that it is graduated to show the
setting in degrees on the blades. The blades can be set for any angle up to 10° either
side of zero, and the angle is indicated by the line on the pointer.

Fig. 2.8 The imporved diemaker’s square (The L S Starrett Co.)

Transfer tools Figure 2.9 shows the tools commonly used to transfer the location
of existing holes to another workpiece. They are primarily used by the diemaker to
transfer the location of die components to the punch and die shoe of a die set. They
are basically prick punches that centre the punch point in the holes whose location is
to be transferred. Their application to dies is explained later.
The punches shown at a and b are used in the same manner except that the set at b
has an expandable body to fit a wide range of hole sizes. This eliminates the need for
so many punches. The transfer screws at c are used when it is necessary to transfer
the locations of threaded holes. They are especially useful when the threaded holes
are blind.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.9 Tools used for transferring hole location from one workpiece to another:
(a) Transfer punches (b) Adjustable transfer punches
(c) Transfer screws (The DoAll Company)

Toolmaker’s buttons Toolmaker’s buttons are used to locate holes with positive
accuracy, as explained in detail in Sec. 2.5. Each set consists of four buttons of the
 30 Tool Design

same diameter which are fastened to a steel baseplate to protect the screws and
washers used in clamping them to the work (see Fig. 2.54).

Toolmaker’s clamps Figure 2.10 shows a parallel clamp commonly referred to as a

toolmaker’s clamp. such clamps are made of case-hardened steel with the end jaws
chamfered to facilitate clamping under a shoulder or in a recess. They are useful for
holding tool components together during assembly. Their advantage over a C clamp
is that they will not move the workpiece when the screws are tightened. They will also
clamp on nonparallel surfaces to a limited degree.

Fig. 2.10 Toolmaker’s parallel clamps (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

Magnetic cylinder squares The magnetic cylinder square shown in Fig. 2.11 is
extremely useful in toolmaking. A magnet in the base of the square securely holds
it to the surface to be checked, as shown in Fig. 2.12. A dial indicator mounted to a
height gauge or surface gauge is used to check height at both ends of the square.
A zero-zero reading indicates that the surface is square is square or perpendicular
to the reference surface. The cylinder squares are available is various sizes. To self-
prove the square, the stem is indicated and rotated 180°. If the square is accurate, the
reading will remain constant.

Fig. 2.11 Magnetic cylinder square (AA Gage Division, US Industries, Inc.)
 Toolmaking Practises 31

Fig. 2.12 Use of the magnetic cylinder square as the collet or chuck rotates and approaches
the edge of the work

Edge finders An edge finder shown in Fig. 2.13, is used to pick up the edge of a
workpiece that is to be aligned with the axis of a rotating spindle. In use, it is placed
in 13 mm diameter collet chuck. The head moves sideways as the collet or chuck
rotates and approaches the edge of the work. Location may be made from either flat
or round surfaces or from shoulders. Accuracy is within 13 mm when equipment is in
good shape.

Fig. 2.13 The edge finder (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

Sine bars Sine bars measure angles accurately and locate work at a desired angle
to some other surface or line. They are always used in conjunction with some true
surface from which measurements can be taken, preferably a thoroughly clean sur-
face plate.
 32 Tool Design

Typical sine bars and sine plates are shown in Fig. 2.14. A sine bar, a sine plate, and
a compound sine plate is shown in Fig. 2.14 a, b, c, respectively. Sine plates contain
tapped holes in the sides, ends and top surface to permit the use of clamps or other
holding devices to hold workpieces securely.

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 2.14 Sine bars and sine plates (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)

The principle of the sine bar is shown in Fig. 2.15. When set in position, the sine bar
forms a right triangle, as shown. A stack of gauge blocks or a planer gauge is used
to construct the side opposite the angle. To set the sine bar to the required angle, it is
necessary to stack gauge blocks up to a height equal to sine bar length multiplied by
the sine of the angle and then set one end of the sine bar on the stack.
A sine bar of particular value to the toolmaker (Figs 2.16 and 2.17) is a small, compact
unit and contains a magnetic base to hold it in place on the reference surface. It is
called the mini sine because of its small size and is extremely useful when making
setups on machine tools. The magnetic base eliminates the problem of holding it in
place and therefore a surface in any plane can be used as a reference surface. The
base contains a V groove which allows the use of a round surface as a reference.
 Toolmaking Practises 33

Fig. 2.15 The principle of the sine bar

Fig. 2.16 Methods of setting the mini sine (Kingmann-White, Inc.)

 34 Tool Design

Fig. 2.17 Use of the mini sine (Kingmann-White, Inc.)

The mini sine can be set by several methods, as shown in Fig. 2.16. It can be locked
in place after it is set. Figure 2.17 shows various applications of the mini sine. Try to
imagine how some of the applications shown could be made with a standard sine bar
and stack of gauge blocks. Note that a dial indicator is used in combination with the
mini sine.
The sine-bar principle is often built into machine-tool accessories as a means of set-
ting angles accurately. Figure 2.18 shows a grinding-wheel angle dresser constructed
on the sine-bar principle. An accessory of this type enables the toolmaker to dress
grinding wheels to extremely accurate angles.

Fig. 2.18 Grinding-wheel angle dresser constructed on the sine-bar principle

(The DoAll Company)
 Toolmaking Practises 35

The locating microscope The locating microscope shown in Fig. 2.19, is used to
pick up edges, contours, irregular shapes, and holes too small for an edge finder or
indicator. The image is not inverted as with standard compound microscopes. This
means the operator sees the work in the same position through the microscope as
without it and that table settings can be made instinctively without the confusion of
transposing reversed or inverted table movements. The reticle reference consists of
a number of concentric circles and two pairs of crossed centre lines that are suitable
for a wide variety of requirements.

Fig. 2.19 The locating microscope (The Moore Special Tool Co.)

Die-handling equipment Die sets are heavy and difficult to handle. The toolmaker
must exert considerable effort in setting and assembling even the smallest die sets.
Many mashed and pinched fingers have resulted from attempting to handle dies with
makeshift carts and pinch bars. Most toolrooms have available portable tables with
adjustable tops to eliminate the need of lifting die sets, as shown in Fig. 2.20. Tables
of this type not only prevent back strain and injuries to fingers and toes but also pre-
vent handling damage to tools and materials. The table at a operates through a hand
crank, worm, worm gear, and screw. It is probably the most positive and safest among
all lift arrangements. It has a capacity of 22 KN and comes in one of six standard
models offered by the manufacturer. The table at b is operated on the hydraulic-jack
principle and lifts loads with little operator effort. Both models are equipped with a floor
brake to prevent unwanted movement.
Figure 2.21 shows die-handling tables for separating, adjusting, and tryout of die sets
prior to placing them in production machines. The table in a contains brackets that
clamp on each side of the die shoe. The die set can then be tilted to the best working
position.
The table in Fig. 2.21b permits die sets and moulds to be separated and refitted and
critical corrections to be made time after time without losing the original alignment.
In use, the die set is positioned on the middle plate, and the top plate is lowered to
contact the punch shoe. The punch shoe is clamped to the top plate and the die shoe
to the middle plate. Turning the lower hand crank rotates the punch shoe to the most
 36 Tool Design

convenient working position and may completely invert it. When fitting or corrections
have been made, the punch shoe is rotated to the original position. For tryout, the top
plate is lowered until punch and die engage.

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.20 Portable tables with adjustable tops used for handling die sets and moulds
(a) Hamilton Portelvator (The Hamilton Tool Company)
(b) DoAll elevating table (The DoAll Company)

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.21 Separating tables used to separate die sets and moulds for fitting and
corrections (a) Floor-model die separator (The DoAll Company)
(b) Hamilton Die-part (The Hamilton Tool Company)

Filling machines Filling intricately shaped workpieces to size and shape is an oper-
ation that skilled toolmakers are required to perform. This is a slow and labourious
task when any quantity of material must be removed, and filling machines not only
speed up the operation but increases its accuracy as well.
 Toolmaking Practises 37

Filling machines are of two types: the continuous-band filling machine and the recip-
rocating filling machine. The continuous-band machine closely resembles the vertical
metal-cutting band saw with the saw blade replaced with a spring-steel band with
short file segments attached to it (see Fig. 2.22). The segments lock into alignment so
as to eliminate “bump” as the joints pass over the work. A snap joint in the spring-steel
band provides for quick opening and closing of the band loop for internal filling.

Fig. 2.22 The principle of the continuous band file

The reciprocating filling machine resembles a jigsaw and is often called a jig-filling
machine (see Fig. 2.23). In addition to filling, its reciprocating acting makes it suit-
able for sawing and lapping with the insertion of a short metal-cutting saw blade or
abrasive stone.

Fig. 2.23 The reciprocating filing machine (The Oliver Instrument Company)

A band filling machine is shown in Fig. 2.24. Band filling attachments may also be pur-
chased to convert a band saw into a filling machine. The file bands are interchangeable
 38 Tool Design

with saw blades. Simply removing the saw guides and replacing them with file guides
makes the band saw a band filling machine.

Fig. 2.24 A continuous-band filing machine (Grob, Inc.)

The major advantage of the band filling machine is that it is always cutting because of
the absence of return strokes. This greatly lengthens file life and helps hold the work
on the table. Angles can be filed by tilting the table.
File bands are available in various width dimensions, shapes and in a variety of num-
ber of teeth per mm and cut designs to suite practically any requirement. Almost
any material can be filed. There are special files for cutting aluminium or bronze, for
cutting boiler-plate steel or for cutting cast iron or alloy tool steel. A bastard-cut file is
predominately used for general filling of steel and other ferrous metals. Permanent
charts are installed on the side of filling machines to guide the selection of files for
specific materials.
When applying the workpiece to the file, any pressure can safely be exerted up to the
point of almost stalling the machine; however, best results are obtained when using
a medium even pressure. A light pressure is best for finish filling. If the teeth of the
file clog, the pressure should be reduced or a band file should be installed with wider
spacing between the teeth. It may occasionally be necessary to use a file card in the
same manner as with hand files.
Band filling speeds vary from 15 m/min for the harder steel alloys to 76 m/min for
softer metals and nonmetals. The chart on the filling machine will give the operator the
correct cutting speed for specific materials.
The advantage of reciprocating filling machines is that intricate shapes can be filed
because of the many shapes of files available (see Fig. 2.25). Internal work is more
easily inspected than on a band file because the overarm can be moved out of posi-
tion with minimum effort and then the workpiece lifted off for gauging or checking. The
table can be titled in two directions for filling of angles and compound angles.
 Toolmaking Practises 39

Parallel Machine Files

Round
Half Round
Pillar
(1 Safe Edge)
Oval

Knife

Square
Crochet

Three Square
Pippin
Lozenge
Cant

Fig. 2.25 Parallel machine files used in die-filing machines

(The Nicholson File Company)

Figure 2.26 shows a heavy-duty reciprocating filling machine. A unique feature found
on this machine is an automatic relieving and feeding attachment. This unit applies a
pressure to force the workpiece against the saw or file on the downstroke of the ram
to ensure proper cutting action. Conversely, the pressure is relieved on the upstroke
of the ram to permit accumulated chips to be cleared away. The feeding pressure is
adjustable. This device simply takes much of the manpower away from the operator.
While it does eliminate the conventional need to push the workpiece, it is still neces-
sary for the operator to control the direction of sawing or filling. Note also the small line
for an air blast to keep the workpiece from moving around and are easily adjusted to
the thickness of the workpiece.

Fig. 2.26 Use of a heavy-duty reciprocating filing machine (The Oliver Instrument Co.)
 40 Tool Design

The speeds of reciprocating filling machines, given in strokes per minute, is generally
varied by use of a V-belt and stepped-pulley arrangement. The selection of file shapes
and cut and spacing of teeth depends upon the workpiece and workpiece material.
Manufacturers provide this type of information in operators’ manuals that accompany
the machine.

The metal-cutting band saw The contour band sawing machine shown in Fig. 2.27,
is one of the most versatile machine tools found in the toolroom. It is used extensively
for cutting contoured shapes as well as for straight or angled cuts. Clamps or fixtures
are not necessary to hold the work because the cutting force is uniform and towards
the worktable. Workpieces are generally cut to a layout line, as shown in Fig. 2.28,
and sawing radii and irregular contours is possible because of the narrow width of the
band blade.

Fig. 2.27 The contour band sawing machine (Grob, Inc.)

Fig. 2.28 Sawing to a layout line (The DoAll Company)

 Toolmaking Practises 41

Contour band sawing machines are available with various worktables, power feed
attachments, coolant facilities, blade welders, polishing attachments, and filling attach-
ments. Figure 2.29 shows the use of the filling attachment.

Fig. 2.29 Use of a filing attachment on a contour band sawing machine

(The DoAll Company)

The simplest machines generally have fixed worktables that are inclinable in two
planes for sawing compound angles. Feeding the workpiece is accomplished by hand
or by a feed mechanism that has a foot-controlled cable arrangement to draw the
workpiece into the saw blade. This relieves the operator from having to push the work-
piece but still enables him to guide it along a layout line (see Fig. 2.30).

Fig. 2.30 Feed attachment on contour band filing machine (The DoAll Company)

The blade-welding attachment is of particular value to the toolmaker because it

enables him to do internal contour sawing on die blocks. In other words, the die open-
ing can be rough-sawed to remove the majority of the material. This is done by drilling
a hole of sufficient size in the die block to accept the blade. The blade is then welded
 42 Tool Design

and placed on the machine, where the opening is sawed. The blade must be cut and
rewelded after the sawing operation is completed.

The profile grinder Profile grinders are highly efficient for grinding contours, die
clearances, punches, and many other odd and difficult shapes encountered in tool and
die work. They are available in single- or dual-spindle models. The spindles oscillate
during the grinding operation to provide even grinding-wheel wear and finer finish.
The table tilts forward and back 10° from horizontal, and the graduated quadrant
provides accurate setting for grinding angles. The upper spindle head on dual-spindle
models tilts as much as 10° right or left. A dual-spindle profile grinder is shown in
Fig. 2.31.

Fig. 2.31 The dual-spindle profile grinder (Boyar-Schultz)

The universal punch shaper A hydraulic controlled universal punch shaper is shown
in Fig. 2.32. It works on the hydraulic tracing principle and will produce punch shapes
and contours that are almost impossible to make in any other way. It resembles a
conventional shaper, but the difference lies partly in the design of the table and partly
in the incorporation of the hydraulic system with a copying head. The table design
allows the workpiece to move either in a circular or transverse direction. The work-
piece is usually mounted between centres for rotary shaping, but it can be mounted
in different ways if necessary. The template, which is formed to the required shape
at the ratio of 1:1, is mounted in line with the component at the front of the workhead,
and both move identically, whatever type of shaping is carried out. A stylus rests on
the template, which in turn controls the vertical movement of the table through the
hydraulic system.
 Toolmaking Practises 43

Fig. 2.32 A hydraulically controlled punch shaper (The Mercuria Company)

In addition to making punches, the punch shaper is extremely useful in the manufac-
ture of electrodes for use on electrodischarge machines.

2.3 HAND FINISHING AND POLISHING

The final finishing of dies and moulds is often done by hand, depending upon the
type of die or mould and its application. Final finishing may consist of removing less
than 25 mm. from the cutting edge of a die with an abrasive handstone, or it may be
the removal of the small scallops in a die cavity that has been machined with a tracer
mill. Some moulds in the plastics field must be hand-polished to a high luster in order
to impart the necessary surface finish to the product. This section discusses the vari-
ous methods of hand finishing and polishing, along with the equipment that makes
the task easier. It should be noted at this point that hand finishing and polishing is a
labourious and time-consuming job, whatever the method used. Some of the larger
shops that specialise in the production of moulds for plastics hire a crew of women
whose job is to do nothing but finish-polish the mould cavity.

Abrasive sticks Abrasive sticks, often called polishing sticks, stones, or hones, are
manufactured in a multitude of shapes and sizes as well as abrasive materials and
abrasive grain size and hardness. Figure 2.33 shows a few of the shapes readily
available from stock. Abrasive sticks are available in various lengths and every well-
equipped toolmaker will have an assortment of sizes and shapes in his toolbox. The
use of the abrasive stick is shown in Fig. 2.34.

Fig. 2.33 Standard shapes of abrasive sticks (Norton Company, Coated

Abrasive Division)
 44 Tool Design

Fig. 2.34 Stoning a die using a round India abrasive stick (The Norton Company,
Coated Abrasive Division)

The two basic classes of abrasive sticks are those containing manufactured abrasives
and those containing natural abrasives. The manufactured abrasive is actually harder
than anything in nature except the diamond. The two manufactured abrasives are alu-
minium oxide and silicon carbide. Stones made of aluminium oxide abrasive are often
referred to as India oilstones. The India stone is unequalled for its long sharpening life,
maintenance of shape, and smoothness of cut. It is recommended for the stoning of
steel cutting edges, where the keeness of the edge is of greatest concern.
Abrasive sticks made of vitrified silicon carbide abrasive are almost as hard as dia-
mond. They are extremely sharp and fast-cutting and will remove metal more rapidly
than any other type of stone. These stones are recommended for operations when the
speed of cutting is more important than the fineness of edge. They appear to be softer
than aluminium oxide stones and therefore do not hold their shape as well.
Abrasive sticks made of natural abrasive are generally referred to as Arkansas stones.
They are cut from deposits of novaculite (a hard, dense, siliceous rock) found in the
Ozark Mountains of Arkansas. Arkansas stones are divided into two grades, hard
and soft, depending upon the density of the stone. Hard Arkansas stone has a very
fine grit and close density. It is generally used for sharpening delicate tools and/or
polishing to a fine finish. It is extremely slow-cutting when compared with other abra-
sive sticks. Soft Arkansas is not as fine-grained and hard as hard Arkansas stone.
Therefore, it cuts faster and is used when a keen, smooth edge is necessary without
the super finish given by the hard Arkansas.
Proper technique in the use of abrasive sticks, as shown in Fig. 2.34, must be devel-
oped through practise and experience. Stoning is a finishing operation, and it takes a
long time to remove even a little material. The beginner soon learns to leave as little
material as possible for stoning.
 Toolmaking Practises 45

Abrasive sticks, whether manufactured or natural, soon glaze, and their cutting ability
may be reduced as much as 50 per cent. Water or oil may be used to float residual
from the stone, oil being preferred by most toolmakers. News stones should be soaked
in oil unless they have been presoaked at the time of manufacture. This prevents the
stone from soaking up the oil as it is added during use. In use, a few drops of oil are
placed on the surface of the stone. As the stone is used, the oil spreads and eventu-
ally runs over the edges of the stone, carrying the residue with it. New oil must be
added periodically. Dirty oil should always be wiped off the stone thoroughly as soon
as possible after using it to further prevent glazing. If the stone does become glazed,
it can be cleaned by washing it in gasoline or similar solvent with a stiff brush.

Die files Files are used for the same purpose as abrasive sticks in finishing dies and
moulds, except that their use is limited to tooling materials that have not been heat-
treated. Files remove material faster than abrasive sticks. Ordinary machinist’s files
may be used for rough work where fast removal of material is important. However,
finish filling is generally done with Swiss pattern diesinker’s files and needle files (see
Fig. 2.35).

Needle Files — Round Handle

Round

Half Round

Flat

Crossing

Knife

Square

Three Square

Equaling

Barrette
Joint
(2 Round Edges)
Slitting

Marking

Fig. 2.35 Round-handle needle files used by jewellers, watchmakers, and fine toolmakers
(The Nicholson File Company)

Diesinker’s files are designed for use by toolmakers in dressing and finishing dies of
all kinds. Needle files are used for similar work on a smaller scale. Diesinker’s and
needle files are made in several shapes, as illustrated.
 46 Tool Design

Diesinker’s riffler files (Fig. 2.36) are double-ended files curved upward at the ends
and are used for getting into corners, crevices, and holes of intricate dies. They are
primarily used for mould work and are excellent for smoothing the scallops of a mould
produced by a tracer-type diesinking machine.

No. 1
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8

No. 9
No. 11
No. 12
No. 15
No. 16
No. 18

Fig. 2.36 Diesinker’s riffler files (The Nicholson File Company)

Good filling technique, like that of stoning, is developed through experience. Files will
load and must be kept clean with a file card or brush. The fine cut of Swiss files is par-
ticularly easy to load, and the beginner often makes the mistake of applying too much
pressure, which adds to the problem. Swiss pattern files cut slower than the American
cut machinist’s files, and extra pressure will not make them cut faster.

Power hand-polishing equipment Hand-polishing time can be decreased by using

power hand-grinding equipment, although it will not completely replace hand polish-
ing. Power hand grinders are driven by electric or pneumatic motors. Figure 2.44
shows an electric-powered grinder with the motor built into the handpiece. The speed
of grinders of this type varies from 18,000 to 45,000 rpm, depending upon the preci-
sion and quality of the grinder. Rheostats are available for varying the rpm on indi-
vidual units.
Pneumatic-type hand grinders have a turbine motor built into the handpiece (see
Fig. 2.47 and 2.48). The major advantage of pneumatic grinders varies from 38,000
to over 80,000 rpm. The speed of individual models is varied by an air throttle valve
mounted on the handpiece. Generally speaking, pneumatic grinders are also smaller
and lighter than the equivalent electric model.
 Toolmaking Practises 47

A really versatile piece of power hand-polishing equipment is the flexible-shaft machine

shown in Fig. 2.37. The weight of the electric motor is eliminated, and handpieces of
various types and sizes are available. A straight handpiece is shown attached to the
flexible shaft in Fig. 2.37, and a 45° handpiece is shown in Fig. 2.38. Figure 2.39
shows a flexible-shaft machine with a reciprocating or filling handpiece. This hand-
piece converts rotary motion into linear motion and is used for filling, honing, and lap-
ping operations. Figure 2.40 shows the reciprocating handpiece being used for filling.
Riffler files used in the reciprocating handpiece are excellent for finishing the bottom
surfaces of moulds. The speed of stroke can be varied from 0 to 3500 strokes per
minute by use of a rheostat.

Fig. 2.37 Flexible-shaft machine with straight handpiece attached (American

Rotary Tools Company)

Fig. 2.38 A 45° handpiece with various rotating rings used for flat polishing operations
(American Rotary Tools Company)
 48 Tool Design

Fig. 2.39 Reciprocating handpiece attached to a flexible shaft (American Rotary

Tools Company)

Fig. 2.40 Filing with a reciprocating handpiece attached to a flexible shaft

(American Rotary Tools Company)

The reciprocating handpiece works well for finishing flat surfaces with abrasive sticks,
as shown in Fig. 2.41. A small piece of abrasive stick is cut from the original, and a
slight indentation is made in its surface with a silicon carbide mounted wheel. A bent
wire with a point on the bent end is mounted into the handpiece. The abrasive stick is
placed in the indentation on the stone. A linear reciprocating motion is thus imparted
to the stone, and yet it is allowed to float free to match the surface to be finished.
Light machine oil applied to the abrasive stick and surface will keep it free-cutting and
prevent loading.
 Toolmaking Practises 49

Abrasive stick

Bent wire

Reciprocating
handpiece

Fig. 2.41 Polishing a flat surface with abrasive stick and reciprocating handpiece
for flexible shaft

Rotary files The rotary file is similar to a small milling cutter and is generally made of
high-speed steel or tungsten carbide. Rotary power filling is a fast method of smooth-
ing die cavities after rough machining and is especially well suited for chamfering
corners and forming fillets.
Rotary cutters of this type are classed as files or burrs, depending upon how the teeth
are cut at the time of manufacture. A rotary file has teeth raised with a hammer and
chisel; the teeth of burrs are ground from a hardened blank or milled from a soft blank
and hardened. Ground burrs are more efficient because of the uniformity of teeth and
flutes. Ground burrs can also be resharpened at a fraction of the cost of the original
tool.
Rotary files and burrs are available in many sizes and shapes as shown in Fig. 2.42.
A variety of tooth patterning is also available to meet the requirements of various jobs.
Tooth sizes are classed as coarse, medium, and fine, and tooth geometry includes
positive rake, zero rake, and negative rake.
There appears to be no general agreement on the speed at which a rotary file should
be operated. The toolmaker generally drives a rotary file with a variable-speed motor
and regulates the speed to fit the needs of the particular operations. The speed of
these tools can be guided by the same rules used in other machining operations
with toothed cutters. Speed should vary from 60 to 120 m/min when cutting soft or
 50 Tool Design

annealed steel. Tough materials should be cut with a lower speed, while soft, nonfer-
rous materials should be cut much faster. For example, aluminium may be rotary-filed
at 150 to 600 m/min. Generally, speaking, higher speeds will result in better finishes,
but less material will be removed. More material can be removed without clogging
with coarse-tooth cutters. A fine finish can be obtained with a coarse-tooth cutter by
increasing the cutting speed, but an equivalent fine finish can be obtained with fine-
tooth tools operated at slower cutting speed.

Fig. 2.42 Assorted rotary files (Nicholson File Company)

The successful use of a rotary file requires the operator to keep file overhang from the
driving-motor chuck as short as possible. He must also grip near the shank and make
his wrist and arm as rigid as possible. This can be done by resting the wrist of forearm
on the workpiece or bench top when taking a cut. Heavy cuts require the use of both
hands on the driving motor for successful operation.

Mounted wheels A mounted wheel, sometimes called a mounted point, is a small

grinding wheel attached to the end of a small mandrel. It is used in high-speed hand
grinders and is excellent for finishing hardened dies.
Mounted wheels are made in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. They are avail-
able in vitrified (clay) bonds with aluminium oxide or silicon carbide abrasive grains.
Aluminium oxide wheels are best suited for finishing heat-treated die steels, while
silicon carbide wheels are used for cast iron, carbide, and nonferrous materials.
There is a certain amount of risk in using mounted wheels in high-speed hand grind-
ers unless the operator is aware that each mounted wheel has a maximum safe oper-
ating speed. Operations at speeds higher than maximum safe operating speed are
apt to result in failure of the mandrel, either through severe bending or fracture of the
wheel. This is especially true for mounted wheels over 20 mm in diameter. Wheels
smaller than this usually cannot run too fast in the ordinary hand grinder unless it is
an extra-high-speed model.
The maximum safe operating speed for mounted wheels is determined by the size of
the mounted wheel, the size of the mandrel, and the overhang of the mandrel. Wheel
manufacturers publish charts for their products based on these three factors. The
 Toolmaking Practises 51

toolmaker would be well advised to check maximum safe operating speeds, especially
when using mounted wheels over 20 mm in diameter in high-speed hand grinders. He
should also chuck as close as possible to the mounted wheel and select mandrels as
large as possible.
In use, the pressure between the wheel and workpiece should not be heavy enough to
cause the mandrel to spring. If the wheel causes burning of the work, it is quite likely
that excessive pressure is being used. A freer-cutting wheel specification may permit
the desired rate of stock removal without excessive pressure.
Mounted wheels may glaze or load in the same manner as large grinding wheels.
Most toolmakers use a hard silicon carbide stick or piece of broken silicon carbide
grinding wheel to dress mounted wheels. This is done by grinding the dressing stick
in the same as grinding the workpiece until the desired result is obtained. Mounted
wheels can also be reshaped in this manner.

Rubberised abrasive points Rubberised abrasive points are mounted points consist-
ing of silicon carbide abrasive held in a bond of premium-grade oil-resistant chemical
rubber. In contrast to hard mounted wheels, the rubber bond has a unique cushioned
action and will cut freely, smoothly, and softly without gouging or digging into the work
surface. It resists clogging or smearing and is ideal for a broad range of applications
when metallic or nonmetallic surfaces must be smoothed and polished without loss
of dimensional tolerance or control. They are excellent for rough polishing moulds, as
shown in Fig. 2.43.

Fig. 2.43 Polishing moulds using rubberised abrasive (Cratex Manufacturing

Company, Inc.)

Rubberised abrasives are available in various standard shapes and sizes, as shown
in Fig. 2.44. Each size and shape is made in four standard grit textures, or composi-
tions, which differ in accordance with the mesh size of the abrasive grain used.
 52 Tool Design

Fig. 2.44 Assorted rubberised abrasives (Cartex Manufacturing Company, Inc.)

Care should be exercised when mounting rubberised abrasive points because the
area of greatest stress is at the centre hole. Wheels should be mounted on spindles
or arbors of correct diameter (nominal diameter, +0, – 0.05 mm). The wheel must not
be forced onto the spindle. Proper fit, neither too tight nor too loose, is essential.
The same dressing and truing tools methods are used on rubberised abrasive as on
conventional grinding wheels. A corase vitrified abrasive dressing block is ideal, and
all types of manual or mechanical dressers, as well as diamond truing tools, can also
be used.
As with mounted wheels, the maximum safe operating speeds for rubberised abrasive
points should not be exceeded. Generally speaking, small wheels and points 25 mm
in diameter or less, using mandrels 1 to 5, may be operated at 25,000 rpm. Check
with manufacturers for speeds of larger wheels. The maximum safe speed is based on
mandrel overhang of 12 mm or less. For each additional 6 mm overhang the operating
speed should be decreased by 20 per cent. In light deburring, smoothing, cleaning,
and polishing applications the best speed is usually lower than the maximum safe
operating speed. When applying the wheel to the workpiece or the workpiece to the
wheel, always use a light contact pressure.

Abrasive-cloth rotary tools Abrasive-cloth rotary tools are excellent for finishing
larger dies, such as Kirksite dies, forging dies, forming dies, and deep-draw dies,
moulds, and patterns. They are constructed by folding or rolling abrasive cloth into
various shapes that are mounted on mandrels. The roll type shown in Fig. 2.45 and
the flat disk type shown in Fig. 2.46, are two common shapes. The square pad, shown
in Fig. 2.47, is often used for finishing large sections because the intermittent stroke of
the pad corners avoids the swirling pattern left by disks or wheels. New grit is continu-
ally being exposed as the roll or square pad wear as shown in Fig. 2.45.
 Toolmaking Practises 53

Fig. 2.45 Abrasive cloth roll, before and after use, illustrating the uniform wear of a
perfectly balanced roll (Merit Abrasive Products, Inc.)

Fig. 2.46 Using abrasive disks mounted on flexible holders and driven with
pneumatic-powered hand grinders (Merit Abrasive Products, Inc.)

Fig. 2.47 Using an abrasive-cloth resin square pad (Merit Abrasive Products, Inc.)
 54 Tool Design

The abrasive-cloth disks with flexible rubber hold-

ers shown in Fig. 2.47 are well adapted to blending
flat surfaces. They also work on contoured sur-
faces because of the ability of the rubber holder to
assume the shape of the contour (see Fig. 2.48)
Abrasive-cloth rotary tools are available in glue-
bond cloth and aluminium oxide abrasive or res-
in-bond cloth and aluminium abrasive or silicon
carbide abrasive. Glue-bond cloth and aluminium
oxide abrasive works best on extreme contours
because it has greater flexibility. It works well on
jobs that require light stock removal. Resin-bond Fig. 2.48 Abrasive-cloth disks
cloth and aluminium oxide abrasive are heavier- with flexible rubber
duty and are used whenever medium to heavy holders are well
stock removal is required. It is probably the best adapted for blending
for blending light welds, edge breaking, fairing, and contours and surfaces
the removal of parting lines and machine marks. (Merit Abrasive Prod-
Resin-bond cloth and silicon carbide abrasive is ucts, Inc.)
recommended for very hard metals, soft aluminium
alloys, rubber, plastics, Haspalloy, and titanium.

Felt bobs Felt bobs are one of the best rotary tools for imparting a high finish to
the workpiece. A felt bob is a shaped dense piece of felt mounted on a mandrel
and impregnated with a polishing abrasive. Standard shapes are shown in Fig. 2.49.
Their major advantages are contourability, resiliency, uniform density, long life, and
economy. They are manufactured in varying degrees of hardness, ranging from extra
soft to flint hard. Each density has its place in polishing and finishing, although four
are most commonly used: soft, medium, hard, and rock hard. Figure 2.50 shows the
use of a felt bob to polish a section of a bending die.

Fig. 2.49 Assorted mandrel-mounted felt bobs (Bacon Felt Company)

Commercial polishing compounds are used for setting up the bobs. When using a
regular grease-base type of compound, (rouge, tripoli, steel-cutting, etc.), it is impor-
tant that the bob be properly coated. This is done by passing the rotating bob lightly
 Toolmaking Practises 55

across the compound and then holding it

lightly against the work. Again pass the
compound across the face of the bob a
few times. The bob should now be well
coated and ready to use. As the com-
pound wears off, more should be added
to increase the life of the bobs.
The newer greaseless abrasive com-
pounds are ideal for polishing, deburr-
ing, and touching up. Greaseless abra-
sive compounds, a mixture of grain and
adhesive, are available in bars with
Fig. 2.50 Using felt bobs powered by
grains ranging from very fine to very
an electric hand grinder
coarse. Sizing composition bars are also
(Bacon Felt Company)
available.
To apply the compound, start the tool and after it has reached maximum speed, shut
it off and hold the compound bar against the bob. The frictional heat developed during
slowdown is sufficient to melt the bar and transfer the compound to the bob. After a
few moments, repeat the operation until the desired head is obtained.
For fine microfinishing, diamond compound has no peer, especially when applied
with a felt bob. Manufacturers of injection moulds, wire-drawing dies, and other high-
precision tools requiring high finish depend upon felt bobs and diamond compound.
There is a sequence of applying a diamond compound that should be followed, and it
is well to follow the instruction of the diamond-compound manufacturer.
Final finish polishing can seldom be accomplished in one operation with one grain
size. The general practise is to polish the workpiece with a succession of bobs set
up with different grains sizes. This progression is from a coarse grain to a finer grain,
the number of grains depending upon the workpiece material and the finish required.
Each progression should be reduced by about 30 grain numbers. Many toolmakers
being at a 60 grit and then go to 90, 120, 150, 180, 220, etc. The question of how far
to carry the final grain size depends upon the final finish required.
A good polishing job cannot be hurried. Going from a coarse grit to a fine grit without
using an intermediate grit generally results in more polishing time than if an interme-
diate grit were used, because a great deal more time is required to remove the deep
scratches made by the coarse grain.
Most manufacturers recommend a polishing speed of 1500 to 2200 m/min. Higher
speeds are used on stainless steels and tougher steels. Excessive speed tends to
shorten the life of the bob.

2.4 SCREWS AND DOWELS

The most common method of assembling tool components is by screws and dowels.
Two dowels serve to locate one component in relation to the other and one or more
screws, depending upon the size of the component, firmly hold the component in
place. The general procedure is to drill and tap two screw holes and fasten the com-
ponent in position by gently tightening the two screws. The component can be moved
slightly into final position by light taps with a brass hammer or drift. The toolmaker
 56 Tool Design

is able to do this because the screw holes are drilled slightly oversize. Once the
component is in final position, the screws are tightened and component position is
rechecked. Dowel holes are then drilled and reamed while the component is locked
in position. There is generally no attempt made to hold a specific location of dowel
holes because only one tool of a kind is made. The exception to this is tooling built for
continuous production when components subject to wear are standardised for easy
and rapid replacement.
This description oversimplifies the procedure of producing screw and dowel holes. A
general description, like the majority of those found in tool-design texts, does not point
out various factors influencing the production of precision dowel holes. For example,
screw and dowel holes by necessity must be made before heat treatment of the com-
ponent. The component may change dimensionally during heat treatment, and the
dowel holes will not align. The holes themselves may change in diameter and shape.
The toolmaker must be aware of these factors and be prepared to cope with their
effects. The tool designer should also be aware of these factors so that he can be
more sympathetic to the problems of the toolmaker. The following discussion presents
a few of the common practical approaches to screw- and dowel-hole production. It
shall be understood that each individual toolmaker develops his own methods, and
they certainly are not to be condemned as long as he gets the necessary results.

Screw holes and threads Threads generally do not pose a problem with regard to
positional location. Conventional tapping practise serves for most applications for tool-
ing. The tap drill should be drilled through the component whenever possible. Chips
produced by the tap are free to drop through the hole, and the depth of tapping does
not have to be so carefully controlled as for blind holes. Drilling through for tapped
holes also make it easier to transfer the hole location to the joining component.
Component parts are joined by drilling and tapping one component while the other is
clearance-drilled and counterbored so that the socket-head cap screw will be below
the component surface. When a heat-treated component is attached to a component
that is not hardened, as when a die block is attached to a die shoe, it is desirable to
place the threads in the soft component because threads in a part to be heat-treated
sometimes induce cracking when the part is quenched. This is especially true when
the component is made from a water-hard tool steel. Threads do not cool evenly, and
this is just enough to set up stresses that cause a crack through the threads. When
it is necessary to thread components to be hardened, they should be made from an
oil-hard or air-hard tool steel.
The minimum depths of thread (usable thread length) should be at least 1.5 times the
diameter of the screw. When the tool is subjected to heavy shock loads, it is not a
bad idea to increase the thread-engagement depth of two times the screw diameter.
When it is necessary to tap a blind hole, as when there must be a smooth work-
ing surface on the components, the same rules for thread depth should be followed
whenever possible. This sometimes cannot to be done because the height of the
component is restricted. When this occurs, it will be necessary to get as much thread
as possible by using a bottoming tape and to add extra holes to distribute the stress
on the threads evenly.
Good toolmaking practise dictates that all holes to be tapped be relieved by counter-
sinking before tapping. A tap has a tendency to lift a small ring of material from the
holes as it starts. The material that is raised causes a hump on the surface of the
 Toolmaking Practises 57

component. This could be removed after tapping, but the removal operation distorts
the first thread somewhat and may cause difficulty in starting the screw. Countersinking
before tapping with a 90° countersink relieves the holes and provides an area in which
the first thread can rise and still be below the component surface. The countersink
should be deep enough to provide a hole surface diameter from 1.6 to 2.4 mm greater
than the major diameter of the thread.
It is generally necessary to remove heat-treat scale and residue from threaded holes
after heat treating unless a controlled-atmosphere furnace is used. A mistake often
made by the novice is to run a tap through the hole after the component has been
heat-treated. This practise dulls the tap, as the component is generally near the same
hardness as that of the tap. Toolmakers sometimes use an old, well-worm tap for this
purpose or a screw with a notch similar to a flute of a tap ground in it. The old tap or
screw is run in and out of the hole until the scale is broken loose.
Often the hole will distort or shrink enough during heat treatment to make the screw
bind in the hole. A small amount of lapping compound placed on the screw and care-
fully worked into the hole with forward and reverse movement will take care of a
specially prepared thread lap to bring the holes to size. The best thread lap is made
of cast iron, as it is porous enough to hold the grains of lapping compound, although
cold-rolled steel will work. Thread a cast-iron rod slightly undersize so that it freely
enters the shrunken threaded holes. Charge the lap with lapping compound and care-
fully rotate it back and forth until the hole is brought to size. The lap may be made
adjustable by splitting the threaded section lengthwise and expanding it by use of a
slightly tapered wedge inserted in the end of the lap. A tapered screw may be substi-
tuted for the tapered wedge when a more elaborate design is desired. Always remove
lapping compound from the tapped hole by washing it with solvent.

Dowels and dowel holes The production of precision dowel holes offers a great chal-
lenge to the toolmaker, as the function of dowels is to provide and maintain accurate
positioning of the component. No real problem is encountered when both components
are soft and will not be heat-treated. All that is necessary is to cap-screw the compo-
nents in place and drill and ream the dowel holes with standard drills and dowel-pin
reamers. Dowel-pin reamers are made undersize the amount necessary to produce
a press fit between the hole and the dowel. The amount of undersize depends upon
the size of the dowel. Dowel-pin reamers were formly made by the toolmaker, but now
they can be purchased commercially either singly or in sets.
Standard dowels are furnished commercially to 5 mm larger than the nominal diameter
with a tolerance of 2.5 mm. If for some reason the toolmaker makes the hole too large,
oversize dowels are commercially available at 2.5 mm and 50 mm over the nominal
diameter. It should be noted that oversize dowels are intended for maintenance work
rather than to cover up the toolmaker’s mistakes.
Dowel holes should always extend through both components whenever possible.
A hardened dowel is next to impossible to remove by conventional methods when
pressed into a blind hole. When it is necessary to use a blind hole in one component,
the blind holes should be lapped enough to remove a tenth or so. This will cause the
dowel to stay in the component with the through hole.
Dowel-hole problems begin with heat-treated components. The holes distort and
shrink enough to cause alignment problems after heat treatment. It becomes neces-
sary for the toolmaker to make the holes undersize before heat treatment and then
 58 Tool Design

finish them to size and align them after heat treatment. Dowel holes are finished after
heat treatment by some variation of lapping, honing, or grinding.
For the majority of work, the most practical method of finishing dowel holes in heat-
treated die components is by lapping. Laps are inexpensive, and all that is necessary
in the line of machines is one that will turn the lap. The disadvantage of lapping is that
a great deal of skill is required on the part of the toolmaker. There are certain motions,
touches, and sounds used in the art of lapping which the toolmaker must acquire by
practise and experience.
Various kinds of laps are used in the lapping of holes according to the accuracy
required and the conditions under which the work is done. Typical laps for holes are
shown in Fig. 2.51. Laps made in the toolroom basically consist of a rod of copper,
brass, or cast iron turned to fit the holes to the lapped and split longitudinally for some
distance from the end. The outside diameter of the lap is charged with an abrasive,
and a taper wedge or screw is driven into the end for adjustment as the lap wears.
Larger laps are generally made of cast iron, but the smaller sizes are made of cop-
per or brass because cast iron is too brittle. Many toolmakers consider cast-iron laps
superior to those made of copper or brass; however, the usual hole size for dowels
generally eliminates cast iron as a lap material. Copper seems to be the most com-
mon material used for lapping dowel holes, especially if a large amount of material is
to be removed. A copper lap charged with coarse abrasive cuts quite rapidly, but the
hole should be finished with a different lap charged with a finer abrasive.

Fig. 2.51 Types of shop-made laps used for lapping dowel holes in hardened tool
components

A great deal of time can be saved by using a commercial lap, as shown in Fig. 2.52.
Commercial laps with replaceable copper sleeves are available in various sizes.
Except for the smaller sizes, these laps have an adjustable mandrel on which the
sleeve is expanded to fit the hole. Sizes below 6 mm do not have an adjustment, and
it is necessary to interchange sleeves of various sizes.
Silicon carbide abrasive is used for most dowel-hole lapping and is available in a vari-
ety of grit sizes. It can be obtained as a dry abrasive and mixed with a carrier vehicle
such as kerosene or light machine oil. However, for lapping dowel holes, a commercial
lapping compound already mixed with the carrier vehicle is preferred by most tool-
makers. Commercial lapping compound usually has to be thinned with oil or kerosene
to suit the needs of the individual toolmaker.
 Toolmaking Practises 59

Fig. 2.52 Commercial Copper Head laps (The Boyar-Schultz Company)

The lap works on the principle that the abrasive is “charged”, or embedded, in the sur-
face of the soft lap material. The grade or coarseness of the abrasive depends upon
the finish required and the amount that must be removed by lapping. The technique of
charging the lap varies with the individual toolmaker and the results desired. The pro-
cedure for charging a lap with dry abrasive consists of sprinkling the abrasive evenly
on a flat plate and firmly rolling the lap over the powder. Enough pressure should be
applied to embed the abrasive in the surface of the lap. Some toolmakers use a small
brass hammer and gently tap the lap as it is rolled over the abrasive. Excess powder
is removed and the lap is ready to be inserted into the hole.
A charging method used by many toolmakers for commercial laps to be used in dowel
holes is to fill the slot and holes in the copper sleeve with lapping compound. The lap is
then shoved into the hole, and lightweight machine oil or kerosene is liberally squirted
around the laps to float the abrasive. When the lap is turned, the abrasive will carry
around and gradually work out evenly to the ends of the hole. The liberal application
of oil floats loose abrasive away from hole openings, and the lap should be expanded
occasionally as lapping progresses without adding new abrasive. Excess abrasive or
new abrasive added to the lap at the hole opening will produce a bell-mouthed hole.
This is why a lap should always be shoved into the hole completely before it is rotated.
Many beginners make the mistake of sprinkling abrasive on the lap and shoving it into
the work while it is turning. This practise will invariably produce a bell-mouthed hole.
Laps for dowel holes are generally powered by a sensitive drill press. There is often
controversy over how fast to rotate a lap. Handbooks recommend speed ranging from
100 to 250 m/min, but a speed this fast is often impossible to obtain when lapping
small holes. Most toolmakers try to rotate the lap at as fast a speed as possible and
yet control the lapping operation, which usually calls for a considerable amount of trial
and error.
The lap should be kept tight enough in the hole to create heat during the operation.
The lap should always fill the hole. This is simplified when using an adjustable lap, but
a solid or commercial sleeve lap in the smaller sizes without adjustment complicates
 60 Tool Design

matters. A series of sleeves in small size increments must be used to complete the
lapping operation. Care must be taken to use each size only until the next larger
sleeve in the series will enter the hole.
The lap selected should always be longer than the hole depth in order to straighten
the hole as it is lapped. Long holes of small diameter are difficult to lap straight, and
it may be necessary to relieve the dowel holes to reduce the hole length. As the lap
revolves, it should be slowly drawn back and forth from end to end, and under no cir-
cumstances should this oscillation cease while the lap is rotating.
Components for heat-treated tools are screwed in place before heat treatment, as
described earlier. Dowel holes are then drilled and reamed undersize with compo-
nents in place. How much undersize is required, depends upon how much the par-
ticular steel will distort during heat treatment. This may run from 13 to 130 mm, and
the toolmaker will have to rely on his past experience when determining this. The
components are then heat-treated and perhaps surface-ground, depending upon the
application of the tool. The components are then again bolted together and the dowel
holes lined up as close as possible. Scale and sharp edges can be removed from the
hole by a soft-steel bar stock slightly smaller that the hole with a longitudinal groove or
split in which the edge of a piece of emery cloth is inserted. The cloth is wound around
the bar until it fills the hole in the work. The bar is rotated in the hole until all scale and
rough edges are removed. The hole is now ready for lapping, as previously described,
until it reaches the diameter for the desired dowel. Care must be taken to remove all
abrasive from the hole before checking and fitting the dowel in the hole.
Using a jig grinder to produce dowel holes in hardened components is best. The dowel
hole can be ground with locational accuracy if required, as well as being perfectly
round. In addition, perpendicularity of the hole to the base surface is assured. The
hole can be produced with little effort compared to lapping. When tools require inter-
changeability or replacement of components, the jig grinder becomes a necessity for
producing dowel holes.

2.5 HOLE LOCATION

The problem of locating holes accurately has plagued the toolmaker since the begin-
ning of the industrial revolution. Left to his own devices, the toolmaker has come
up with some ingenious ideas and methods which may or may not be successfully
applied by other toolmakers. The degree of accuracy has often depended upon the
individual skill of the toolmaker, especially when he utilises only conventional machine
tools and improvised tooling methods.
Hole location and production are divided into three basic operations: (i) Establishing
the correct position of the finished hole, (ii) Machining the hole, and (iii) Checking the
hole for accuracy. Establishing the location and machining the hole are probably the
most difficult of the three. There is a big difference between measuring the accuracy
of existing holes and machining them in the desired location to a predetermined size
because of the many variables the toolmaker has to work with during the locating and
machining operation. Examples are the transfer of measurements that result in cumu-
lative errors, inaccuracy of machine tools, temperature differential between the point
of cutting and the rest of the workpiece, stress in workpiece material, manual skill of
the toolmaker, and deflection of the workpiece, cutting tool, and machine tool.
 Toolmaking Practises 61

The following discussion describes various methods of locating and machining holes
without reference to their applications. The methods range from simple bench oper-
ation to sophisticated jig-boring machines. The methods used in actual application
depend upon the accuracy required, the skill of the individual toolmaker, the machine
tools and measuring tools available, and the number of holes to be produced.

Layout Layout means scribing lines on the workpiece at right angles to each other.
The intersection of the lines indicates the desired position of the finished hole. Layout
in its simplest form is accomplished by use of a straightedge, combination square, and
hand scriber. This is the least accurate of the layout methods because of the necessity
of aligning the scriber and workpiece with the scale graduations and the inconsistency
of scriber angle against the scale. This method is generally used by the toolmaker for
rough layout for reference when doing precision location on a machine.
Other layout methods listed in order of increasing accuracy are use of the surface
gauge, height gauge, planer gauge, and gauge blocks in combination with a lapped
scriber. These methods are well described in detail in most basic machine-shop texts,
and time will not be devoted to them here except for some general comments.
The surface gauge is only a little better than a hand scriber and straightedge, as it
eliminates the variation in scriber angle and is used in reference to an established
plane (generally a surface plate). It is still necessary to set the scriber with refer-
ence to a scale, and transfer, but transfer of measurements from the scale to the
surface-gauge scriber point often results in a slight error. The height gauge eliminates
this shortcoming, as it is set directly without transfer, but it is slower because of the
necessity of reading the vernier and then
doing arithmetic to three decimal places.
Using a planer gauge and scriber set with
a micrometer is slightly more accurate but
less handy. Precision gauge blocks and a
lapped scriber (Fig. 2.53) are the ultimate
in layout accuracy but of little use because
the toolmaker cannot pick up the intersec-
tion of the layout lines with the cutting tool
to the accuracy of the gauge blocks. Many
toolmakers highlight the layout-line inter-
section with a prick-punch mark, which
further reduces the accuracy of any layout
method. The toolmaker or machinist who
can consistently hit the exact intersection Fig. 2.53 The use of a special lapped
of layout lines made with a height gauge scriber and gauge blocks for
is a rare individual. What he generally layout (The Moore Special
accomplished is to obscure the intersec- Tool Company)
tion to the extent that he is never sure
where the true intersection lies.

Toolmaker’s buttons The use of toolmaker’s buttons to establish the desired loca-
tion of a finished hole in the workpiece has been used in the past to overcome the
limitations of layout methods. Toolmaker’s buttons are small cylinders of hardened
steel which are accurately ground and lapped to size. The ends are ground square
with the sides to assume perfect alignment with the work. Each set consists of four
 62 Tool Design

buttons of the same diameter which are fastened to a steel baseplate to protect the
screws and washers used in clamping them to the work. Buttons are available in vari-
ous diametric sizes.
Preliminary preparations for use of tool-
maker’s buttons is to lay out hole positions
by one of the layout methods. The approx-
imate hole positions are then drilled and
tapped to the size of the screws used to
attach the buttons. The button is fastened
to the workpiece and roughly located by
means of scribed lines. The holes in the
buttons are larger than the screws, to
permit sideways adjustment after the pre-
liminary fastening to the workpiece. The
screw is snug, but still loose enough to
permit movement, so that it can be moved
to the desired position. The button is Fig. 2.54 The use of a height gauge and
generally moved by use of a small brass dial indicator to check the posi-
drift tapped lightly with a small hammer. tion of toolmaker’s buttons (The
Various methods used to check the loca- Moore Special Tool Company)
tion of the buttons in relation to each other
on the reference edges of the workpiece include height gauges, micrometres, sine
bars, adjustable parallels, gauge blocks, etc. Figure 2.54 shows the use of a height
gauge and dial indicator to check button positions.
Locating toolmaker’s buttons is a painstaking and time-consuming operation since the
button must be aligned in two directions. A tap in one direction will invariably displace
the button in the other. When the button is finally located, the screw must be tightened,
which may again shift the button.
When all buttons are finally located and tightened, the workpiece is mounted on a
machine tool and one button is located directly in line with the spindle axis by moving
the workpiece. Final location is accomplished by indicating the button with a dial indi-
cator. The button is then removed and the hole is rough-drilled. A single-point boring
tool is used for final truing and sizing of the hole. The workpiece is loosened and the
next button is located and the process repeated until all holes are completed.
The machine tools most commonly used to produce holes located by toolmaker’s
buttons are the vertical milling machine and the engine lathe. In the early days, often
the only machine available for precision machining was the engine lathe. The work-
piece was located on the faceplate, and holes were produced by drilling and boring.
Toolmaker’s buttons were the only practical way of locating holes in relation to each
other because the workpiece had to be unclamped and moved for each successive
hole. For all practical purposes, toolmaker’s buttons are of little use today in the mod-
ern toolroom because machines have been developed for much faster precision locat-
ing and boring of holes.

Transfer Toolmakers often use transfer methods for establishing the location of
holes, especially to match the positions of existing holes in a tool component with cor-
responding holes in another component. Generally, the alignment of holes in the com-
 Toolmaking Practises 63

ponents is more important than their location to dimension. Often the exact location of
the original hole is not determined.
The transfer screws and punches are the most common means of transferring hole
locations. These special tools have a small prick-punch point in their centres and
are guided by the holes in the existing tool component. This type of tool is espe-
cially well suited for rough location of punches with respect to die blocks within a
die set. The die block is mounted in place by use of screws and dowels to the dies
shoe of the die set. The die set is inverted and placed on parallels, as shown in
Fig. 2.55.
The punch is placed on the punch shoe, and the assembly is closed to the point where
the punch enters the die block. Parallels should be used to prevent the assembly from
closing too far. Shim stock equal to the die clearance is used to centre the punch prop-
erly in the die block. Rubber bands or soft copper wire are often used to aid in holding
the shim stock in place. The punch is now ready for spotting.
The method of transfer or spotting will depend upon the location of the holes. A trans-
fer punch can be used as shown in Fig. 2.55a when the holes are circumscribed by
the opening in the die shoe. Transfer screws or buttons are used as shown in Fig.
2.55b when the holes cannot be reached through the die opening. When transfer
punches are used, the punch is tapped lightly to indicate the hole location. When
transfer screws are used, a brass drift is placed on the punch as near the centre of
the hole pattern as possible and rapped solidly with a hammer. In either case, the tool-
maker should not attempt to obtain a deep centre impression for drilling. He should
not attempt to spot dowel holes.

Transfer Brass drift

punch Die shoe

Die block

Parallels
Shim
stock

Punch

Punch shoe Punch Transfer screw

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.55 Using transfer screws and transfer punches. The punches in (a) and (b)
are two different punches
The next step is to separate the assembly and drill the screw holes. Sometimes a
toolmaker enlarges the centre impressions with a centre punch, but unless he is
 64 Tool Design

extremely careful, he cannot do an accurate job of drilling because the location of a

standard drill in large centre-punch hole is often an educated guess. A better method
is to locate directly from the centre impressions with a wiggler or locating microscope
and then start the hole with a spotting drill or centre drill, followed by a regular drill.
After the screw holes have been transferred, drilled, counterbored, etc., the punch
may be doweled in place. The punch is again positioned in the die opening, using
shims if required. Screws are inserted in the holes and snugged securely but not to
lock tightness. A small, soft drift and hammer are used to tap the punch as required
until positioned. The screws are then tightened all the way. This may disturb the punch
position slightly, and it is necessary to check after final positioning.
Final checking is accomplished in several ways, but commonly by using a light or
feeler gauges or by cutting a suitable material. Use of a light consists of shining a
small flashlight (often called a die light) into the junction of a closed punch and die
and observing the light line on the other side. This works very well when the die clear-
ance is extremely small, providing the die opening has a clearance opening in the die
shoe so that the toolmaker can see. For dies with clearance opening, the punch posi-
tion can be accurately checked by making trial cuts in a suitable material. Soft tissue
paper or cigarette paper works well for dies with small clearances; soft, heavier paper
is used for larger clearance. Soft paper tends to pull and tear on one side instead of
cutting clean when the punch and die relationship is incorrect. When the final position
is checked, the dowel holes may be drilled and reamed. Dowel holes were discussed
earlier in this chapter.
The previous discussion cites a typical example of the use of transfer methods for
locating holes. It is limited to situations like this and others when the rough alignment
of the holes in two workpieces is more important than their relation to dimensions.
Transfer methods work well for screw holes because the holes are somewhat over-
sized to allow movement of one component in relation to the other. This is not the
case when making dowel holes, which must be in near perfect alignment. Transfer
methods would not be accurate enough in this case. The transfer punch itself will not
consistantly transfer the centre point because the angle at which it is held when trans-
ferring is not always the same. The real problem, however, comes when the toolmaker
begins to align the transferred centre with the cutting tool to produce the hole. No
matter how carefully he works, there is almost certain to be an additional inaccuracy,
called transition error. Transition error is cumulative in direct proportion to the number
of operations required to pick up the location and inaccuracies of the machine spindle
and chuck. The wiggler and locating microscope are only as accurate as the chuck
and machine spindle. For example, the point of the wiggler is on the theoretical axis
of rotation and will locate the spotted point under the theoretical axis of rotation when
properly used. However, the chuck must hold the cutting tool on the same axis of
rotation, and if the chuck is not accurate, this is impossible. The chuck on most drill
presses is not this accurate.

Jig boring and jig grinding It was inevitable that the inefficiency, unreliability,
and dependence upon individual skill of the previously described toolmaker meth-
ods of locating holes and contours should eventually bring about the development of
mechanical aids engineered to solve locating problems. The ultimate in these devel-
opments has been the jig borer and its companion machine, the jig grinder.
 Toolmaking Practises 65

In a general sense, the jig borer is similar to a milling machine. As with milling
machines, there are vertical-spindle machines and horizontal-spindle machines. The
vertical-spindle jig borer is more commonly used in toolroom work, and the discussion
will be limited to this type.
The basic elements and action of a jig borer are essentially the same as those of the
vertical milling machine. The cutting tool rotates on a spindle which is arranged for
feeding along a vertical axis. Positioning of the workpiece is accomplished in a hori-
zontal plane with longitudal and transverse feed movements.
Although there is a general similarity between the vertical-spindle milling machine and
the jig-boring machine, there are small differences that are extremely significant. The
most important is in the accuracy of positioning the workpiece. The modern jig borer
is capable of positioning to within 2.5 mm for absolute location or spacing of holes. The
spindle is also more rigid and precise to provide accurate concentric machining. The
jig borer is more massive in proportion to the capacity of the machine, to minimise
small dimensional errors due to deflection, vibration, and temperature change.
A jig grinder is a jig borer equipped with a high-speed grinding spindle, which is gener-
ally powered by a high-speed pneumatic turbine. The grinding spindle may be offset
from the axis of rotation and orbit in a planetary path to grind the desired hole. The
jig grinder is used in the same manner as the jig borer, with the added convenience
of being able to machine hardened steel. For example, holes that become distorted
during the hardening process can be brought to correct size and position with the
jig grinder. In addition to grinding straight holes, most jig grinders can automatically
grind tapered holes and combinations of radii, tangents, angles, and flats. The posi-
tioning system of a jig grinder is essentially the same as that of the jig borer, except
that provisions are made to protect the ways from abrasive dust. Somewhat greater
accuracy may be obtained in grinding, simply because this operation on hard material

Fig. 2.56 The Moore no. 2 jig grinder Fig. 2.57 The jig borer (The Moore
(The Moore Special Tool Special Tool Company)
Company)
 66 Tool Design

is inherently better suited to dimensional control than the machining of soft metal. Jig-
boring and jig-grinding machines are shown in Figs 2.56 and 2.57.
Numerous attempts have been made to convert vertical-spindle milling machines to
jig borers. Superficially, it would appear that the addition of an accurate measuring
system would serve this purpose. However, several factors prevent the attainment by
a milling machine of accuracy comparable to that of a jig borer, even with an identical
measuring system. A milling machine with its gibbed, vertically adjustable knee lacks
rigidity. In addition, the general construction, spindle design, and alignment of posi-
tioning elements are not sufficiently good to transfer all the accuracy of the measuring
system to the work.
Conversion of a vertical-spindle milling machine to serve as a jig grinder involves even
greater difficulty. A high-speed grinding spindle must be mounted eccentrically on the
main spindle, and there is still the same need for a measuring system. Together, these
two additions provide an approximation of the basic rectangular positioning move-
ment and planetary grinding movement required for jig grinding. Due to the relatively
greater complexity and refinement necessary in true jig grinders, this type of conver-
sion is less satisfactory than that of a jig borer.
The measuring systems of jig borers and jig grinders utilise lead screws, mechani-
cal or electrical gaging, or optical measuring, precision lead screws being the most
common. Some jig borers make use of a compensating lead screw. Compensation is
accomplished by means of a cam which causes slight variations in the angular posi-
tion of the lead-screw nut. These variations offset any deviations in the lead screw
itself.
Mechanical measuring or gauging methods used on jig borers generally consist
of building up a set of gauge blocks or end measures to the required dimensions.
The built-up blocks or measures lie in a trough along the side of the table, and the
final fractional dimension is obtained by a micrometer adjustment or a dial indicator.
Recent development of this system utilised electrical gauging or measuring systems.
Optical measuring systems consist of an extremely accurate engine-divided scale for
each axis. The scales are generally mounted inside the machine to prevent damage.
They are read by an optical system that magnifies the graduations. Machines with this
type of measuring system use lead screws to impart motion to the table and spindle
and depend entirely on the scales for accuracy.
The significant features of the jig borer lie in its directness and rapidity in attaining
the highest order of locational accuracy. These attributes, together with its versatility
and efficient stock removal, explain its rapidly increasing acceptance in widely varied
phases of the mechanical industries, from toolroom to production lines, from experi-
mental laboratory to inspection department.
Since the jig borer was developed primarily to solve the toolmaker’s ever present
problems of precise location, its first acceptance and widest general use have been in
the toolroom. Used alone or in partnership with its companion machine, the jig grinder,
the jig borer has done much to promote interchangeability in toolmaking. It has also
increased the toolmaker’s capacity, relieving him of the tedious job of locating holes
by makeshift methods.
As its name implies, one of the basic uses of the jig borer is in jig making. Jigs may
range from the simple plate type, requiring only an accurate dimensional relationship
 Toolmaking Practises 67

between bushing and locator, to complex box jigs incorporating numerous holes and
surfaces in several planes. Even in cases where the workpiece to be produced from a
jig does not require hole location to a “tenth”, the bushing holes can be jig-bored much
more quickly and to high accuracy than they can be produced by any other means to
even broad locational tolerances.
Press tools, ranging from simple dies not requiring the highest accuracy to compound
and progressive dies necessitating the greatest precision, are an obvious product for
the jig borer, as shown in Fig. 2.58. As a case in point, the significant accuracy contri-
bution of the jig borer to the stator-rotor lamination lies in the precision location of the
holes in the punch plate. Worthy of special mention are the pilot holes and the bushing
holes guiding the aligning posts of the stripper, as shown in Fig. 2.59.

Fig. 2.58 Typical jig-borer work is represented by these progressive dies (The Moore
Special Tool Company)

Fig. 2.59 Punch plate and stripper of a stator-rotor lamination die, illustrating the need for
locational accuracy of the jig borer (The Moore Special Tool Company)
 68 Tool Design

Dies not requiring high accuracy can be jig-bored and left unground after harden-
ing. Distortion errors in hole location can be determined by picking up the location
of the holes after heat treatment by using the jig borer. This establishes a new set of
co-ordinates to which the unhardened, related members such as stripper and punch
plates can be jig-bored.
More complex or precise dies require grinding after hardening. The ideal solution,
both from the standpoint of efficiency and accuracy, is jig grinding. In this way, all
parts can be jig-bored to co-ordinate location, with all die openings left a few microns
undersize to permit re-establishment of location by jig grinding after hardening. Parts
not requiring heat treatment may be bored to size.
The advantage in jig boring parts which will subsequently be hardened and jig-ground
is purely a matter of efficiency. It is normally desirable to leave more stock for grinding
than is necessary for economic reasons. This condition can prevail only if the original
location is precise, because any tolerance at this point must be added to the allow-
ance for anticipated distortion. The fact that the jig borer can locate holes accurately
and remove stock so rapidly is all to the good, since there is no faster method within
acceptable limits of accuracy. In jig boring holes to be ground later, it is unnecessary
to size to a “tenth”, which is a further saving of time.
Assuming that a jig grinder is not available, the jig borer may be used to re-establish
co-ordinate location prior to grinding in a conventional internal grinder. This is accom-
plished in the following sequence:
1. After the die block is hardened and surface-ground, soft plugs (steel or brass)
are fitted to the holes to be ground.
2. The dies is set up in a jig borer and small holes bored in the plugs to the same
co-ordinates as used in the original jig boring; this re-establishes the desired
location, which could no longer be trusted after hardening.
3. One at a time, these holes in the plugs are indicated true with the axis of the
internal grinder, as shown in Fig. 2.60. The plug is then removed and the die
opening ground to size (see Fig. 2.61).

Fig. 2.60 Indicating the hole from the spindle of an internal grinder (The Moore Special
Tool Company)
 Toolmaking Practises 69

While this is not as accurate as jig grinding

and far less efficient from every standpoint, it
is most satisfactory for substitute methods.

The coordinate locating system In use, the

jig grinder and jig borer may be considered
as consisting of a vertical spindle for machin-
ing and a horizontal table for work position-
ing. Positioning is accomplished through a
rectangular co-ordinate system. The co-or-
dinate locating system is a method of posi-
tioning work by rectangular movement of the
jig-borer or jig-grinder table with reference to
a common zero. The basis of the rectangu-
lar co-ordinate system lies in dimensioning Fig. 2.61 Grinding a hole in the con-
all points from crossed ordinates, or zero ventional manner after the
lines, external to the workpiece. Figure 2.62 plug is removed (The Moore
shows these as scales along the upper and Special Tool Company)
left-hand edges of a piece of drawing paper.
In Fig. 2.62 the workpiece is shown in drawn into the intersection of these scales, its
edges aligned with zero in both directions. In this presentation, the location of the
holes in relation to the scales and to the conventionally dimensioned drawing of the
same piece, shown in Fig. 2.63, is clear.
10.0000
11.0000

12.0000

13.0000

14.0000

15.0000
1.0000

2.0000

3.0000

4.0000

5.0000

6.0000

7.0000

8.0000

9.0000

0.0000
1.0000

2.0000

3.0000
4.0000

5.0000

6.0000
7.0000

8.0000

9.0000
10.0000

11.0000

12.0000

Fig. 2.62 Graphic representation of workpiece, crossed ordinates, and graduated scales.
In dimensioning, this relationship is based on imaginary scales and zero lines. In
machining, the scales are represented by the lead screws and the intersection of
the zero lines by the spindle axis (The Moore Special Tool Company)
 70 Tool Design

29 51 55 35
1 1
64 64 64 64

3
1
32
53
64
43
64
51
64

Fig. 2.63 The cumulative nature of conventional dimensioning is more haphazard than co-
ordinate dimensioning (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Redrawing the same piece more nearly central on the paper (Fig. 2.64) in no way
alters the relationship of the holes to each other and to the edges, even though the
latter no longer are aligned with the zero ordinates. From this example, it may be seen
that the relationship of the zero ordinates to the workpiece is a matter of choice and
can be altered to suit requirements.
10.0000

11.0000

12.0000

13.0000

14.0000

15.0000
1.0000

2.0000

3.0000

4.0000

5.0000

6.0000

7.0000

8.0000

9.0000

0.0000
1.0000

2.0000

3.0000
4.0000

5.0000

6.0000
7.0000

8.0000

9.0000
10.0000

11.0000

12.0000

Fig. 2.64 Relocation of the workpiece within the co-ordinate system does not alter its
dimensional values (The Moore Special Tool Company)
 Toolmaking Practises 71

The advantage of having the zero lines external to the workpiece becomes more
apparent in the case of a workpiece picked up from an existing hole or dowel, as
shown in Fig. 2.65. Should the pickup point be considered zero, it is apparent that
any locations to the left or above this point would be indicated by a confusing negative
value, incompatible with any measuring system.

+ 0.3125
+ 0.9375
+ 1.0468
– 1.2500
– 0.9531
– 0.6562

0.0000
– 0.3750

– 0.7500

– 1.5000

0.0000

+ 0.6250
+ 0.7500
+ 1.0000

Fig. 2.65 Inability to shift the relation of the pickup point of the work to the co-ordinate
system would result in confusing negative values, as illustrated in this example
(The Moore Special Tool Company)

Figure 2.66 represents a more complex piece than that shown in Fig. 2.63 with the
dimension rewritten in the form of a conventional jig-borer layout for operator conve-
nience. An alternative (though less effective) presentation is shown in Fig. 2.67.
While the ideal arrangement would call for all drawings to be presented to the operator
in the form of approved jig-borer layouts, this is seldom given sufficient consideration.
Several points favour this arrangement:
1. Once introduced, the rectangular co-ordinate system of dimensioning is often
as convenient in original design as the more conventional form.
2. Drawings which have been conventionally dimensioned usually require a cer-
tain amount of calculation in conversion to co-ordinates. This may necessitate
a knowledge of trigonometry and mathematical ability beyond that which might
be expected from an operator. This operation can therefore be performed more
efficiently and safely in an engineering office than in the shop. When more than
an occasional job of this sort is done, a calculating machine capable of extract-
ing square roots will justify its cost.
3. Calculations made by the operator not only use up his time but keep the
machine standing idle.
In order to apply the example of co-ordinate layout to the machine, the workpiece must
be set on the machine table and one edge zeroed in line with the spindle. (Methods
 72 Tool Design

of zeroing are explained later in the chapter.) The zero bracket on the scale is then
set to the nearest full inch and the corresponding dial set to zero. The procedure is

4.875
5.437

7.187
3.500
3.750
4.000
4.250
4.312

5.500

6.000
6.250
6.562
6.812

7.500
2.312
2.625
2.875
3.062
3.375
3.625
3.875
4.125
4.187
4.562
4.812

5.437

Fig. 2.66 Preferred form of co-ordinate dimensioning (The Moore Special Tool Company) 7.1875
3.750
3.500

4.875

2.312 2.3125
4.312

2.625
4.000 2.875
6.250

3.0625
5.500

3.375
6.000
4.250

3.625
3.875
4.125 6.5625
7.500

4.187

4.562
5.4375

4.8125
6.8125

5.4275

Fig. 2.67 An alternate method of co-ordinate dimensioning

(The Moore Special Tool Company)
 Toolmaking Practises 73

identical in relation to the other edge. On completion of this step, it may be neces-
sary to alter the figures on the layout to agree with the new settings of the scales and
dials. Reference to Fig. 2.55 will show that when new values are established during
pickup, correction of the locational values presents no problem. It requires only the
adjustment by whatever numerical difference exists between the pickup and the layout
reference. Figure 2.68 illustrates the relation of work to machine.

70
10

80
8
0
11.1875

90
0
7.3980

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 15

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

0 5 10

10 0 90
2.0000

0.2050
5 10
0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

0 5 10

0 90 80 70

Fig. 2.68 Relationship of reference scales and lead-screw dials with co-ordinate dimensions,
shown in two locations (The Moore Special Tool Company)
 74 Tool Design

Should the starting point be an existing

– 1.750 R.
hole or dowel, it is not necessary to start
from an even inch; the scales and dials
may be set to the values indicated on the 8 Holes
drawing. In this case, it may be necessary 45° spaching
to convert for the inch values.

Polar co-ordinates This is the conven-

tional dimensioning system employed
to designate the location of holes in a
circle, equidistant from a common point,
Fig. 2.69 Polar co-ordinate dimensioning
as shown in Fig. 2.69. Such dimension-
of a circle of holes (The Moore
ing takes the form of an angular value
Special Tool Company)
between holes and their radius from a
common centre. In establishing the angle for each hole, it is necessary to divide the
number of holes into 360° in order to determine the spacing angle which must be
successively added to each hole. Should the number be unevenly divisible into 360°,
care must be used in the calculation, since even a small numerical error will result in
a sizeable cumulative error.
Once derived, polar co-ordinates lend themselves directly to use with the rotary table
for machining setup (see Fig. 2.70). By displacing the centre of rotation from the
spindle axis to the amount of radius given, each hole can be located successively by
angular setting of the rotary table.
The calculation of polar co-ordinates can
be simplified by the use of Woodworth
tables, which give the angle between
holes for any number of evenly spaced
holes up to 100. Woodworth tables were
developed by WJ Woodworth to enable
jig-borer operators to obtain the correct
figures with the least effort. The tables
are often listed in operators’ manuals
for jig borers. Probably the best-known
source of Woodworth tables is “Holes
Contours, and surfaces,” published
by the Moore Special Tool Company,
Bridgeport, Connecticut, USA. Fig. 2.70 The use of the rotary table (The
Moore Special Tool Company)
Unless a highly accurate rotary table
is used, errors of considerable magnitude may result from polar positioning. As a
result, it is often desirable, for the highest accuracy, to convert polar to rectangular
co-ordinates and use the measuring system of the jig-boring machine for spacing.
The strongest deterrent to this practise lies in the lengthy calculations necessary.
In order to simplify this, Woodworth tables also give factors for direct conversion to
rectangular co-ordinates.
Controversy over the relative merits of the polar and rectangular co-ordinate systems
in practise cannot be resolved without consideration of all the factors pertaining to any
specific job. Certain general points, however, can be cited in reference to work done
on a rotary table.
 Toolmaking Practises 75

The following are the most important:

1. Picking up the centre of the rotary table in relation to the machine spindle pro-
vides a source of error.
2. Relating the workpiece to both the axis of the rotary table and the spindle intro-
duces another chance for error.
3. Errors in the angular-measuring element of the rotary table must be taken into
account.
4. Any shift in the location of the spindle axis, as would result from temperature
change, is a potential source of locational inaccuracy.
The errors from the above sources may be doubled in the work, as a result of rotation
of the table, in much the same way that eccentricity of a revolving member is shown
as a double value on an indicator. In addition, any errors of the rectangular position-
ing system must be included, since the distance from the centre must be measured
by it. The evidence adds up to the fact that no matter how accurate the rotary table,
higher accuracy can generally be attained by use of the rectangular co-ordinate sys-
tem of location. Contours, represented by the punch and die section of the stator-rotor
lamination die, are most effectively dimensioned by rectangular co-ordinates. In this
example (Fig. 2.71) both the punch and die are made to the same layout.

4.000
4.694
4.805
5.0761
5.218

9.687
9.9365
10.187
10.4055

Fig. 2.71 Co-ordinate layout of punch and die from the stator-rotor lamination die (The
Moore Special Tool Company)

2.6 JIG-BORING PRACTISE

Since complete automaticity is an unlikely prospect for machines performing non-
repetitive operations on dissimilar workpieces, the human element cannot be over-
looked in any discussion of jig boring. An operator’s working habits and his knowledge
of the principles involved play an important part in the results obtained from a jig
borer. True, there is little opportunity for him to coax more accuracy from the machine
than is built into it, but there is always the danger that the reverse may occur.
 76 Tool Design

What follows is a general outline of sound operating practises. It is not possible,

naturally, to anticipate all combinations of requirements and conditions encountered
in specific jobs.
Setting up the workpiece on the machine table establishes its geometric relationship
to the measuring system and the spindle axis. Although a number of variations are
possible, these are the most common requirements:
1. Parallelism between the surfaces or axis of the workpiece and the machine
table and the alignment of one edge of axis of the workpiece with the direction
of table travel.
2. Angular inclination of the workpiece to table surface.
3. Workpiece rotatability mounted to permit angular spacing of holes, the axis of
rotation being parallel to the spindle axis of inclinable at any desired angle to
90°.
The proper positioning of the workpiece and its clamping, or restraint, against unde-
sired movement during machining constitute the first step in any jig-boring job. Typical
examples falling into case 1 will first be discussed.
In order to avoid machining into the table surface itself, it is usually necessary to sup-
port this type of workpiece on parallel pieces. Although there is no objection to the use
of accurately ground and paired parallels of conventional shape, the parallel setup
blocks (Fig. 2.72) frequently prove to be far more convenient, particularly since they
provide a large choice of heights and strategic placement of support, so that interfer-
ence with the position of holes is avoided, as shown in Fig. 2.73. These blocks are so
made that their matching dimensions are alike within extremely close limits, permit-
ting their use in combination and as matched sets. Convenient clearance and tapped
holes facilitate their attachment to each other and to the table and the direct mounting
of the workpiece when desirable.

Fig. 2.72 Parallel setup blocks are Fig. 2.73 Setup blocks can be positioned
available for the jig borer in to provide support for long
sets (The Moore Special Tool workpieces without interfer-
Company) ing with machining locations
(The Moore Special Tool
Company)
 Toolmaking Practises 77

While it may seen obvious, the importance of clamping directly in line with, or over, the
support cannot be overemphasised. Any pressure exerted on an unsupported portion
of the workpiece will inevitably induce a twist or bow and the condition illustrated in
Fig. 2.74. Similar difficulty that is encountered is clamp work which is not flat.

Fig. 2.74 Spring induced by unsupported clamping will result in a nonparallel hole axes
(The Moore Special Tool Company)

The set of bolts, straps, and heel rests shown in Fig. 2.75 is designed to provide an
efficient means for clamping a wide variety of work. Their conventional use is shown in
Fig. 2.76, the brass heel rests straddling the table T slots and opposing the clamping
pressure without marring the table surface. Extension pieces are for use with higher
work, such as box jigs.

Fig. 2.75 Bolts, straps, and heel rests provide the most convenient means of clamping
(The Moore Special Tool Company)
 78 Tool Design

Fig. 2.76 Effective clamping leaves the tool area unobstructed, holds work securely, and
does not mar the table (The Moore Special Tool Company)

The second requirement, i.e., alignment of one edge of the work with table travel, can
be met in several ways. A straightedge, parallel to the travel, is provided at the edge
of the table. Thee workpiece can be set directly against this or, if desired, spaced
away by parallel pieces such as gauge blocks or parallel setup blocks (Fig. 2.77).

Fig. 2.77 Setup blocks space work from the straightedge, parallel to table travel (The Moore
Special Tool Company)

The alternative method involves use of an indicator held in the spindle nose by means
of the indicator holder (Fig. 2.78). With the indicator point brought into registration
with the edge of the workpiece, partial rotation of the spindle by means of the Knurled
diameter of the holder quickly establishes the proper position of the indicator with
its movement normal to the edge of the piece. With the indicator in this relationship,
transversing the table will move the workpiece edge past the indicator point. In this
way the indicator will show the amount of misalignment; this can be eliminated by
gently tapping the proper end of the work until the indicator shows no movement dur-
ing the traverse. The clamping nuts should then be snugged down and the alignment
 Toolmaking Practises 79

verified again to ensure against an unno-

ticed shift. The dimensional relationship of
work to the measuring system and spindle
axis in each situation will be taken up later
as a separate phase of the operations.
Angular inclination of the workpiece to the
table surface and spindle axis, case 2, is
most accurately adjusted with the micro-
sine plate (Fig. 2.79). Based on the familiar
sine-bar principle, this accessory provides
an inclinable surface of adequate propor-
tions for the attachment of even rather large
work. Any desired angle from 0 to 90° can Fig. 2.78 Indicating edge of work
be accurately established, selected by ref- parallel with table travel
erence to the simple formula on the plate. (The Moore Special Tool
A non-influencing clamp secures the setup Company)
against movement during machining.

Fig. 2.79 Use of microsine plate to establish angular position of work

(The Moore Special Tool Company)

Normally, the edges of the microsine plate and the work are both aligned with the
table travel. However, special circumstances may require the development of a com-
pound-angular relationship, in which case a rotary table is mounted on the microsine
plate. By attaching the work to the rotary-table top, any desired compound angle can
be attained by the combination of the two available angular movements (Fig. 2.80).
Undue wear of table surface and ways can be avoided by developing the habit of set-
ting up jobs on the ends and corners of the table as well as in the centre. In this way
wear is distributed, and often an emergency or rush job can be set up and machined
without disturbing the workpiece already in place.
Now the workpiece is geometrically oriented to the machine’s travel. The next step
required establishing its dimensional relationship to the measuring system and spin-
dle axis. Since the required reference may be to an edge, pin, boss, hole, scribed
 80 Tool Design

line, slot, or counter, a variety of pickup

techniques must be employed.
In setting dials or positioning the table,
movement must always be made in the
direction indicated by the arrows on the
dials, in order to eliminate backlash. If it
is necessary to reapproach a setting, back
away from the setting by several thou-
sandths. Then make the setting again from
the correct direction.
The indicator set (Fig. 2.81) includes the
equipment necessary to meet most of
these conditions. The indicator itself is
supported by an adjustable, jointed arm, Fig. 2.80 The combination of rotary
from either the indicator holder or drill table and microsine plate
chuck held in the spindle (Fig. 2.82). The is employed in compound-
flexibility of this arrangement permits con- angle setups and for their
siderable latitude in positioning the indica- index spacing (The Moore
tor to suit the workpiece. Special Tool Company)

Fig. 2.81 The indicator set consists of an Fig. 2.82 The indicator holder permits a
indicator, a jointed indicator wide range of adjustment yet
holder, a line finder, and an edge remains firmly positioned as set
finder (The Moore Special Tool
Company)

The most common requirement–reference to an edge–can be accomplished most

easily and accurately with the edge finder (Fig. 2.83). This accessory is so con-
structed that its surface registering against the edge of the work is precisely central
to the edges of the 10 mm wide slot provided for pickup with the indicator. The edge
finder is held firmly against that work; the table is positioned so that the indicator
shows an equal reading when rotated to contact the opposite, inside edges of the
slot. At this point, the edge of the piece will be exactly in line with the spindle axis. A
known relationship is thus established to the measuring system. This can be checked
 Toolmaking Practises 81

by moving the table 5 mm and indicating the edge of the piece itself (Fig. 2.84). In this
way, any failure of the edge finder to register properly, due to a burr or irregularity on
the work, will be detected.

Fig. 2.83 Picking up an edge with the Fig. 2.84 Indicating directly against the
edge finder and indicator (The workpiece after use of edge
Moore Special Tool Company) finder automatically checks the
pickup (The Moore Special
Tool Company)

Fig. 2.85 Picking up edge without an edge finder. The indicator is set against the edge of
the workpiece, raised, and rotated 180° to touch the gauge block held against
the edge (The Moore Special Tool Company)

A somewhat less convenient and less accurate method picks up an edge without an
edge finder. Reference to Fig. 2.85 will show that the necessary vertical movement
exaggerates any edge deviation.
 82 Tool Design

Holes, pins, bosses, and radiused contours are generally capable of single and direct
pickup by means of an indicator. A scribed line or point requires a different instrument.
Usually, the relative inaccuracy of such a reference makes it unnecessary to use a
more refined device than the line finder or wiggler shown in Fig. 2.86. Held in the rotat-
ing spindle, its point can be made to run true by a touch of the finger. It is then brought
close to the line or mark on the work, which is positioned directly under the point as
observed through a glass. This method may also be used for locating an edge which
may not, in itself, be sufficiently accurate to justify greater precision of location.

Fig. 2.86 Picking up the end of the die block with a line finder (The Moore
Special Tool Company)

Occasionally, the reference point on the work will present conditions not readily suited
to use the indicator and requiring greater accuracy than is attainable with the line
finder. Very small or partial holes, irregular contours, slots, and punch marks fall
into this category. A satisfactory solution is available in the locating microscope (Fig.
2.19). This instrument combines several unusual features essential to its use for this
purpose:
1. It includes a roof prism which reverts the image to its natural position, so that
positioning is a normal movement to the operator.
2. Its field of vision is large enough, to encompass an adequate area of the
work.
3. The 40X magnification is sufficiently great to permit a “tenth” to be seen.
4. The reticle reference consists of a number of concentric circles and two pairs
of crossed centre lines, suitable for a wide variety of requirements.
5. It has an adjustable optical axis which can easily be brought into coincidence
with that of the spindle.

Machining It is in the machining operation itself that the widest choice of methods
is available. It is seldom possible to establish a clear superiority of one over the other.
The choice of cutting-tool systems may be compared to the choice between roads,
 Toolmaking Practises 83

all of which converge at a common des-

tination. This goal represents the highest
order of geometric, locational, and dimen-
sional accuracy, attainable only through
single-point boring. Should something
less accurate suffice, it merely means
stopping short on one of the chosen
roads. An attempt will be made to show
this in practise by the following discus-
sion of tools and techniques.
The usual practise in starting a hole is to
employ a centre drill. For holes to be fin-
ished by end reaming or those too small
to bore, a special spotting tool (Fig. 2.87) Fig. 2.87 Special spotting tools provide
should be employed to provide higher ini- high initial locational accu-
tial accuracy. The three sizes of special racy, important where hole is
jig-borer drill chucks (Fig. 2.88) are suit- not to be finished by single-
able for holding these tools, as well as the point boring (The Moore
various drills required in each operation. Special Tool Company)

Fig. 2.88 Precision drill chucks for jig boring (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Holes smaller than about 1.6 mm can be finished with satisfactory accuracy by drilling
directly from the spotted location. Larger holes can be rapidly opened up to within a
few thousandths of finish size, using the minimum number of drills in the process.
To extend the range of standard drills below 12 mm which should be available with
each machine, and because straight-shank drills over 12 mm are too long to use in
a jig borer, a special series of short drills in sizes from 12 mm to 40 mm has been
established, as shown in Fig. 2.89. Possible damage to the finely finished 12 mm
end reamer collet is avoided by making the shanks of these drills larger in size so as
not to enter the collet, thereby ensuring the use of the special chuck provided for the
purpose.
 84 Tool Design

Fig. 2.89 Special jig-borer drills and spotting tools (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Roughing can be continued beyond the range of available drill sized by a variety of
boring tools. The Hole Hog, designed of this purpose, is particularly efficient in its rate
of stock removal in larger holes. A series of similar sweeping tools (Fig. 2.90) is equally
efficient in rapidly enlarging holes or in sweeping or facing operations on surfaces and
bosses. Pilots of sweeping tools are made to fractional sizes and, being hardened and
ground, will not damage a previously finished hole when used to sweep a boss.

Fig. 2.90 Sweeping tools for facing and rapid hole enlargement
(The Moore Special Tool Company)

Spotters, drills, and end reamers are shown in Fig. 2.91; when held in a collet, they
provide the fastest system of locating, drilling, and reaming holes on a jig borer. The
spotters establish locational accuracy, and the special undersize drills leave from
130 mm to 400 mm for final sizing by the end reamer.
 Toolmaking Practises 85

Fig. 2.91 Special spotters, drills and end reamers used in jig-boring operations
(The Moore Special Tool Company)

Before passing to the subject of intermediate and/or finishing cuts, it might be well to
point out that these generally account for most of the time per hole. Therefore, in the
interest of efficiency, it is advisable not to start them too soon, i.e., rough to within as
close to finish size as practical.
Although not matching the accuracy of the slower single-point boring, two types of
end reamers provide a favourable compromise, i.e., a considerable saving of time at
an often permissible minor sacrifice in accuracy. The end reamer, held rigidly and run-
ning true with the spindle, acts somewhat like the combination of a boring tool and a
reamer, locating and sizing at the same time. This hybrid tool does not achieve perfec-
tion in either respect, for a slight runout tends to make it cut slightly oversize. Gently
clipping the corners of the teeth with a stone improves this condition but somewhat
reduces the end reamer’s ability to establish location. With reasonable care, however,
an operator should be able to hold size and locational errors to within ±130 mm.
End reamers are available in sets of various sizes as shown in Fig. 2.92. Some spe-
cial set of drill reamers are also available for sizing holes which are needed to be
ground.
End reamers are held in collets (Fig. 2.93), the locating bore of which is ground and
lapped to a plug-gauge fit to the reamer shank. For the highest accuracy, it is some-
times desirable to peen the reamer shank slightly to make it run true in the collet,
indicating from the teeth.
Ordinary rose or fluted reamers differ from end reamers in the relative flexibility of
shank, which permits them to align themselves with the hole. They are often a sat-
isfactory means for sizing a hole (Fig. 2.94). When carefully handled and removing
between 25 mm and 80 mm of stock, these tools will produce somewhat better holes-
size accuracy than the end reamer. Either type of reamer has the advantage of avoid-
ing the cut-and-try adjustment necessary with a single-point boring tool, but they can-
not produce the infinite range of sized can.
 86 Tool Design

Fig. 2.92 Straight-shank end reamers (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Fig. 2.93 Method of holding end reamers Fig. 2.94 Rose or fluted reamer reaming a
in collets (The Moore Special previously bored hole to size (The
Tool Company) Moore Special Tool Company)

The importance of single-point boring as the most accurate method of attaining loca-
tional accuracy in jig boring amply justifies the wide range of boring tools available.
Size control in single-point boring depends on a means of adjusting the position of
the tool point outward from the axis of the spindle rotation. Two types of boring chucks
provides this adjustment through different means. The swivel-block type (Fig. 2.95)
offers the widest range of adjustment for its diameter, a decided advantage in working
in close quarters, as in deep box jigs or close to die posts.
A disadvantage frequently noted in this type of chuck lies in the fact that adjustment
of the tool moves it in an arc; thus the graduation of the adjusting screw does not bear
and exact relation to the tool movement. As a matter of fact, this is not so serious a
problem as might be anticipated since the graduations (quite accurate over a short
range, provided tools of proper length are used) would hardly be depended upon over
a long range of travel.
 Toolmaking Practises 87

Fig. 2.95 A boring chuck of the swivel-block type (The Moore Special Tool Company)

From a purely functional standpoint, the extreme rigidity resulting from a large clamping
surface, together with the inherently clean design, makes it very reliable in operation.
The dovetail offset type of boring chuck (Fig. 2.96) is somewhat shorter than the
swivel block. As an added advantage, the tool is moved directly outward in a straight
line by the adjusting screw. This permits the rise of odd-length tools without altering
the value of the graduation, although the range does not equal that of the swivel type.
Due to this same straightline movement, this chuck is convenient for squaring shoul-
der and facing bosses.

Fig. 2.96 Boring chuck of the dovetail offset type (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Because of the necessary cut-and-try method of adjusting any boring tool, there is
definite advantage in being able to leave the adjustment set to cut to a particular size
for repetitive work. To this end, a series of boring tools (Fig. 2.97) has been developed.
These boring bars are of the solid type and are adjustable over a relatively short range
by means of graduated screws. The series covers a range of hole sizes from 12 mm to
90 mm. They are particularly useful in deep-hole boring (Fig. 2.98).
 88 Tool Design

Fig. 2.97 Solid-type, thousandth-setting boring bars (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Fig. 2.98 Jig-boring deep hole with solid boring bar (The Moore Special Tool Company)

Carbide tools are very efficient for some types of jig-boring operations, particularly in
boring aluminium and cast iron or for production work. Therefore, in addition to the
set of high-speed tool bits shown in Fig. 2.99, duplicate sized are available tipped
with carbide.
Variation in the machinability of commonly encountered materials, together with the
difference in spring or deflection of various types of boring tools, make experience
the only practical way of mastering the technique of boring to size. Implied in any
discussion of finishing and sizing, however, is the attendent problem of measurement.
The ability to measure accurately is the most important factor in the ability to size
accurately.
 Toolmaking Practises 89

Fig. 2.99 Boring bits for chucks, boring bars, and sweep tools
(The Moore Special Tool Company)

Measurement Relatively accurate measurement of hole diameter can be made with

the familiar inside caliper. When it is set to touch the sides of the hole, the dimensions
can be read on a micrometer. Slightly more accurate results may be had by substitut-
ing a telescoping gauge for the caliper.
More accurate than either of these is the plug gauge, but it can only measure a hole
whose size is exactly that of the gauge. Unless an infinite range of gauge sizes is
available, it cannot measure a hole before it is finished, nor can it determine how
much stock remains to be removed. To overcome this limitation, a hole-measuring
instrument, the flat-leaf taper gauge (Fig. 2.100) has been developed. This set of
gauges has graduations at the end of each overlapping those of the next.

Fig. 2.100 Leaf taper gauges (The Moore Special Tool Company)

This type of gauge contacts the hole at the top and, being short, conveniently clears
cutting tools. Obviously, it cannot determine errors in the geometry of the hole, i.e.,
bell mouth or taper, nor can such gauges be read to a “tenth”. They are invaluable as
a guide to approaching finished size prior to plug fit.
Also capable of more flexibility in use than a plug, and of equal accuracy, is the
indicating-type gauge (Fig. 2.101). Set against a micrometer or master ring, it readily
shows deviation from true cylindricity as well as the diameter of the hole.
 90 Tool Design

Fig. 2.101 Indicating-type hole gauge are not only more versatile than plug gauges because
of their greater size range but also reveal the geometry of a hole (The Moore
Special Tool Company)

General operating practises While it is impractical to follow any prescribed set of

rules in the operation of a jig borer, due to the wide variety of work sure to be encoun-
tered, the following general sequence should be followed whenever possible:
1. Set up the workpiece carefully to ensure proper relation to machine travel.
2. Establish the dimensional relationship between the reference point on the work
and the spindle axis. Relate this to the measuring system by setting the scales
and dials as previously described.
3. Spot the position of all holes lightly with a centre drill.
4. Repeat step 3, respotting to the depth necessary to provide and adequate
guide for the subsequent drilling operation. While step 3 may appear unneces-
sary, the respotting is good insurance against most common operator error of
misreading the scales.
5. Rough all holes to nearly finish size before finishing any of them. Drilling or
sweeping are the most efficient means of accomplishing this operation. Not
only is the stock removed more rapidly than by boring, but less side thrust is
exerted on the work, an insurance against shifting. When drilling large holes,
the size should be increased in steps to avoid pushing the inefficient centre
web of large drills through solid stock.
6. Go back and check the original setting of the work, step 2, to make sure it
has not shifted during roughing. On particularly accurate work its temperature
should be allowed to return to that of the room before making this check.
7. Finish-bore all holes to size. The final cut, unless an excessive amount of stock
has been left from roughing, will not materially affect work temperature.
8. Check the location of each hole after re-establishing the original reference.
Indicating each hole from the spindle is an extremely sensitive and accurate
method of inspection, since the reading shows twice the actual displacement
or error of location.

2.7 INSTALLATION OF DRILL BUSHINGS

Drill bushings and their relationship to drill-jig design are discussed in detail in
Chapter 7. The information given is from the viewpoint of the tool designer, who
 Toolmaking Practises 91

generally is not responsible for the actual installation of drill bushings. The following
information deals with drill bushings from the viewpoint of the toolmaker, who is gen-
erally concerned with bushing installation. The tool designer should be aware of the
bushing-installation procedure in order to understand the problems of the toolmaker.

General bushing installation data Generally speaking, the toolmaker should pro-
vide sufficient clearance between the end of the bushing and the workpiece to permit
the removal of chips. In other words, the chips should not be allowed to pass through
the bushing. The exception to this rule occurs in drilling operations requiring maxi-
mum precision, where the bushings should be in direct contact with the workpiece.
However, suitable chip clearance should be provided in most applications because
the abrasive action of metal particles will accelerate bushing wear.
The recommended chip clearance for metals (cast iron, for example) which produce
small chips should be equal to one-half the bushing ID. For other metals (such as
cold-rolled steel) which produce long stringy chips, the clearance should be at least
equal to the bushing ID but should not exceed 1.5 times the ID. Excessive chip clear-
ance should be avoided because cutting tools are slightly larger in diameter at the
cutting end and excessive clearance reduces the guiding effect of the bushing and
results in less accurate drilling (see Fig. 2.102).

Cutting tool
Excessive with normal
chip back taper
clearance Guiding
effect
Jig of bushing
ID reduced

Equal to: Workpiece

Workpiece 1 ID (small chips)
2
1 to 1 1 ID (long, stringy chips)
2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.102 Recommended clearance between workpiece and bushing: (a) No clearance
(maximum-precision drilling only) (b) Normal chip clearance (c) Excessive
chip clearance (American Drill Bushing Company)

When performing multiple operations, such as drilling following by reaming, slip

renewable bushing of different lengths may be used to obtain the combined advan-
tages of adequate chip removal and precise accuracy. The slip renewable bushing
should be short enough to provide proper clip clearance during the drilling operation,
while the reamer bushing may be long enough to contact or closely approach the
workpiece, thus providing maximum guiding effect during the reaming operation (see
Fig. 2.103).
Burr clearance should be provided between the bushing and workpiece when drilling
wiry metals, such as copper. Metals of this type tend to produce minor burrs around
 92 Tool Design

Slip renewable
used for drilling

Jig
Jig
Burr
clearance

Phantom view Workpiece

shows slip
Workpiece renewable Secondary burr
reamer bushing (minor)

Fig. 2.103 Bushings of different lengths Fig. 2.104 Burr clearance should be
may be used for maximum provided when drilling wiry
guiding of multiple opera- metals (American Drill Bush-
tions (American Drill Bush- ing Company)
ing Company)

the top of the drilled holes. This is likely to lift the jig from the workpiece and cause
difficulty in the removal of workpieces from side-loaded jigs. The recommended burr
clearance is equal to one-half the bushing ID (see Fig. 2.104).
Extra-thin-wall bushings will prove helpful for many applications requiring close
centre-to-centre bushing placement, as shown in Fig. 2.105. However, for especially
difficult close hole patterns it may be necessary to grind flats on the bushing ODs and
/or heads to achieve minimum spacing. When this technique is used, the bushing flats
and mounting holes must be accurately machined.

(a) (b)

Fig. 2.105 Methods of obtaining close hole patterns: (a) Extra-thin-wall bushings with ODs
less than those of ANSI bushings of same ID (b) Standard headless or headed
bushings with ground flats on ODs (American Drill Bushing Company)

Figure 2.106 shows various methods of adapting bushings to applications involving

irregular work surfaces. Here the ends of the bushings should be formed to the con-
tour of the workpiece. In many applications of this nature, the drill point does not enter
perpendicular to the work surface and has a tendency to skid or wander. For this rea-
son, the distance between the bushing and the workpiece must be held to a minimum
so that the full guiding effect of the bushing can be obtained. The side load exerted by
the drill in an application of this type is usually concentrated at a point near the drill-
exit end of the bushing and causes accelerated bushing wear. Except in production
runs, the use of fixed renewable bushings should be considered to simplify replace-
ment of worn bushings and to facilitate proper orientation of the bushing with respect
to the contoured work surface. When press-fit bushings are used, bushing contours
should be applied after bushings are installed in the jig plate to assure proper place-
ment with respect to the workpiece.
 Toolmaking Practises 93

Fixed Fixed
renewable Headless press-fit renewable
Jig bushing bushing, used for Lock screw bushing Liner
short production run

Jig Sloped
Shaft workpiece Workpiece

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.106 Modification of drill bushings for irregular work surfaces: (a) End of bushing
formed to workpiece contour (b) End of bushing chamfered to conform to slope
of workpiece (c) Fixed renewable bushing used for high-production application
(American Drill Bushing Company)

Conventional installation of press-fit and linear bushings One of the important

factors in the installation of a press-fit bushing is fitting the bushing to its mounting
hole with the correct interference fit. Too much interference will cause closure of the
bushing ID or distortion of the drill jig plate, or both; too little interference will result in
a loosely installed bushing. To arrive at a correct fit, such variables as the material of
the jig plates, the thickness of the jig plate (or length of the mounting hole), and the
thickness of the bushing wall must be carefully considered. Because of these and
many other variables, no definite rules can substitute for the skill and judgment of the
experienced toolmaker. However, the following suggestions, given by the American
Drill Bushing Company, will prove helpful to beginners. These recommendations are
based on the use of cast-iron or unhardened-steel jig plates.

Avoid Excessive Interference Fits In any press-fit installation, metal is displaced.

Usually a combination of bushing closure and jig-plate distortion results; therefore the
best practise is to use the minimum interference necessary to retain the bushing in
the jig plate. In most installations, a diametral interference of 12 to 20 mm is adequate
for installation of headless press-fit bushings or liners.
For example, if a bushing of 12 mm ID by 20 mm OD by 20 mm length is pressed in
a 20 mm thick jig plate with an interference fit of 15 mm, the ID of the bushing will be
reduced by approximately 5 mm. This fit would be ideal since the bore of the bushing
is manufactured slightly oversize with a plus tolerance of 2.5 to 12 mm larger than the
nominal drill size. The slight decrease in the size of the bushing bore at installation
reduces the bushing ID almost exactly to the desired nominal ID and holds distortion
of the jig plate to a negligible amount.
A lesser interference fit of 7.5 to 12 mm can be used for installing head press-fit bush-
ings and liners. The head prevents dislodgement of the bushing caused by accidentally
striking the bushing with the drill during a production operation. The headed bushings
are particularly recommended for installation in comparatively thin jig plates, where an
excessive interference fit would be required to retain headless bushings. The headed
bushing also provides a greater drill bearing length in this type of installation.
An excessive interference fit may reduce the diameter of the bushing bore to less
than a practical work clearance. This can cause tool seizure or, in the case of linear
 94 Tool Design

bushings, prevent insertion of a renewable bushing. The usual remedy for this con-
dition is to relap the bushing in the jig plate. This operation is both costly and time-
consuming and often results in a bell-mouthed bushing with a less effective bearing
length and a greatly shortened wear life.

Lubricate hole and bushing Before installing a press-fit bushing, always lubricate
the ID of the mounting hole and the OD of the bushing. White lead is an excellent lubri-
cant for this purpose. Bushings installed without lubricant may pick up metal and score
the mounting hole during installation. Lubricated bushings are more easily removed
for replacement with less chance of damaging the jig plate.

Install bushings with an arbour press whenever possible The preferable method
of installing press-fit bushings is with an arbour press, but when the jig plate is too
large for an arbour press, alternate methods must be considered.
One such method is used when the ID of the bushing is large enough to allow inser-
tion of a bolt. The bushing is first started into its mounting hole; then drilled plates
large enough to span the mounting hole, are placed on top of the bushing and on the
back side of the jig plate. A bolt is inserted through the plates and the bushing and is
fastened by a nut. As the nut is tightened, the bushing is safely and effectively pressed
into place.
When the bushing is too small to permit this procedure, a hammer and a soft-metal
punch of aluminium or brass may be used to carefully drive the bushing into place.
Never use direct hammer blows on the bushing; the bushings are heat-treated to a
high degree of hardness and may be fractured by such pounding.
A new method for installing bushings and liners with press-fit security involves the use
of American Loctite, a specially formulated bonding agent. In this method, the bush-
ings or liners are coated with the special bonding agent and are installed in mounting
holes that have been prepared to provide a close slip fit, instead of an interference fit,
thus preventing distortion of the bushings or jig plates. The security of installation has
been found equal or superior to normal press-fit installations.
Whatever method of installation is used, remember, that most drill bushings feature a
concentric-ground lead that will slip into the mounting hole and establish initial align-
ment. Always maintain this alignment until the bushing is well started into its mounting
hole.

Typical installations of renewable bushings Renewable bushings are usually

installed in liners and are secured in place by lock screws or clamps. In most applica-
tions, the liners (head or headless type) are mounted flush with the jig plate; however,
projected mounting is sometimes used for head liners when the jig plate is too thick to
accept a suitable counterbore or when the intended application does not warrant the
machining costs involved.
Lock screws are suitable for use with flush-mounted liners, usually in light-duty appli-
cations. For heavier duty applications, clamps provide a better means of locking the
bushing against the effects of vibration and torque produced by drill rotation. Clamps
provide a larger bearing surface against the jig plate and are secured by standard
socket-head cap screws.
Recommended methods for locking renewable bushings in flush or projected liners
are shown in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Typical installation of renewable bushings
Projected mounted
Flush-mounted (head or headless linears) (head liners only)
Fixed renewable bushings

Lock screw: Round clamp: Round end clamp:

recommended provides better security for locking standard fixed
for light drilling applications; than lock screw in heavier- renewable bushings in
small head diameter permits -duty applications; diameter projected mounted liners
close bushing placement same as lock-screw head for
close bushing placement
Round end clamp: Flat clamp: Flat clamp:
for locking standard fixed for type FX bushings only; for type FX bushings only;
renewable bushings; provides provides maximum security provides maximum security
large bearing surface against against vibration and torque against vibration and torque
jig plate

Slip renewable bushings

Lock screw: Round end clamp: Round end clamp:

recommended for light for heavy-duty applications for any applications using
drilling operations; small provides large bearing slip renewable bushings
head diameter per-mits close surface against jig plate installed in projected
bushing placement mounted head liners
Toolmaking Practises 95
 96 Tool Design

2.8 PUNCH AND DIE MANUFACTURE

The manufacture of punches and dies shaped in common geometrical patterns, such
as rounds, squares, or rectangles, present no problem to the toolmaker. Standard
punches and dies are available commercially in the smaller sized and thus eliminate
the necessity of making them in the majority of cases. Installation is simply a matter
of jig-boring a hole pattern in the punch plate and a matching pattern in the die holder
and inserting the purchased punches and dies.
It is another matter when it comes to manufacturing punches and dies with shapes
that are irregular and do not have true geometric lines. Machine tools are unable to
impart the necessary shape on the punch and die, and the manual skill and ingenuity
of the toolmaker become important. However, modern machine methods have made
the toolmaker’s task easier and faster. For example, there was a time when the only
practical way of making irregular shapes and holes in thick sections of tool steel was
to drill a row of holes adjacent to a layout line as close together as possible without
overlapping. After completing the hole pattern all the way around the contour, the slug
was cut out by cutting the narrow strip of metal between each hole by a hammer and
cold chisel. The jagged edge was then smoothed with a file. The final finishing to the
layout line was also done with the file. This “blacksmith method” has been replaced
with modern band-sawing techniques which save the toolmaker countless hours of
manual work. However, the toolmaker is still working to the layout line, and the final
result still is determined by his manual skill.
This section discusses a few of the techniques and machines used in the manufacture
of punches and dies. The study of this discussion will not make a toolmaker out of the
beginning tool designer, but it will certainly help him appreciate the toolmaker’s prob-
lems. The techniques may be used singly or combined, depending upon the type of
equipment available. They are by no means complete and should serve to give ideas
which may be expanded by the individual.

Contour sawing of punches and dies Contour sawing on the metal-cutting band
saw is the most common method of roughing out irregular shapes in punches and
dies. With good blades and sawing technique, the toolmaker can saw within 0.4 to
0.8 mm of the finished contour. Die openings are sawed first by drilling a small hole
inside the scribed die opening and inserting the cut band-saw blade through the hole.
The blade is rewelded together and inserted into the machine, and the slug is sawed
from the die block. The blade must again be cut to remove it from the die opening. The
table of most band-sawing machines can be tilted in two planes to allow the sawing of
die clearance directly into the die blocks.
The contour-sawing process also enables the toolmaker to produced both the punch
and die from the same piece of tool steel. By machining out the slug with the contour
saw and cutting at an angle determined by the die thickness, the slug can be used as
a punch. In addition to eliminating the time ordinarily required to rough out the punch
and die there is a saving of the material that would have been used for the punch. The
procedure is as follows.
The die opening is scribed on the die block by conventional methods. An inner line
is then scribed on which the saw is to travel. The distance of this line inside the die
layout is determined by the angle of the cut, as shown in Fig. 2.107. It is started inside
 Toolmaking Practises 97

Fig. 2.107 Internal contouring band sawing used for machining a blanking punch and
die [From ASTME, “Tool Engineers Handbook,” 2d ed., F W Wilson (ed.)
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959, by permission]

the die-layout line, intersects the die-layout line at the centre of the die block, and
emerges through the die block on the opposite side, outside the die-layout line. The
drilling angle and diameter are determined by the thickness of the block and from
Table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Dimensional data for diemaking technique shown in Fig. 2.107
Die Angle of Angle Distance Distance from Diam Width of Amount of
thickness, saw-start- for saw from die die layout if drill, starting straight sides
mm ing hole, cut, deg layout line to line to centre mm saw, mm on punch
deg centre of saw of starting and die, mm
kerf, mm hole, mm

12.5 21 18 2 2.4 3.2 2.4 4.8

19 18 15 2.4 3.2 3.2 2.4 7.1
25.4 14 11 2.4 3.2 3.6 3.2 9.5
32 12 9 2.4 3.2 3.6 3.2 11.9
38 11 8 2.8 3.6 3.6 3.2 14.3
51 10 7 3.2 4.8 5.2 4.8 20.7
76 9 6 4 6.4 6.8 6.4 28.6
102 8 6 5.6 7.1 6.8 6.4 41.3
127 7 6 6.4 7.9 6.8 6.4 57.2
153 6 5 6.4 7.9 6.8 6.4 63.6
SOURCE: ASTME, Tool Engineers Handbook, F W Wilson (ed.), McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959, by permission
 98 Tool Design

The narrow saw blade is then inserted through the die-starting hole, and the ends of
the saw are welded together. The machine table is tilted so that the table angle is a
few degrees less than the angle in which the hole has been drilled. The slug is com-
pletely sawed out at this angle. The path of the saw on the surface is entirely inside
the layout line. Thus at the proper cutting angle, the bottom of the slug that is to be
removed will have material outside the die-layout line.
When the punch is removed, the excess material on both the punch and die is filed
off to make the land on the die and the straight sides on the punch. When the correct
sawing procedure is followed, the starting hole will completely vanish.
The filling operation is best done on a filling machine. When the contour is open, a
continuous-band file is the most accurate and fastest method (see Fig. 2.24). Some
vertical band saws have provisions for inserting band files; however, a vertical band
filling machine is usually available in most toolrooms. Sharp corners and intricate
shapes may have to be finished on the die-filling machine shown in Fig. 2.26.
Matching contours of punches and dies. While contour sawing is an efficient method of
roughing out the general shape of punches and die openings, there is still a consider-
able amount of hand fitting that must be done before the die is complete. The method
of fitting to be described has been in use for a long time, and first requires making a
template that conforms to the shape of the blank which the die is to produce. If the die
clearance is to be applied to the die opening, it should be added to the template. This
template is then used as a gauge when finishing the opening in the die.
Cold-rolled steel from 1.6 to 3.2 mm thick, depending upon the size of the blank, is
used to make the template. The outline of the template is laid out carefully, as the
finished template will serve as the master pattern when fitting the punch and die.
The template is rough-sawed on the contour band saw and finished to the layout line
with a die-filling machine or hand-filling methods, depending upon the contour of the
template. Some toolmakers prefer to make the template from tool steel, which can
be hardened after band sawing. The template is then surface ground on both sides
and accurately laid out again. It is then finished by a rotary profile grinder, as shown
in Fig. 2.31.
A handle is generally fitted to a template either by drilling and tapping a hole in the
template and screwing a threaded handle into the hole or by attaching a wire with soft
solder.
Although the master template is used primarily for final finishing of the die opening,
it may be used for laying out the die. This is accomplished by clamping it in position
on the face of the blue die block and scribing around it with a sharp scriber. When
the opening must be located in relation to other holes, as with a progressive die, the
template position can easily be checked before scribing by using precision measuring
instruments.
After the die opening has been band-sawed to approximately the required size and
shape, the exact size and shape ordinarily is obtained by filling, by hand or on a filling
machine. Unless angular clearance was obtained during the sawing operation, the
first step should be to tilt the table of the filling machine to the angular-clearance angle
and rough out the angular clearance until a land of the proper width below the cut-
ting edge is obtained. The narrow land is much easier to precision-file because less
 Toolmaking Practises 99

material must be removed. The land area is now filed until it fits the master template
nicely. The template is frequently tried in the hole during filling, and the bearing points
to be removed are marked with a pencil. Some toolmakers prefer to coat the edge
of the template lightly with prussian blue to mark the bearing points, which are filed
until the blue disappears. This operation is repeated until the hole fits the template
perfectly and will just allow it to pass through.
Final filling to shape and size requires a technique that is developed largely through
experience. To file a narrow surface straight is difficult, and many toolmakers use file
guides to prevent overfilling beyond the contour lines. Files guides are usually hard-
ened disks and parallels which are clamped to the die block or punch face, as shown
in Fig. 2.108. The disks and parallels are made from hardened tool steel (RC63 to
65) and are from 3.2 to 4.8 mm in thickness. The disk diameter ranges from 32 mm
to the largest size used by the toolmaker in increments of 0.80 or 1.6 mm. Parallels
are made in various lengths. The diameter of the disk should be marked directly on
the disk.
In use, the disks and parallels are clamped in position on the die block to form the
geometric contour of the die opening. Disks are used primarily for finishing convex
surfaces, while the parallels are used to finish straight lines (see Fig. 2.108). Concave
surfaces are more easily formed with single-point boring tools. Straight tangent line
between concave surfaces are finished by clamping parallels tangent to the concave
surfaces. The toolmaker files down to the file guide, being careful to avoid continu-
ously striking the hard edges.

Fig. 2.108 Use of hardened file guides to prevent overfiling

The amount of filling may be reduced, and in some cases completely eliminated, by
the use of a rotary cross-slide milling head attached to a vertical milling machine (see
Fig. 2.109). This attachment permits accurate milling of combinations of angles and
radii and angles tangent to radii and blending radii into radii with a single setup. The
toolmaker need not reset and re-align the workpiece for each radius to be machined,
as with the conventional rotary table. The main feature is the cross-slide motion,
which can be set off-centre and rotated in a continuous 360° planetary motion.
100 Tool Design

Fig. 2.109 The rotary cross-slide milling head (Volstro Manufacturing Co.)

The rotary cross-slide milling-head attachment can machine almost any geometric
figure that can be constructed with drafting instruments. To grasp the principle on
which it operates, consider the milling machine and rotary head as one large drafting
machine. The milling-machine longitudinal table would correspond to the horizontal
lines produced by the horizontal arm of a drafting machine. Similarly, the vertical lines
would be produced by the milling-machine cross movement. Offsetting the rotary
head spindle with the head cross slide and rotating the head would be like using a
compass to duplicate in metal various arcs, radii, and circles. The head cross slide,
in conjunction with angular settings of the rotary head, can also produce angular cuts
which correspond to the protractor on a drafting machine. Thus, the toolmaker, within
the limits of the range of available movements, is duplicating on the die block the
same movements made by the draftsman in producing a drawing with conventional
drafting instruments.
When the die is completed, the toolmaker is faced with the problem of machining the
punch contour to match that of the die. Round punches or punches whose contours
are composed of straight lines and true radii can be machined directly to size with
rotary milling tables or rotary cross-slide milling heads. However, irregular contours
may have to machined directly from a layout line and carefully handworked to fit the
die opening.
The customary practise is to harden the die and then make the punch to fit the die.
The end of the punch that is to fit the die is squared and coated with layout dye. The
punch contour may be layed out either by scribing around the master template or by
placing the rough punch face against the die opening and scribing around the die
opening. The surplus material is then removed with the contour band saw and die-
filling machine. In pedestal punches, the surplus material is generally removed with
the vertical milling machine and rotary file. The punch is roughed out until it is from
0.13 to 0.38 mm larger than the die opening.
 Toolmaking Practises 101

An exact match of the punch and die is obtained by mounting both the punch and die
in the die set and then forcing the soft punch into the hardened die by means of a
hand-operated hydraulic press. The punch is initially forced into the die about 0.4 to
0.8 mm and withdrawn. The outline produced by the die is coated with layout dye, and
the punch contour is hand- or machine-filled until the file begins to remove the layout
dye on the outline. The punch is again mounted in the die set and forced into the die
a little further. This shaving and filling process is repeated until the punch enters the
required distance. Proper clearance is obtained by continued filling and scraping.
The clearance may be hand-stoned on the cutting edges after hardening the punch if
only a small amount of clearance is required (25 to 50 mm). Larger clearance should
be filed before heat treatment, as hand stoning is a tedious job at best. Clearance
between the punch and die may be checked by feeler gauges or shim stock. Final
adjustments in clearance can be made by shearing paper of varying thicknesses and
observing the places where the paper is clean-cut or drawn over. For example, a
section of the cutting edge that cuts a cigarette paper cleanly may indicate that this
section does not have sufficient clearance and should be opened by hand stoning.
A different approach to the shaping of punches is to attach a soft master template
to the face of the punch, as shown in Fig. 2.110. The master can be attached by
screws if there are holes in the punch or by double-faced pressure-sensitive tape. The
punch is rough end-milled as near as possible to the master template. A rotary file
is then mounted in a high-speed drill press or vertical milling machine. The shank of
the rotary file should be the same diameter as the body of the file. In use, the punch

Equal to
clearance
Template

Punch Punch

(a) (b)

Equal to
clearance

Hardened
removable collar

Punch

(c)
Fig. 2.110 Use of master template and rotary file to shape punch
102 Tool Design

is gently brought to bear against the rotating file until enough material is removed to
allow the template to touch the straight shank of the file. The punch is guided around
the file, with the shank acting as a guide and stop. Sharp fillets cannot be reached by
the rotary file and have to be shaped by hand filling.
Clearance can be provided by making the shank of the file smaller in diameter than
the body by an amount equal to the clearance (see Fig. 2.110b). Some toolmakers
grind the shank of the rotary file undersize and use collars of different diameters to
obtain the desired offset between the file body and shank, as shown in Fig. 2.110c.
Figure 2.111 shows a commercial toolmaking machine made especially for finishing
punches and dies. It dramatically reduces the time to perform die-making operations
which the skilled toolmaker conventionally accomplished by hand or with specialised
equipment. The techniques, which are easy to master, do not require any long retrain-
ing programs. They will broaden the capabilities of the toolmaker and increase his
productive time.
After completing the preliminary rough-mill-
ing and sawing operations, the toolmaker
can completely finish punches, dies, and
stripper plates (including all sharp square
inside corners) with this machine. This elimi-
nates the need for transferring work from
machine to machine and the delays caused
by waiting for specialised equipment to be
released for use.
The toolmaking machine shown in Fig.
2.111 basically consists of a motor-driven
head mounted above a vernier tilt table. The
motor-driven head is rheostatically controlled
with speeds of 0 to 45,000 rpm. The head
reciprocates up and down, and the length of
stroke is adjustable. The cutting tools used
are generally carbide burrs ranging from 1.5
to 6.5 mm in diameter; however, diamond
points and diamond “shape” tools are also Fig. 2.111 The Roto Recipro toolmak-
available. A stylus is mounted in the table. ing machine (The Producto
Changing the stylus-to-burr ratio controls the Machine Company)
workpiece size.
Figure 2.112 shows the basic steps in shaping a punch and die. In conventional
diemaking, the usual first step is to make a trial piece part. It may be made by machin-
ing to a layout line, as shown in Fig. 2.112a. Once the piece part has been proved, it
serves as a sizing guide or template, as shown at b. The piece part is mounted on the
bottom of the rough punch, which has been prepared by rough milling. The piece part
serves as a sizing guide, while the punch is hand-guided along its periphery against
the cutting tool. Changing stylus-to-cutter ration controls the punch size to allow for
clearance.
When the punch is completed, it is heat-treated and coated with a wax-base parting
compound. It is then positioned against a rough band-sawed die block, as shown in c.
Epoxy is troweled around the punch and allowed to set. The punch is then removed
and the epoxy serves as the guide for the machine stylus.
 Toolmaking Practises 103

Trial piece parts, trial stampings, and prototypes can be made on the toolmaking
machine, as shown in Fig. 2.112d.

Trial piece parts, trial stampings, and prototypes

Fig. 2.112 Using the Roto Recipro toolmaking machine (a) In simple terms, it is the machin-
ing of the piece part to a layout line (no template need be made) (b) Using the
piece part for a sizing guide to finish-size a punch (c) An impression made with
the finished and hardened punch in a rough band- sawed die block or letting
epoxy set around the perimeter of the punch provides the guiding and sizing
reference for the die opening (d) With the tool reciprocating and rotating, use
the stylus machining technique to make trial parts for developing. Sketch at left
illustrates principle for size control by changing stylus-to-burr ratio. Up to 50
prototypes or stacked stamping samples 1/32 in. thick have been made in one
stack. (The Producto Machine Company)

2.9 ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING

Electro Discharge Machining (EDM) is a relatively new process that is being widely
applied to the manufacture of dies and moulds. It is also used for production machin-
ing of difficult-to-machine parts, but the discussion here will be limited to dies and
moulds.
104 Tool Design

EDM is a process of metal removal by means of electric discharges between a shaped

electrode (cutting tool) and an electroconductive workpiece in the presence of a liquid
dielectric (see Fig. 2.113). In simpler terms, an electric spark is used to erode the
workpiece, which takes a shape opposite that of the electrode (cutting tool). There
are thousands of sparks each second, and each spark produces a crater on both the
workpiece and the electrode, the smaller crater normally occurring on the electrode.
It is believed that the crater is caused by the melting and vaporisation of minute par-
ticles of metal. Chips therefore are produced in the form of hollow spheres, which are
ejected into the dielectric fluid and cooled and then flushed from the gap between the
tool and the workpiece.
In use, the workpiece is mounted to the table of the EDM machine, and the tool is fed
down vertically. The tool never touches the workpieces, and a gap of approximately
25 mm is maintained between the electrode and the workpiece by a servomechanism.
The gap distance can be varied to suit the machining conditions. A direct current of
low voltage and high amperage is delivered to the electrode at the rate of approxi-
mately 20,000 electric impluses per second as the sparks jump from the electrode
to the workpiece. Their effect is to erode a cavity into the workpiece that is the exact
image of the electrode.

Electrode
Workpiece
Dielectric
Power liquid
supply

Fig. 2.113 Basic principle of electrodischarge machine

It is very important that the chips be washed away from the gap area. Stray chips
can cause further sparking of the tool, resulting in unwanted taper and tool wear. The
dielectric fluid is continuously pumped through a filter to separate the chips from the
fluid.
The cutting speed, or metal-removal rate, depends upon the volume of metal removed
by each spark and the frequency with which the sparks occur. The volume of metal
removed per spark can be increased by increasing the current to the electrode. The
work finish, the electrode material, and the workpiece material also affect the metal-
removal rates.
It must be remembered that there is always electrode wear during the EDM process,
and therefore the tool will gradually lose its shape during the machining process.
Tool wear is compensated for by changing electrodes as the machining operation
progresses. It may be necessary to use as many as five electrodes to finish a detailed
mould cavity to the required shape and tolerance. Through-hole operations can be
machined with stepped electrodes, which have the effect of changing to new elec-
trodes. Many EDM machines have a “no-wear” features which may be applied to
finishing operations.
 Toolmaking Practises 105

The dielectric fluid is generally a light lubricating oil. The most common electrode
material is graphite, although tungsten, carbide, copper, brass, and zinc alloys are
also used. Electrode materials are selected on the basis of wearing qualities when
applied to specific machining operations.
Figure 2.114 shows a typical EDM machine. The major elements are the power sup-
ply, the servo unit, and the machine table. The power supply provides the current for
the machining operation, while the servo unit supports the electrode and maintains
the spark gap. The machine table provides for adjusting and positioning the workpiece
and also contains the dielectric to maintain the level of the liquid dielectric above the
workpiece.
The manufacture of stamping dies with EDM. The EDM process adapts well to the
manufacture of stamping dies because of the ease with which irregularly shaped
through holes can be machined. Complex holes and odd shapes can be machined
without sectionalising the die. Dies can also be machined after heat treatment, and
therefore warpage during heat treatment is eliminated. Dies made of difficult-to-
machine materials, such as carbide, can be machined at a cost as low as that for steel
dies. Complex dies can be made with less skill because the die opening is machined
from the punches themselves. This also results is precise and uniform clearances. All
these advantages add up to fewer man-hours to make a high-quality die; this means
that tool and die shops can bid more competitively and enjoy larger profit margins.

Fig. 2.114 Typical EDM machine used for diesinking and diemaking applications
(Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

The EDM process is not without its problems when used to produce dies. At first, it
was noticed that dies produced by EDM had a marked tendency to fail by cracking
and chipping. Further investigation showed that a shallow white surface layer of metal
could be observed under a microscope. This condition was most evident on tool steels
106 Tool Design

hardened before EDM, and the layer was identified as a rehardened zone produced
by the heat generated by the electric discharges. The surface did not show on tool
steels cut by EDM in the annealed state and then heat-treated. It was decided that the
layer did develop on annealed material but that the subsequent heat treatment had a
tendency to mask the layer.
The white rehardened zone, which varies from 25 to 130 mm, produces a highly
stressed untempered zone on the surface of the tool. To compound the problem, the
highly stressed zone lies on the working surface of the tool. This condition can easily
lead to premature failure of the cutting edge, especially when the rehardened zone is
quite deep.
The rehardened zone can be reduced to a negligible minimum by the proper choice
of tool material, dielectric fluid, and good machining practises. For example, experi-
mentation has shown that the shallowest layer of rehardened material is produced at
a high frequency and weak spark; therefore, the machine operator should use one or
more light high-frequency spark finishing passes to remove the effect of heavy rough-
ing cuts. When a very shallow rehardened zone could be detrimental, as in the case
of tools subjected to shock loads, the zone can be eliminated by additional finishing
techniques, such as grinding, lapping, chemical milling, or electropolishing. Finally,
the tool should be retempered to minimise the stress level. The tempering tempera-
ture should be the highest permitted without reducing the hardness.
The most common method of producing dies by EDM is to mount the die set directly in
the EDM machine and use the punches (mounted on the punch shoe) to machine the
stripper plate and die block. In order words, the punch holder and punch become that
electrode, and the die shoe and die block become the workpiece. Since the electrode
and workpiece must be insulated from each other in order to have opposite polarity
to initiate sparking, a special die set must be ordered. Die sets of this type can be
ordered from the manufacturer with insulated guide pins or with insulated bushings.
Other than this insulation, the die set is the same as a standard conventional die set.
If a ball-bushing die set is used, the ball bushing can be removed after setup.
The punch cannot be used directly as the electrode since there is always some wear
on the electrode. It is therefore necessary to face the punch with carbon or other elec-
trode material before machining the openings in the stripper and die. Various methods
have been used in making tipped punches. One is first to rough out the punch and
then heat-treat it to the required hardness. The electrode material is rough-machined
to the configuration of the punch face and fastened to the punch by cementing, solder-
ing, or mechanical fastening. The punch and electrode assembly is then finishground
to size.
Another method utilises a finished punch that is ground to size and hardened.
Standard stock punches can therefore be used. The electrode blank is attached to the
finished punch and then finished to the punch contour. Toolmaking-machine methods
of diemaking, explained in Section 2.8, work well for this operation. The punch contour
can be used as the template can be made.
The most satisfactory method of attaching the electrode blank to the punch is the
mechanical joint, providing the size of the punch permits the use of pins and screws.
Dowel holes, mounting holes, or stripper holes can be utilised. This type joint will give
the least electric resistivity between the punch and the electrode material.
 Toolmaking Practises 107

Solder can be used when tipping punches with metallic electrode material such
as brass, copper, tungsten, etc. Carbon materials can be soldered if they are first
copper-plated. Soft soldering is commonly used in the tipping operation. Very seldom
is hard soldering or silver soldering used unless the temperature involved is below the
drawing temperature of the punch. The soft solder commonly used is 50/50 or 60/40
solder, which melts at 188 to 193°C. Care must be taken not to exceed the tempering
temperature of the punch (around 204°C). Also, after the tip is attached, care must
be taken not to exceed the melting temperature of the solder during conventional
machining or the EDM operation.
The adhesive method is probably the most widely used. The growing use of carbon
and the danger of exceeding the drawing temperature of the punch may dictate the
use of an adhesive. If a nonconductive adhesive is used, care must be taken to ensure
electric conductivity between the punch and electrode. This is accomplished by mak-
ing sure that high points of the surfaces touch each other. This means that punch and
electrode material should be clamped in a vise or fixture immediately after the two
parts are joined.
The adhesive materials recommended by users are Hysol Kit no. 0017 from the Hysol
Corporation, Olean, NY; Eastman no. 910 from the Eastman Chemical Products,
Inc., Kingspoint, Tennessee, USA; and Eccono bond solder nos. 58C and 57C from
Emerson and Cummins, Inc., Canton, Massachusetts, USA. The manufacturer’s
instructions for use should be followed closely for best results.
The total length of electrode material should be 9.6 mm more than the combined total
of the die thickness and the lower shoe thickness, as shown in Fig. 2.115. The elec-
trode material must be long enough to extend into the dummy plate and still not allow
the punch to touch the die.

Fig. 2.115 Electrode set up for finishing, piercing, and blanking dies with EDM
(Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

As explained earlier, the punch and electrode are as one unit and must be finished as
such. If the required die clearance is in the range of 12 to 100 mm per side, the elec-
trode and punch have exactly the same cross-sectional dimensions. If the required
clearance is more or less than this, the electrode size will change accordingly because
die clearance is produced by the spark overcut. In other words, the minimum overcut
108 Tool Design

per side is 12 mm and this may be increased to 100 mm per side by the machine opera-
tor’s selection of machining power settings. The power supply can be set to maintain
a predetermined clearance that is uniform around the entire contour of the die. When
the required clearance falls outside the 12 to 100 mm per side range, the electrode
section of the punch must be increased or decreased accordingly.
A relief must be machined on the electrode, as shown in Fig. 2.116. The length of the
relief will be the die thickness plus 3.18 mm. This relief need only be deep enough to
prevent this section from machining but should not be deep enough to cause weak-
ness of the electrode. In general practise, this can be removed by any means, includ-
ing snag grinding.
The completed punch units are now ready to be mounted to the punch shoe.
Conventional mounting methods are used, as explained in Chapter 9.
The die block and stripper plates must be keyed together with pins so that correct
alignment can be obtained with respect to the punch at the time of assembly. Opening
in the die block should be rough-machined larger than the corresponding relief on the
electrode, as shown in Figs 2.116 and 2.117. This can be done by drilling and band
sawing. As indicated in Fig. 2.17, the stock left for removal by the upstroke of the
electrode must be the least 0.80 mm all around the perimeter of the opening. The die
block and stripper plate can be fastened to the lower shoe and coated with bluing. The
die-set halves are then fitted together, and the shapes of the electrodes are scribed
around the die block.
A minimum of 0.8 mm
to 1.6 mm metal remaining
Relief area
on electrode to be cleaned out by electrote
Die plate
Punch dim.

Rough machine
Relief die-block opening
Electrode

Fig. 2.116 Relief on EDM electrode Fig. 2.117 Die-block opening is rough-machined
(Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.) by conventional methods (Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.)

An alternate method, which is faster if the die has many punches, is to assemble the
die set, put it on the EDM machine, and electrically etch the impressions of all the
punches on the die block and stripper plate by machining for a few minutes to impart
the punch image on the plate. The lower shoe must also be laid out or etched so that
clearance for slug dropout can be sawed at the proper place.
A dummy plate must be made large enough to cover all the die openings, as shown in
Fig. 2.118. Its purpose will be explained later. It should be drilled, counterbored, and
fastened to corresponding tapped holes in the bottom of the die shoe.
A dielectric manifold must be used, as it is necessary to pump dielectric fluid through
the spark gap to flush out machined particles. This does not require accurate machin-
ing except for parallelism between the top and bottom surfaces (see Figs 2.119 and
2.120). The placement of the dielectric base fitting should be as high as practical
 Toolmaking Practises 109

when using vacuum flow to avoid gases forming in the upper part of the chamber dur-
ing EDM. These gases could ignite, causing the electrodes to be damaged.

Dummy plate
Flow holes

Fig. 2.118 Method of dummy plate to die shoe (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

Manifold

Vacuum
line

Fig. 2.119 Dielectric manifold for pumping dielectric through spark gap (Cinnati Milacron, Inc.)

Manifold

Fig. 2.120 Placement of dielectronic manifold on die set (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

At this point the die is ready for machining by EDM. The die set is assembled and
installed on the EDM machine, as shown in Fig. 2.120. Note that the die and stripper
are not mounted at this stage. Before the EDM operation is begun, the electrodes
must be broken loose from the punches and placed in their respective cavities. Since
the electrodes are not fastened to the punch, the die block can be mounted on the
lower show above the electrodes (see Fig. 2.121).
After this is done, adhesive is once again applied to the electrode and the punches
again joined. After checking for continuity between the two, the machining operation
is resumed but in an upward direction, as shown in Fig. 2.121. By machining in the
upward direction, the natural taper effect of EDM can be put to use, as it will afford
angular clearance for slug dropout. With machine settings constant, the amount
of overcut on the entry side will be approximately 1.5 times that on the exit side.
Referring to Fig. 2.122, it is readily seen that if the desired land clearance of 43 mm is
obtained, the bottom clearance will be approximately 1.5 times this amount.
110 Tool Design

Die block
EDM from
botom to top

Fig. 2.121 Die block is machined from bottom to top (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

The normal angular clearance for slug

dropout in conventional diemaking prac-
tises usually runs from 0.5 to 1° (see
Chap. 9). The difference in overcut,
since correct clearance at the land is
43 mm, would be 0.20 mm if the settings
were held constant. On a 12 mm thick
die block, this would mean the angular
clearance would be seven minutes,
which would be inadequate. If the die- Fig. 2.122 Natural taper effect of EDN
block thickness were 25 mm the angle provides angular clearance when
would be three minutes. machining from bottom to top
(Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)
Fortunately, it is possible to vary the
overcut with EDM to correct this situation. If the machine is run on the relief portion
at maximum amperage and the power cut back on the land portion, the result is as
shown in Fig. 2.123.

Fig. 2.123 Angular clearance can be varied by machining a relief portion at maximum am-
perage and cutting back power on the land portion (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

After the die block has been machined, it is removed from the lower die shoe. The
stripper plate is mounted on the lower shoe for machining. The servo reverse switch
on the EDM machine is changed from machine-up to the machine-down position.
 Toolmaking Practises 111

Since the stripper will be machined from the top down and a bell-mouthed condition
at the top is desirable, the flow of the dielectric fluid is reversed (pressure flow in place
of vacuum flow). The degree of accuracy required in the stripper is not as critical as on
the die plate; therefore, the stripper can be machined at the maximum power setting
obtainable on the EDM machine.
Subsequent machining should be done on the stripper around the opening, as shown
in Fig. 2.124. This allows the stroke of punches to be lowered after the die has been
resharpened. Otherwise, the stripper would interfere with the punch radius.

Fig. 2.124 Method of relieving stripper plate to allow punches to be lowered after
resharpening (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

Upon completion of the stripper, the electrode material can be removed from the
punches by giving the electrodes a sharp tap or, on large areas, by heating the punch
to 300°. The heat causes the adhesive to weaken to the point where the electrode can
simply be lifted off.
A clean-up grind can be taken on the punch faces to remove any carbon or adhesive
adhering to them. The die set can now be assembled and placed in production.
Top-to-bottom machining can be done
Vacuum flow
with wafer-type electrodes, as shown
in Fig. 2.125. This is a twist of the pre-
vious method of machining. A relief is
machined on the electrodes, and the
power is increased after the top of the
cutting length of electrode has passed
Fig. 2.125 Top-to-bottom machining with
the die land. The power should be
wafer-type electrodes (Cincinnati
increased gradually to avoid shorting
Milacron, Inc.)
the electrode. If the electrode does back
out of the cut, it is possible to resume rough machining on the land area. Clean oil and
vacuum flow will minimise this possibility. The electrode must be within 5 mm of the
work to start sparking with no particles in the gap.
A variation of the EDM process, known as upside-down machining, can be used in the
construction of blanking dies. As the name implies, all EDM machining is done on the
die and stripper upside down. In addition to making the die block and stripper open-
ings, the punch holder is also made by EDM. All three of these components must have
common locating holes for positioning on a manifolding fixture, as well as locating at
the time of die assembly.
The punch should be made straight, with no heel or pedestal. Electrode material will
be sized with the punch since the components are to be machined upside down, the
end of the punch which will eventually be mounted (not the end which does the shear-
ing) must be tipped with electrode material. If the end which does the shearing were
tipped, a mirror image of the desired shape would be produced in the die.
112 Tool Design

Figure 2.126 illustrates this technique. After the electrode has machined the die and
stripper, the electrode is removed from the punch. The punch holder is then put on
the manifold and machined by the punch itself. A perfect match between the cavity
and the punch results. The punch is now removed from the dummy plate and fastened
mechanically to the punch holder.

Dummy Plate

Punch

Electrode
Machined by
electrode

Die plate

Stripper
Machined by punch
Punch holder

Pressure
flow
Manifold
fixture

Fig. 2.126 Upside-down EDM machining (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)

The advantage of this method is that punches can be kept extremely short, and thus
more rigid, thereby increasing die life. In addition, there is no heel or pedestal on
the punch, and consequently no radius, so that the stripper need not be machined
to accommodate this radius. Figure 2.127 shows how a die machined by this tech-
nique would be assembled (turn Fig. 2.127 upside down). These components can be
mounted on die shoes with little trouble since they have common locating holes.

Die block

Punch Stripper
Punch
holder

Fig. 2.127 Assembled die after upside-down EDM machining (Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.)
 Toolmaking Practises 113

2.10 ELECTRO DISCHARGE MACHINING FOR

CAVITY APPLICATIONS
There are several advantages to the machining of mould cavities by EDM, all of which
add up to reduced cost. The major advantage is that EDM simplifies the machining of
complicated shapes especially when there is a great deal of fine detail in the bottom
of the mould. Hand finishing is virtually eliminated compared to tracer milling because
scallops are not produced. Successive dies can be accurately duplicated, and it is
generally not necessary to sectionalise the mould.
The ability of EDM to machine hardened materials makes it possible to machine or
at least finish the mould after it is heat treated. This feature is also valuable is cavity
maintenance, as washed out or worn dies and moulds can be reclaimed.
It is not always economical to sink mould cavities by EDM. Cavities that have straight
sides or flat bottoms with little detail and geometric shapes that can easily be machined
should not be sunk with EDM (see Fig. 2.128). This type of workpiece geometry should
be cut with a rotating tool or grinding wheel providing the material can be machined by
these methods. Conventional machining methods are much faster in this case.
When the machinability or workpiece geometry factors prohibit conventional machin-
ing practises, EDM may solve the problem. A typical shape is shown in Fig. 2.128a.
Here the cavity depth-to-width ratio is quite high and would require a long slender cut-
ter to machine by a conventional rotary cutting tool. The deflection of the tool would
almost prohibit machining by this method. Besides, the wall geometry is rather com-
plex, and the problem is compounded by the fact that the geometry is confined by the
narrow opening. If the cavity could be sunk by a tracer mill, it would be very difficult to
provide a suitable surface finish either by machine-or hand-finishing methods.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.128 The complexity of the cavity determines the method of machining: (a) EDM only
(b) Conventional machining (c) EDM and conventional machining

Figure 2.28c shows a cavity that could best be machined by a combination of EDM
and rotary-tool application. In this case, the major portion of the cavity is roughed out
by conventional methods and the final intricate detail is sunk by EDM. The advantage
114 Tool Design

of this method is that the majority of the material can be removed rapidly. The mould
can be rough-machined and then heat-treated, followed by EDM finishing.
Although it is relatively easy to impart the mirror image of an electrode face in the
bottom of a mould cavity, it is not always a simple matter to manufacture the elec-
trode. In some cases, it may be just as easy to go ahead and sink the cavity from
the master pattern as it is to make the master pattern, transfer it to an electrode face,
and then sink the mould. However, it is generally easier to make a master pattern
for an electrode as the usually (although not always) involves working with external
rather than internal surfaces. Also, in most cases, two to six electrodes are required
to finish-machine a complex mould. In this case, one master pattern to duplicate all
electrodes is required.
Master patterns for EDM electrodes are constructed by techniques described in
Section 2.11. Once the pattern is constructed, the electrode is duplicated by use of
a pantomill or tracer mill. The material used for the electrode must have the ability to
machine the mould material and resist wear. Graphite is most commonly used for this
application; however, a copper tungsten material is often used for cavities containing
sharp corners, precise detail, and fine finish because tungsten will not flake as badly
as graphite when it is machined to small sections.
Electrodes constructed by machining often require hand finishing to remove the scal-
lops left by the duplicating operation. This can be eliminated by using cast electrodes.
In other words, a casting produced in a master die is used as an electrode.
Various grades of zinc and zinc-tin alloys are a popular castable electrode mate-
rial, although aluminium has been used. The most desirable electrode material is a
combination of zinc and tin, since this combination has relatively low shrinkage and
low melting temperature. The zinc and tin can be purchased separately from local
sources, and the alloy is relatively inexpensive pure zinc in that it can be remelted
and used repeatedly. Any combination of zinc and tin from pure zinc to a proportion
of 50/50 can be used as electrode materials. Pure zinc has the best wear ratio, since
tool wear gets worse as tin is added. However, electrode-casting accuracy is best with
50/50 zinc-tin and becomes worse as the proportion of tin is reduced. Due to these
opposing characteristics, it is a normal practise to vary the combination of zinc and
tin in accordance with cavity accuracy and the economics of wear. Recommended
proportions of zinc and tin for various jobs are given in Table 2.3.
Many tool and die shops have equipment which can be used or adapted for use in
manufacturing zinc-tin die-cast electrodes. Generally, the electrode material is melted
in a pot, poured into a preheated mould or existing die, and then pressed to force the
material into the cavity shape. Equipment for this process includes a thermostatically
controlled melting pot for melting the electrode material, a thermostatically controlled
electric hot plate (gas-flame torches and ovens have been used) to preheat the mas-
ter die cavity (to approximately 200°C), and a hydraulic press (approximately 25 Mpa
pressure is needed with a volume of 3.5 to 4 cm3) for cold coining the electrode mate-
rial in the master-die cavity. Supporting equipment such as ladles and safety devices,
including asbestos gloves and eye protection are also needed.
The master die for casting usually consists of an existing die or master steel cavity. A
framework and a pressure plate are required to tool the die for pouring electrodes and
should be made to suit a particular die. If the master die lends itself to exterior framing
without making the electrode excessively large, the frame is simplified. The framing
 Toolmaking Practises 115

plates must be thick enough (13 to 25 mm) to withstand pressing forces and extend
high enough (25 to 50 mm) above the die to give the electrode a stable body as
shank. The framework should also extend approximately 2 mm below the face of the
die. Bolts are satisfactory fastening devices to allow the framework to be assembled
and disassembled.
The pressure plate can be one of two designs: (i) of flat stack (approximately
25 mm thick) or (ii) a plate with an extended boss to impart a dielectric manifold in the
back side of the electrodes and also provide locating surfaces for repetitive electrode
mounting. The pressure plate should clear the inside of the framework by a few thou-
sandths. Larger dies may require up to 0.8 mm clearance.
The zinc-tin die-casting material melts at approximately 338°C. A temperature of
427°C has been found desirable to maintain the thermostatically controlled pot. Actual
pouring temperature will be somewhat less. Small-detail dies should be preheated
to approximately 216°C (177°C on large dies) to prevent premature chilling of the
molten material, which would cause voids and cold shock in the electrode castings.
Preheating can be accomplished with a furnace, a hot plate, or by pouring not zinc-
tin into the cavities three or four times before pouring the actual electrodes. In either
case, facilities should be located conveniently to the press to aid in the handling of
the dies.
The preheated master die with framework in position is placed on the press. The
molten electrode material is poured into the master cavity, filling the deepest area
first. The cavity should be filled to a depth to provide the electrode with a stable body
(19 to 38 mm). The pressure plate is positioned within the framework and pressure
is applied as the material solidifies. The operator should control the pressure at this
point to prevent excessive material from being forced out around the edges of the
pressure plate. After the electrode material has solidified, additional pressure is built
up to make the zinc-tin more dense. Pressure of 3.5 to 20 Mpa have been used,
depending upon the size of the electrode and the details in the cavity.
The number of electrodes per finished cavity vary with the accuracy, detail, and vol-
ume of the cavity. As many as 12 electrodes and as few as three have been used on
jobs. On a production run of a die, the last two electrodes (finishing electrodes) of one
die can be used as the first two roughing electrodes of the next die.
Cold coining is used to compensate for the normal shrinkage characteristics of the
electrode material. The coefficient of expansion per foot for 50/50 zinc-tin from melt-
ing temperature to room temperature (without pressure) is 0.69 mm. Naturally, the
electrode will not shrink this amount when the above method is used; however,
some shrinkage occurs. After the electrodes and master die have cooled to room

Table 2.3 Recommended proportions of zinc and tin for castable electrodes
Type of job Zinc, % Tin, %

Detailed 50 50
Moderate tolerances 70 30
Average detail 80 20
Low tolerance 100 0
SOURCE: Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.
116 Tool Design

temperature, the electrodes are replaced on the press and coined. Cold coining pres-
sures vary, as do casting pressures. Pressures up to 41 Mpa have been used.
The fact that more than one electrode is needed to machine a cavity dictates that
subsequent electrodes duplicate the initial electrode and be located on the machine
platen quite accurately with reference to the partially machined cavity. Subsequent
electrodes must be precisely located in order to provide accuracy and detail in the cav-
ity. There are various locating techniques used in positioning electrodes on the platen
of the EDM machine. Three will be discussed here, in order of their preference.

First technique The first (and most acceptable) way is to internally cast locating sur-
faces into the back side of the electrodes during hot pressing and cold coining. In this
manner, the locating impression of the electrodes can be repeatedly maintained in the
exact relationship with the electrode face contour. At the same time, the relationship
of the back sides of the electrodes with the face contours is uniformly maintained.
Then all that needs to be done to locate subsequent electrodes on the machine is to
locate and secure locating pads on the platen. This technique eliminates the need for
conventional machining of locating surfaces and can also provide a cast-in manifold
necessary for dielectric flow.

Second technique The second method is to machine the back side and two adjacent
edges of the cast electrodes conventionally and locate on the platen against three
pins. The machining operation will determine the accuracy of locating electrodes and
can best be done by placing the electrodes in the master die for the machining opera-
tions. There is no particular reason to maintain uniform thickness on all the electrodes,
since the purpose of machining the back side is to establish a flat reference plane with
the contour face. Of course, the reference plane must be kept in the same relationship
with the contour face on all electrodes.
The adjacent edges of the electrodes must be machined quite accurately in reference
to checkpoints on the contour face. The best approach to this problem is to machine
one edge of all electrodes at one machine setting and then machine the adjacent
edge of all electrodes at another machine setting. In both operations the electrodes
should be located in the master die to establish the edges in reference with check
points on the contour face.

Third technique The third technique of electrode location is a flagging method. The
die block must first be partially machined on two edges and the top side to establish
reference planes. To align the electrode contour face with the top side of the die block
levelling and gauges can be used. An adapter plate is mounted to the machine platen
and used to hold the electrode with levelling screws. The levelling screws, with the
use of gauges, permit adjusting the electrode contour face to the correct relationship
with the die. The gauges are positioned between the die and the electrode at particu-
lar checkpoints, and the levelling screws are adjusted until the gauges make proper
contact with the checkpoint. To locate the electrodes in the correct horizontal position
over the die block, gauge must be made to position against the machined edges of
the die and flag particular surfaces of the electrode contour. This will position the elec-
trode in the correct relationship with the die block in the cross and longitudinal direc-
tions. Either the die block or the electrode can be shifted to obtain this relationship.
The flagging technique permits locating subsequent electrodes without machining
locating surfaces on each electrode. However, this technique does require flagging
each new electrode and would be only as accurate as the operator performing the
operation.
 Toolmaking Practises 117

In any of these three locating techniques, actual mounting or securing of the elec-
trodes to the machine platen can be accomplished with toe clamps or hold-down
bolts. If hold-down bolts are used, the electrodes must be uniformly drilled and pos-
sibly tapped.
A machining operation must be performed before the cast electrodes can be used.
This is the drilling of dielectric flow holes. Dielectric fluid must be introduced into the
machining gap during the cutting operation to wash the gap of metal particles, cool
the work and electrode, and help initiate the spark discharge.
The holes are located in critical areas of the electrode contour and are generally
placed where pockets or projections exist. The size of the holes depends upon the
particular application, i.e., forging dies can afford to have larger dielectric flow holes
than plastic moulds. Generally speaking, sizes can vary between 0.82 to 3.2 mm.
The smaller holes are preferred, since slender “cores” are left in the cavity where the
electrode is drilled. Smaller the holes, smaller are the cores.
The dielectric flow holes are generally step-drilled to reduce the thickness of electrode
that must be drilled with a small, short-fluted drill. The necessary holes can be laid out
and centre-punched, both front and back. The back side of the electrode is then drilled
with a 6.4 mm drill to 6.4 mm of breakthrough. The contour face can then be drilled
with a small drill to break into the 6.4 mm hole. The position of these small holes can
be slightly shifted on subsequent electrodes to eliminate the cores produced by the
previous electrodes.
The dielectric oil can be introduced to the electrode through a manifold or individual
plastic lines. In most cases, a manifold is satisfactory and can be readily manufac-
tured for a particular job. Mounting of the manifold should be considered when decid-
ing upon the method of mounting the electrode.
The useful life of zinc-tin electrodes can be considerably increased if the electrodes are
electroplated with chrome. Finer details can also be achieved with plated electrodes.
Electrodes to be plated must be acid-etched to make them thoroughly clear and uni-
formly receptive to the plating action.
Both acid etching and electroplating are techniques that should not be lightly treated.
Each requires a fair amount of skill and application know-how, to say nothing of the
specialised equipment involved. Smaller shops usually do not have the know-how
and equipment available and must send electrodes to custom platers. The following
general information, however, will help the reader familiarise himself/herself with the
process.
For etching steel, see Table 2.4. For etching zinc-tin (50/50) electrodes the etching
solution is made up to 70 per cent water, 10 per cent sulfuric acid and 20 per cent
nitric acid. While etching, it is necessary to remove the electrode every 60 seconds
so that gas is not trapped in pockets of the electrode. Also, one must make sure that
the dowel holes match the edges and that the machined backs are all protected with
Micropeel or the equivalent. Table 2.5 gives the formulation for brass. For etching
tungsten materials, under controlled conditions with the hood exhausted to atmo-
sphere, considerable gas is created including fluorine. The etchant is hydrofluoric
aqua regia, consisting of 1 part nitric acid and 3 to 4 parts of hydrofluoric acid.
118 Tool Design

Table 2.4 Formulation for etching steel

37% hydrochloric acid Water Temp, °C Rate per min, mm per side

80% 20% 57.22 2.5

The solution must be agitated every minute to remove entrapped gases. Etching rate will change
as acid is consumed. Variations in temperature will also affect rates. Mask the unetched portion
with Microstop or Micropeel or equivalent. After etching, neutralise with 50% solution. (Microstop
lacquer and Micropeel are available from Michigan Chrome and Chemical Co., Detroit)

Table 2.5 Formultion for etching brass

70% nitric acid Water Temp, °C Rate per min, mm per side

20% 80% 46.11 5

30% 70% 29.44 5

The recommended procedure for hard chrome plating zinc-tin electrodes is as

follows:
1. The electrode should be vapour-blasted or burnished with steel wool.
2. The electrode should be cleaned in a hot alkaline solution.
3. It should be dipped in a 8% sulfuric acid solution.
4. The sulfuric dip is left on the electrode, and it is placed in the chroming tank.
Caution: If the sulfuric dip is removed by rinsing, oxidation may take place
before the electrode can be placed in the chroming tank.
5. A low voltage (as low as possible) should be applied first, and current is then
increased intervals of 30 second until maximum current is reached.
6. Maximum current should be limited to 157 mA per mm.
7. The application rate of hard chrome on the edges or apex of a cutting surface
will be at the rate of approximately 33 mm hard chrome.
The roughing electrodes are used as cast and coined if programmed amperage
reduction is used but must be etched in any perpendicular areas (Normally etched all
over). Cut must be stopped short of final depth. The finish electrodes are plated with
50 to 130 mm hard chrome.

2.11 TRACER AND DUPLICATING MILLS FOR

CAVITY APPLICATIONS
When using tracer-controlled milling machines for cavity applications, the form of a
master pattern is transferred to the workpiece through a tracer unit activated by a
stylus (tracer finger) that follow the master pattern (see Figs. 2.129 and 2.130). The
workpiece material and master pattern are both clamped to the milling-machine table
so that as the table is fed horizontally or transversely, the master pattern is passed
beneath the stylus. The form of the master pattern causes a rise and fall in the stylus
spindle, which through a hydraulic or electrohydraulic circuit causes a corresponding
rise or fall in the cutter. The resulting workpiece profile is therefore identical to that of
the original master pattern.
 Toolmaking Practises 119

Fig. 2.129 Using an automatic electrohydraulic tracer milling machine to produce a

cake-pan mould (Tool Products Company, Inc.)

Fig. 2.130 Completed cake-pan mould (Tool Products Company, Inc.)

Types of tracing equipment The simplest type of tracer control is the 180°, or depth-
control, tracer unit. Here only the vertical machine movement, either the vertical head
or the knee, is under tracer control. The other table movement, longitudinal or trans-
verse, operates at a constant feed rate to move the master under the stylus. Thus, the
tracer controls the movement of the vertical head and milling cutter toward and away
from the workpiece as dictated by the shape of the master. After each pass across the
workpiece, the table must be indexed over to a new position and the feed reversed in
order to take a series of incremental cuts. This method of tracing is often referred to
as scanning. Figure 2.131 shows the cutter path during a scanning operation.
Many tracing machines are equipped with options or accessories that make it pos-
sible to do 180° scanning automatically. Automatic scanning requires the use of a
pick feed, which moves the table over the correct increment for the next cut when the
feed is reversed. In operation, the feed is reversed by trip dogs which have been set
for the maximum distance required to scan the widest part of the workpiece. As the
120 Tool Design

feed is reversed, the machine table automatically pick feeds over the selected pick
increment. The pick increment is the dimensions between the lines of cut and may be
adjusted from 130 to 50 mm depending upon the particular machine.

Automatic
Scan length Scan width
180° Automatic

Fig. 2.131 180° pick-feed scanning (Gorton Machine Corporation)

An important feature of the automatic cycle that is not readily noticed is the control
of the feed rate of the table in relation
to the steepness of the cavity shape.
A uniform cutting feed rate should be
maintained to ensure uniform chip loads
regardless of the shape or slope of the
master pattern. In other words, as the
slope increases, the feed rate automati- (a) (b)
cally is reduced, and as the tracing path 360°
levels out, the feed rate increases.
A second type of tracer control is the
360° profiling tracer unit, in which the
tracer, through the master pattern,
controls the feed rates of horizontal
table movements simultaneously (see (c) (d)
Figure 2.132). This type of tracing per-
mits reproducing shapes in a horizon- Fig. 2.132 360° profiling: (a) ID profile
tal plane through an included angle of (b) OD profile (c) ID step
360°. profile (d) OD step profile
(Gorton Machine Corporation)
Figure 2.133 shows the principle of
operation of a 360° tracing unit for one particular machine. The operator depresses
the slide-control push buttons on the operator’s control panel to move the template
toward the tracer head until the stylus contacts the edge of the template. This deflects
the stylus from its centre position, establishing a deflection line and deflection angle.
On this particular machine, the deflection angle is measured electrically. The deflec-
tion line is at a right angle to the template, and the tracer stylus will move along this
line until the deflection preselected on the deflection control is obtained. As the tracing
stylus moves along the edge of the template, any over or underdeflection will cause
the tracer to move along a line at a right angle to the template until the reference
deflection is reached. This is one of two characteristics of the tracer system control-
ling automatic machine-slide movement.
 Toolmaking Practises 121

Stylus path following

template edge

x
90°
x = reference deflection
0.005 to 0.015 preselected
by operator Line of deflection Velocity line
at right angle to tangent to template
template edge

Fig. 2.133 Principle of operation of 360° OD profiling on Gorton Auto-Trace Master

(Gorton Machine Corporation)

The second characteristic of the control system is designed to cause a feed along the
edge of the template, regardless of shape. A line established at right angles to the line
of deflection results in a tangent to the template. This is the line along which the tracer
will move under feed. As the template contour changes, the lines at right angles and
parallel to the template edges change, causing the tracing stylus to be continuously
directed along a course tangent to the template at the contact point.
The direction in which the machine slide moves is automatically changed to corre-
spond to the direction and shape of the template edge (Direction of trace and feed
rate are selected at the control station). These two characteristics provide the basis
for the automatic tracer operation shown in Fig. 2.133.
The ultimate in tracer controls is one that will do both 180° scanning and 360° profil-
ing on one machine. This type of machine is excellent for toolmaking applications,
where there is a constant change of workpiece requirements. One part may be ideal
for profiling, the next for full three-dimensional duplicating, and the next for scanning
pick-feed duplicating.
In three-dimensional duplicating, the table, saddle, and knee move simultaneously or
in combinations or movements in response to the tracer movements over the master.
Three-dimensional control provides the operator with a selection of tracing motions
best suited to the shape and configuration of the workpiece. Figure 2.134 illustrates
122 Tool Design

the machining of a three-dimensional mould section. The selection of either scanning

duplication or profiling permits the area and shape of the mould section to be dupli-
cated in the most suitable manner.

Fig. 2.134 Automatic duplication of three-dimensional mould section

(Gorton Machin Corporation)

When duplicating three-dimensionally, the operator can, through finger pressure,

direct the tracer in radial motions, circular motions, sweeping vertical motions, or
combinations of motions. This type of operator-guided tracing is commonly known
in the metal working industry as pencil trace. The operator guides the tracer stylus
over and around the master pattern in the same manner in which a pencil is held for
writing. Pencil trace is particularly useful in die and mould manufacture to facilitate
scrubbing out pockets remaining after automatically profiling a shape and to duplicate
complex part shapes having many irregular and changing contours.
Figure 2.135 shows an example of pencil tracing. A three-dimensional machine is
used in the duplication of a large two-cavity metal pattern. This type of machine is
extremely versatile in that it has full two- and three-dimensional profiling and contour-
ing capabilities. It is a hydraulic servo tracer miller that is operator-guided with light
finger pressure on the tracer stylus.
An example of how a machine equipped with combination 360° profiling and 180°
duplicating can save time is shown in Fig. 2.136 and 2.137. In Fig. 2.136, a mould
contour is duplicated in rise-and-fall pick-feed mode. In Fig. 2.137, the parting line is
automatically 360° profiled without moving the workpiece. The workpiece is a vacuum-
cleaner die-casting mould section.

Selector of tracer and cutters A light axial deflection of the stylus must take place
before the tracer valve is in position to control the movement of the cutter relative to
the workpiece, as determined by the contour of the master pattern. To compensate
for the initial stylus deflection, it is usually necessary to make the diameter of the
stylus slightly larger than the diameter of the cutter. The toolmaker should refer to the
operator’s manual for instruction for stylus size for a particular make and model of
machine.
 Toolmaking Practises 123

Fig. 2.135 Pencil tracing on a three-dimensional profiling and contouring machine

(Gorton Machine Corporation)

The selection of the diameter and shape of the tracer cutter and stylus will be largely
determined by the contour and detail of the workpiece to be milled. The cutter and
stylus must be small enough for the material to be machined away from the smallest
detail. It is often necessary to rough out the workpiece with a large stylus and cutter
and then change to a smaller stylus and cutter to finish the detail. For example, the
cake-pan mould shown in Fig. 2.130 was rough-cut with 25.4 mm high-speed-steel
ball end mill, 9.53 mm penetration, 1.27 to 1.53 pick, and 0.153 m/min feed rate. The
finish cut was with a 9.53 mm carbide ball end mill, 0.508 m/min feed rate, 1.02 to
1.27 mm pick.
Cutters used in diesinking generally have two flutes with a ball end. They may be
straight or tapered. Tapered cutters are stronger than straight cutters of the same size,
especially in smaller sizes. Tapered cutters may be used as long as the die cavity has
sloping sides. The angle of the taper in the cutter and stylus should be somewhat less
than the angle of the sidewalls in the die. Straight ball cutters and stylus must be used
when milling straight sidewalls in a die cavity.
Single cutting-edge cutters with sharp points are sometimes used for working out fine
detail. The cutter point should be rounded to a 0.13 mm radius.
It is sometimes possible for the toolmaker to alter the workpiece size to some extent
by using an undersize or oversize stylus. For example, it is possible to make a male
and female mould that differ in size by the wall thickness of the mould product from a
single master. A female mould is first made from the female master and then a male
cast is made from the female mould. The male cast is then used as a pattern. An
undersize stylus is used to compensate for the oversize in the male cast. The result-
ing male mould will be quite close in final size and shape.

Pantomills Pantomills, like tracer and duplicating mills, produce a workpiece of the
desired shape by tracing a master pattern. However, pantomills are quite different
from tracer and duplicating mills in both appearance and operation. One of the major
differences is that the milling cutter is connected to the stylus through a precision
124 Tool Design

mechanical linkage that can be adjusted to change the size relation between the mas-
ter and workpiece from 1:1 to a reduction as great as 40:1, depending upon the type
of machine. Pantomills generally work from an oversize master to effect a reduction
of any errors or irregularities in the master.

Fig. 2.136 Duplicating a mould contour in 180° scanning pick-feed duplicating

(Gorton Machine Corporation)

Fig. 2.137 Profiling the parting line of the workpiece shown in Fig. 2.136 by 360°
profiling (Gorton Machine Corporation)

Pantomills are available in two-dimensional models, which are extensively used for
precision engraving, or in three-dimensional models, used for die and mould produc-
tion or machining of complex shapes. Figure 2.138 shows a three-dimensional panto-
mill applied to the machining of a turbine-wheel pattern or mould. The master in this
illustration was developed from a smaller part section through the use of the versatile
enlarging attachment on the machine. The Lucite or plastic master developed with
this method is shown in Fig. 2.138 being used in the duplication of the turbine wheel
at a ratio.
 Toolmaking Practises 125

Fig. 2.138 Pantomill used to machine turbine-wheel pattern mould

(Gorton machine corporation)

2.12 LOW-MELTING TOOLING MATERIALS

The toolmaker and tool designer are frequently called upon to build or design tooling
for workpieces or products that are not easily adapted to conventional tooling prac-
tises. It is sometimes necessary to stretch the imagination in order to come up with
workable solutions for problems of this nature. Low-melting tooling materials may
solve the problem in many instances.

Low-melting bismuth alloys One of the prominent low-melting tooling materials is

bismuth alloyed with lead, tin, cadmium, indium, or other metals. The result is an alloy
with a very low melting point that expands when it solidifies. Many of these alloys are
liquid at temperatures below the boiling point of water, and a few have melting points
below 150°.
Bismuth in a pure state expands 3.3 per cent of its volume upon solidification, but
when it is alloyed with other metals, the expansion is modified according to the rela-
tive percentages of the alloying elements. This property, along with the low melting
point, makes this material suitable for certain tooling applications. Most metals shrink
when solidified in moulds and tend to pull away from the mould walls. Since bismuth
alloys expand and push into the mould detail when they solidify, they are excellent
for duplication and reproduction purposes, as well as for serving as a matrix to hold
fragile workpiece.
It is not necessary for the toolmaker to be concerned with the percentages of alloying
elements. A number of bismuth alloys suitable for low-melting alloy tooling applica-
tions have been standardised and can be purchased commercially. Tables 2.6, 2.7,
and 2.8 give the physical properties of standard alloys as an aid for selection.
The application of low-melting bismuth alloys to tooling is limited only to the imagi-
nation of the toolmaker. These alloys have been used for punch and diesetting,
anchoring, chucks, cores, moulds, patterns and fixture nests–to name a few. The
126 Tool Design

following discussion describes various applications to familiarise the beginner with

the process.
The simple set of removable bismuth-alloy jaws illustrated in Fig. 2.139 is made to
hold a forged-brass piece during a milling operation. The jaws fit a machined cavity
in a steel or brass holder so that they can be removed and jaws for other shapes
inserted.

Fig. 2.139 Bismuth-alloy jaws made to hold a forged-brass piece during a milling
operation (Cerro Copper and Brass Co.)

Figure 2.140 shows a magnetic chuck made with bismuth alloy. Since bismuth is a dia-
magnetic metal, it has been useful as a means of separating pole pieces on magnetic
chucks. Unlike lead or babbitt, which shrink on solidifying, it does not require peening
to make it fit tightly, for it expands and makes all joints watertight.

Fig. 2.140 Magnetic chuck made with bismuth alloy (Cerro Copper and Brass Co.)

In Fig. 2.140 the four narrow rectangular pieces are permanent Alnico magnets fas-
tened with bismuth alloy. The magnets hold a metal cover on a metal can while it is
being lock-seamed

Melt-away tooling Another low-melting tooling material is marked by M Argueso and

Company under the trade name of Rigidax. Rigidax is a castable, thermoplastic com-
pound for stabilising, supporting, and holding hard-to-fixture, thin-wall, odd-shaped,
and nonmagnetic parts. It is melted to fluid form and poured in or around the part.
After machining, the Rigidax is melted out and can be reused.
 Toolmaking Practises 127

Table 2.6 Cumulative growth and shrinkage of low-melting bismuth alloys, Test bar 12.71
× 12.71 × 254.2 mm, weighing approximately 4.45 N
Alloy* Time after casting
Minutes Hours

2 6 30 1 2 5 7 10 24 96 200 500

Eutectics:
Cerrolow† 117 +5 +2 0 –1 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2
Cerrolow† 136 +3 +2 +1 0 –1 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2 –2
Cerrobend† +25 +27 +45 +51 +51 +51 +51 +51 +51 +53 +55 +57
Cerrobase† –8 –11 –10 –8 –4 0 +1 +3 +8 +15 +19 +22
Cerrotru† +7 +7 +6 +6 +6 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5 +5
Noneutectics:
Cerrosafe† +20 +22 +40 +46 +46 +46 +46 +46 +46 +48 + 50 +52
Cerrolow† –4 –7 –9 0 +16 +18 +19 +19 +22 +25 +25 +25
Cerromatrix† +8 +14 +47 +48 +48 +49 +50 +50 +51 +55 +58 +61
Cerrocast† –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1 –1
*For composition, see Table 2.7
† Trade mark of Cerro Corporation
SOURCE: Cerro Corporation

Table 2.7 Percentage composition of low-melting bismuth alloys

Element Eutectics Noneutectics
Cerrolow* Cerrolow* Cerro- Cerro- Cerr Cerro- Cerro Cerro Cerro
117 136 bend* base* otru* low* safe* matrix* cast*

Bismuth 44.7 49.0 50.0 55.5 58.0 48.0 42.5 48.0 40.0
Lead 22.6 18.0 26.7 44.5 25.6 37.7 28.5
Tin 8.3 12.0 13.3 42.0 12.8 11.3 14.5 60.0
Cadmium 5.3 10.0 9.6 8.5
Indium 19.1 21.0 4.0
Antimony 9.0
* Trade mark of Cerro Corporation
SOURCE: Cerro Corporation

Rigidax is generally applied in one of the three ways:

1. The part is cast (single or multiple) in Rigidax through the use of a baseplate
and damming box. The cast parts are then machined as required. Following the
machining operations, the Rigidax is melted out of the part.
2. Rigidax is cast in the part. Thus the part is converted to a solid to eliminate
chatter and vibration during machining. This is especially useful where it is
necessary to machine workpieces that contain thin fins or flanges.
3. In thin-film clamping, a film of Rigidax is used to clamp small electronic,
ceramic, plastic, honeycomb-core, and nonmagnetic parts in high-production
operations.
Table 2.8 Properties of low-melting bismuth alloys
Alloys Melting temp, °C Range, °C Yield temp, °C Weight, Specific gravity Tensile strength, Elongation ‡ in 50 BHN
kN/m3 at 20°C MPa mm slow loading, %

Eutectics:
128 Tool Design

Cerrolow* 117 42.2 ... 42.2 2.2 8.9 37 1.5 12

Cerrolow* 136 57.8 ... 57.8 2.1 8.8 43 50 14
Cerrobend* 70 ... 70 2.3 9.4 41 200 9.2
Cerrobase* 123.9 ... 123.9 2.6 10.3 44 60–70 10.2
Cerrotru* 138.3 ... 138.3 2.2 8.7 55 200 22
Noneutectics:
Cerrolow*† 61.1–65 63.9 2.4 9.45 34 13.5 11
Cerrosafe*† 71.1–87.8 72.5 2.3 9.4 37 220 9
Cerromatrix*† 103.3–226.7 115.6 2.4 9.5 90 Less than 1 19
Cerrocast*† 138.3–170 150 2.0 8.2 55 200 22

Coefficient of Specific heat‡ Latent of fusion‡ Thermal conductivity‡ Electric conductivity

thermal expansion‡ kCal/kg (solid), cal/(cm2) based on pure
per °C (0.0000 omitted) Liquid Solid (°C) (sec) [Cu = 0.94] Cu, %

25 0.035 0.035 3.33 ... 3.34

23 0.032 0.032 4.44 ... 2.43
22 0.040 0.040 7.88 0.045 4.17
21 0.042 0.03+ 4.00 0.04 1.75
15 0.045 0.045 11.11 0.05 5.00
22 0.040 0.039 3.89 0.045 3.27
24 0.040 0.040 5.56 0.05 4.27
¶ 0.04 0.045 ... ... 2.57
15 0.047 0.047 11.23 0.09 7.77
* Trade mark of Cerro Corporation
† There is no definite w melting point; see the yield temperature
‡ Approximate
¶ At 15.5°C to 54.4°C = 0.000022, at 54.4°C to 103.3°C = 0
Table 2.8 Properties of low-melting bismuth alloys–continued
Resistivity, ohms Maximum loads MPa Safe sustained load, ‡ MPa Volume change,%
30 sec 5 min Liquid to solid Linear growth after solidification

0.5180 ... ... ... –1.4 Less than 0.05

0.7081 ... ... ... –1.35 Less than 0.05
0.4135 69 28 2 –1.7 0.6
0.8825 558,000 28 2 –1.5 0.3
0.3445 103 62 3 +0.77 0.05
0.5282 ... .... ... – 1.7 0.6
0.4037 62 26 2 –2.0‡ 0.3
0.6696 110 69 2 –1.5‡ 0.5
0.2219 103 65 3 +0.5‡ 0‡
‡ Approximate
Toolmaking Practises 129
130 Tool Design

When Rigidax is used for production tooling, it is well to use a handling system
designed to fit the needs of the user. Improper handling can increase the cost of
Rigidax to the extent that its use is prohibitive. Basically, a Rigidax handling system
includes the equipment that will perform the following operations for economical and
efficient handling of the compound:
1. Preheating the part and fixture
2. Melting and dispensing Rigidax
3. Solidifying
4. Melting out and reclaiming
The tool designer or toolmaker should remember that the Rigidax, like other low-
melting tooling materials, is not a cure-all for all tough tooling problems. He should get
in touch with the manufacturer of the tooling material when he has a problem and ask
for his recommendations. His knowledge of the product can often save considerable
time and money. In other words, the designer should check with the manufacturer
before finding by trail-and-error methods that the product will or will not work.

Summary

A designed tool needs to be manufactured. A toolmaker is generally entrusted with

the responsibility of manufacturing the tool, in accordance with specified accuracy
and tolerances. This chapter to familiarises the readers with common toolmaking
practises.
• Machine tools with added features, with high level of accuracy and finish are
used in toolmaking practises.
• Nonconventional machine tools are also from integral part of toolmaking
practises.
• Some of the important tools and machine tools that are used in toolmaking
include: toolmaker’s dial test indicator, sine bars and sine plates, toolmaker’s
buttons, height gauge, toolmakers clamps, edge finder, toomaker’s micro-
scope, grinding machine, boring machine, EDM, etc.

Questions
1. Why is it important for the tool designer to be familiar with the toolroom equip-
ment used by the toolmaker?
2. Why is it important for the tool designer to establish cordial relations with the
toolmaker and other people in the shop?
3. What is the major difference between a dial test indicator and a regular dial
indicator?
4. What is the correct relationship between the swivel contact point and the work-
piece when using a dial test indicator?
5. How is the dial-test-indicator action reversed?
6. What is the major use of the diemaker’s square?
7. What is the advantage of a toolmaker’s clamp compared to a C clamp?
 Toolmaking Practises 131

8. What is the purpose of tapped holes in the sides, ends, and top surfaces of
sine plates?
9. When is it advantageous to use a locating microscope?
10. Explain the principle of the continuous-band file.
11. What is the major advantage of the band filling machine?
12. What should be done when the teeth of a band file clog?
13. What is the major advantage of the reciprocating filling machine?
14. How a angular relief angles of dies filed on the reciprocating filling machine?
15. Why are clamps or fixtures not necessary to hold the work on a contour band
sawing machine?
16. How is internal contour saving accomplished on the contour sawing machine?
17. What prevents uneven wear on the grinding wheel of a profile grinder?
18. What two manufactured abrasives are used in abrasive sticks?
19. What is an India oilstone?
20. When is the India stone used?
21. What is the major characteristic of silicon carbide abrasive? When is it used?
22. What is an Arkansas stone?
23. When are Arkanas stones used?
24. How are abrasive sticks or stones prevented from glazing?
25. What are diesinkers riffler files?
26. What is the problem when fine-cut files seem to load too fast?
27. What is the major advantage of pneumatic hand grinders over electrically
driven models?
28. What is a reciprocating handpiece used on flexible-shaft grinders?
29. What materials are used in the manufacture of rotary files?
30. What is the difference between a rotary file and a burr?
31. What determines the safe operating speed for mounted wheels?
32. How are mounted wheels dressed?
33. What are rubberised abrasive points?
34. What is the advantage of rubberised abrasive points?
35. What is the advantage of the square type of abrasive-cloth rotary pad?
36. When are felt bobs used?
37. What type of abrasive, used with felt bobs, is best for fine microfinishing?
38. When polishing with bobs, why is it important to use a series of bobs charged
with successively smaller grain size?
39. Why should threaded tool components that are to be heat-treated be made
from an oil-hard or air-hard tool steel?
40. What should the minimum length of thread engagement when attaching tool
components?
41. Why should a hole that is to be tapped be relieved by countersinking before
tapping?
42. How is heat-treat scale removed from tapped holes?
43. What is a dowel-pin reamer?
132 Tool Design

44. What is the tolerance size of standard commercial dowels?

45. Why should dowel holes extend through both tool components?
46. How are undersize dowel holes finished after heat treatment?
47. Why should the lap always be longer than the hole depth?
48. What machining process is considered the best for producing dowel holes in
hardened components?
49. What is the major disadvantage in using toolmaker’s buttons for precision hole
location?
50. How is final checking done to determine whether a punch is in the correct rela-
tion to a mating die?
51. How does the cutting of soft paper indicate that a punch and die are correctly
aligned?
52. What is transition error?
53. What are the major differences between the vertical-spindle milling machine
and the jig-boring machine?
54. How is the grinding spindle of a jig grinder powered?
55. Why can greater accuracy be obtained with jig grinding compared to jig
boring?
56. What is the disadvantage of converting a vertical milling machine to a jig borer
by adding an accurate measuring system?
57. What is a compensating lead screw?
58. What is the rectangular coordinate system of a jig borer?
59. What is polar-co-ordinate dimensioning?
60. Why is it generally necessary to support workpiece to be jig-bored on
parallels?
61. Why is it important to clamp directly over a supported area of the workpiece?
62. Why are brass heel rests used on jig-borer setups?
63. What two methods are used to align the edge of the workpiece with the
jig-borer table travel?
64. What precautions should be taken to ensure that the table and ways of the
jig borer wear evenly?
65. When it is necessary to reapproach a dial setting, why is it important to back
away from the setting by several thousandths and then make the setting from
the same direction that the original setting was made?
66. How is edge pickup with a slot-type edge finder checked?
67. What is the purpose of the spotting tool shown in Fig. 2.87?
68. What type of tool should be used for rapid enlargement of a hole produced on
the jig borer?
69. When are end reamers used on the jig borer? Why?
70. Why are end reamers held in precision collets rather than drill chucks?
71. What is the advantage and disadvantage of swivel-block single-point boring
chuck?
72. What is the advantage of using the indicating hole gauge shown in
Fig. 2.101?
 Toolmaking Practises 133

73. Carefully read and understand the steps given in the discussion of general
operating practises of the jig borer.
74. Why should chips not be allowed to pass through the drill bushing?
75. What is the recommended clearance between the drill bushing and the work-
piece for cast iron and steel?
76. Why are the slip renewable bushings used for reaming longer than the bush-
ings for the drilling operation?
77. What is the result when too much interference is provided on the jig-plate hole
into which a drill bushing is pressed?
78. Read and understand the recommendations given by The American Drill
Bushing Company for the installation of drill bushings.
79. What are file guide?
80. What is the main feature of a rotary cross-slide milling head?
81. What is meant by shearing in a punch?
82. What is electrodischarge machining?
83. Why is it sometimes necessary to use as many as five electrodes when using
EDM to machine and finish a detailed mould cavity?
84. What electrode material is generally used in the EDM process?
85. How is it possible to maintain dies after heat treatment with EDM?
86. Why is it necessary to order a special die set when producing dies by the EDM
process?
87. How is die clearance produced when machining with EDM?
88. When is EDM especially well suited for machining mold cavities?
89. Why is a master pattern to produce EDM electrodes for cavity operations a
necessity?
90. What is the advantage of cast electrode?
91. What material is generally used for cast electrodes? Why?
92. Why is it necessary to apply pressure to a cast electrode as it cools?
93. What machining operation must be performed on cast electrodes before they
can be used?
94. Where are dielectric holes generally located?
95. How can the life of zinc-tin electrode be increased?
96. What is meant by a 180° depth-control tracer?
97. What is a 360° profiling tracer unit?
98. What is a three-dimensional duplicating or tracing machine?
99. Why is it generally necessary to make the diameter of the stylus slightly larger
than the diameter of the cutter?
100. What determines the diameter and shape of the tracer cutter?
101. What is the main difference between a pantomill and a tracer or duplicating
mill?
102. Why do pantomills generally work from an oversize master?
103. What are the unique characteristics of bismuth alloys?
134 Tool Design

References
Books
• Breding, H W: “Tooling Methods and Ideas,” The Industrial Press, New York, 1967.
• Cincinnati Milling Machine Company: “A Treatise on Milling and Milling Machines,” Cincinnati,
Ohio, 1951.
• Connell, R S: “Jig Boring,” The Industrial Press, New York, 1965.
• Glanvil, A B and E N Denton: “Injection-mould Design Fundamentals,” The Industrial Press,
New York, 1965.
• Moore, R F: “Holes, Contours, and Surfaces,” The Moore Special Tool Company, Bridgeport,
Conn., 1963.
• Ostergaard, E: “Basic Diemaking,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1963.
—: “Advanced Diemaking,” McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
 TOOLING MATERIALS AND
HEAT TREATMENT
3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The tool designer is required to select materials for a variety of products, such as
cutting tools, jigs, punches, dies, special machines, and so on. He must have a work-
ing knowledge of these materials and understand their properties and physical treat-
ments. In addition, he must consider the various aspects of tooling, material cost,
fabrication, manufacturing methods, and the proper functioning of the product.
Since the purpose of this chapter is to acquaint the beginning tool designer with tool-
ing materials, it will therefore be limited to these materials. The tool designer should
have a knowledge of other industrial materials, but they are beyond the scope of this
text.
The selection of the proper tooling materials is not a simple undertaking, as there is
no standard set of rules to follow. There are dozens of textbooks, technical publica-
tions, charts, catalogs, etc., dealing with tooling materials, and the tool designer may
translate the information given by these sources to the requirements of his particu-
lar tool-design problem. Many a times, however, this information may not match his
particular job. He is forced to rely on past experience and fundamental knowledge of
tooling materials.
There is a certain amount of trial and error in this approach, and the number of fail-
ures may be quite high, especially when dealing with new tooling materials. The tool
designer should not go overboard with all new materials that appear on the market,
but on the other hand he should not be so conservative that he misses the new and
better materials. The proper course lies between these two extremes. Past experience
and basic knowledge enable the tool designer to make use of the tried and depend-
able tooling materials and at the same time give him a rough idea of the capabilities
of new materials. The discussion in this chapter will help the tool designer acquire
a fundamental knowledge of common tooling materials. Experience can come only
through years of active work as a tool designer.

3.2 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Strength The strength of a material is its ability to resist the action of external loads
or forces. This is the property which prevents the tool from breaking or experiencing
undue distortion under legitimate loads. The loads may be steady, varying, or revers-
ing in definite cycles, and they may be applied in such a manner as to rupture, crush,
or cut the material. Different materials have different abilities to resist different loads
or forces, and there is no simple relationship between various factors.
The tensile strength of a material is the ratio of the maximum tensile load to the
original cross-sectional area of the material. Stated another way, tensile strength is
the amount of smoothly applied pull force per cross-sectional area that a material will
136 Tool Design

withstand before it breaks. Tensile strength is important to the tool designer in the
design of large fixtures, such as those found in the aircraft industry.
The shear strength of a material is the load in Newtons per cross-sectional area
required to produce fracture in the plane of the cross section, the conditions of loading
being such that the directions of force and resistance are parallel and opposite. Shear
strength is important to the tool designer when designing torsion loads, as rupture due
to torsion is of a shearing nature. Knowing the shear strengths of various materials is
also necessary in die design, as they enable the designer to calculate the amount of
force necessary to blank or punch the part.
The compressive strength of a material is the maximum load in Newtons per cross-
sectional area a material can withstand without failure when subjected to compres-
sion. Compressive strength is of importance to the tool designer when using hard-
ened tool steels as a tooling material.
Table 3.1 shows values for tensile, compression, and shear strengths of various
metals.

Plasticity Plasticity is the ability of a material to deform without breaking. The mate-
rial will flow under a load before it ruptures. Some materials will flow to a greater
extent under compressive forces, while others will flow better under tensile forces.
The plastic flow exhibited by a material under compressive forces is known as mal-
leability, while the plastic flow of materials under tensile forces is known as ductility.
Malleability is the property which allows a metal to be rolled into thin sheets, and duc-
tility is the property which allows a metal to be drawn into a smaller-diameter wire.

Elasticity and stiffness Elasticity is the ability of a material to recover its original
size and shape after it has been deformed, and stiffness is the ability of a material to
resist elastic deflection. The modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) is a measure of
stiffness, as stiffness is proportional to the modulus of elasticity for identical shapes.
The property of stiffness is important to the tool designer, as the tools he is required
to design usually perform better with the least amount of deflection. This is especially
true when designing tools and parts with long overhang.

Elastic limit The elastic limit of a material is the maximum load per unit area
expressed in N/m2 that can be applied without producing permanent deformation.
Thus, if a metal is acted upon by an external force, it changes shape elastically until
the force reaches the elastic limit of the metal, and then it deforms permanently.

Toughness Toughness is the property of a material that enables it to absorb energy

and deform plastically before failure. Stated another way, toughness is the resistance
of a metal to start permanent deformation plus the resistance the metal has to fail-
ure after permanent deformation starts. A tough material is one that can withstand
heavy loads, suddenly or slowly applied, continuously or often applied, and one that
will deform before failure. There is a definite relationship between the toughness of
a material and its ability to resist shock loads or sudden blows. This characteristic is
called impact strength. The Charpy or Izod notched-bar tests are used to measure the
relative toughness of materials.
Table 3.1 Strength of materials (Stress in MPa)
Metal and alloys Tension, ultimate Elastic limit Compression Bending, Shearing, Modulus of Elongation, %
ultimate ultimate ultimate elasticity × 10–5
Aluminium, cast 103 45 83 ...... 83 758 1–2
Aluminium bars, sheets 165–193 83-97
Aluminium wire, hard 207–448 110-207
Annealed 138–241 97
Aluminium 2–7% 276–345 172
Ni, Cu, Fe, etc.
Aluminium bronze, 517 276 827 ...... ... ... 20
1
5% to 7__% Al.
2
10% Al. 586–689 414
Brass, 17% Zn 225 57 ... 160 .... .... 26.7
23% Zn .... 52 290 3154 .... .... 35.8
30% Zn 194 59 ... 9185 .... .... 20.7
39% Zn 283 120 517 269 ... .... 20.7
50% Zn 214 123 807 5231 ... ... 5.0
Cast, common 124–165 41 207 138 `248 620 22
Brass wire, hard 552
Annealed 345 110 .... .... .... 965
Bronze, 8% Sn 196 131 290 301 .... 689 5.5
13% Sn 203 138 365 238 .... .... 3.3
20% Sn 228 .... 538 391 .... .... 0.04
24% Sn 152 152 786 221
30% Sn 39 39 1013 83
Gunmetal, 9 Cu, 1 Sn 172–379 69 .... ..... 689
Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 137

Contd...
Contd...
Metal and alloys Tension, ultimate Elastic limit Compression Bending, Shearing, Modulus of Elongation, %
ultimate ultimate ultimate elasticity × 10–5
Manganese,* cast 414 207 862 358
Rolled 689 552
138 Tool Design

Phosphorous ‡ cast 345 165

Wire 689
Silicon, cast, 3% Si 379
5% Si 517
Wire 745
Tobin ++ cast 455
Rolled 552 276 .... ..... ....... 310 35
Cold-rolled 689
Copper, cast 172 41 276 152 202 689
Copper plates, rods, 221–241 69 221
bolts
Copper wire, hard 379–448 ..... .... ..... ...... 1241
Annealed 248 69 .... ..... ..... 1034
Delta meta, ¶ cast 310 .... ..... ..... ...... .... 10
Bars 586
Plates 469 .... .... ..... ..... 1149 17
Wire 689
German silver, 282 130 ..... ...... ..... ..... 28.5
17.2% Zn, 21.1% Ni 138 28 ..... ..... ..... 552 25
Gold, cast
Copper, 5 Au, 1 Cu 345
God wire 207
Iron, cast, common 103–124 41 552 207 124-138 827
Contd...
Metal and alloys Tension, ultimate Elastic limit Compression Bending, Shearing, Modulus of Elongation, %
–5
ultimate ultimate ultimate elasticity × 10

Gray 124–165 .... 172–228

Malleable 186–241 103–138 317 207 276
5
__
Wrought, shapes 331 179 Tensile Tensile Tensile 1930
6
5
__
Bars 345 186 Tensile Tensile Tensile 1930
6
Wire, unannealed 552 ..... ..... ..... ..... 1034
Annealed 414 186 ..... .... ..... 1724
Lead, cast 12 ..... ..... ..... .... 69
Pipe, wire 15–17 ..... ..... ..... .... 69
Rolled sheets 23 ..... 49 .... .... 152
Platinum wire, unannealed 365 ..... .... .... .... 1682 18
Annealed 221 ..... .... .... .... .... 50
Silver, rolled 276
1
__ 3
__
Steel, boiler plates, § firebox 379–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 27.3-23.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Flange plates 358–427 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 28.8-24.2
2 4
3
__
Casting, § soft 414 186 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 22.0
4
3
__
Medium 483 217 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 18.0
4
3
Hard 552 248 Tensile Tensile __ tensile 1999 15.0
4
Reinforcing bars, § plain,
3
__
structural grade 379–483 228 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 25.4–20.0
4
3
__
Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 139

Intermediate 483–586 276 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 18.6–15.3

4
Contd...
Metal and alloys Tension, ultimate Elastic limit Compression Bending, Shearing, Modulus of Elongation, %
ultimate ultimate ultimate elasticity × 10–5
3
__
Hard 552 345 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 15.0
4
140 Tool Design

3
__
Deformed, structural grade 379-483 228 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 22.7–17.9
4
3
__
Intermediate 483–586 276 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 16.1–13.2
4
3
__
Hard 552 345 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 12.5
4
3
__
Cold-twisted ... 379 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 5.0
4
1
__ 3
__
Rivets, § boilers 310–379 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 33.3–27.3
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Bridges 317–386 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 32.6–26.8
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Buildings 317–386 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 30.4–25.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Cars 331–480 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 30.0–23.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Ships 379–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 27.3–23.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Shapes, bridges 379–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 27.3–23.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Buildings 379–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 25.4–21.5
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Cars 345–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 30.0–23.0
2 4
1
__ 3
__
Locomotives 379–448 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 27.3–23.0
2 4
Contd...
Metal and alloys Tension, ultimate Elastic limit Compression Bending, Shearing, Modulus of Elongation, %
ultimate ultimate ultimate elasticity × 10–5
1
__ 3
__
Ships 450–467 tensile Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 25.9–22.1
2 4
Steel alloys, nickel, § 3.25%
3
__
N, Shapes, plates bars 586–689 345 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 17.6-15.0
4
3
__
Rivets 483–552 310 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 21.4-18.8
4
3
__
I bars, unannealed 655–758 379 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 15.8-13.6
4
3
__
Annealed 620–724 358 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 20.0
4
3
__
Copper, 0.50% Cu 414–467 255-262 Tensile Tensile tensile 1999 29.0-23.0
4
Steel springs, 448–758 276-483
untempered
Steel wire, 827 414
unannealed
Annealed 552 276
Bridge cable 1379 655
Tin, cast 24–32 10–12 41 28 .... 276
Antimony, 10 Sn, 1 Sb 76
Zinc, cast 28–41 28 24 48 .... 896
Rolled sheets 48–110
* 10% Sn, 2% Mn
† 9% Sn, 1% P
1 1
‡ 38% Zn, 1__ % Sn, __% Pb
2 3
¶ 55-60% Cu,, 38-40% Zn, 2-4% Fe, 1-2% Sn
Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 141

§ See specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials

SORUCE: The Watson-Stillman Co.
142 Tool Design

Hardness The ability of a material to resist penetration, scratching, abrasion, or

cutting is known as hardness. Hardness is the property of a metal which gives it the
ability to resist being permanently deformed when a load is applied. Generally speak-
ing, greater the hardness, more will be the resistance to deformation. In the design
of cutting tools, the term red hardness is used to denote ability of the tool to cut at
speeds and feeds that will heat the cutting edge to a temperature approaching red
heat (540°C).
The most widely used method of determining hardness in toolmaking is the Rockwell
test, although the Brinell test may be used in hardness testing of soft materials or
soft materials with a rough surface finish. Rockwell values can be converted to Brinell
values by using Table 3.2.

Table 3.2 Approximate steel-hardness conversion numbers based on rockwell

hardness
Rockwell Brinell
C scale, B scale, Hardness Diam. Vickers Shore Tensile
150 kg, 100 kg, no. 3000 kg sclero- strength,
120° cone 1
___ in. ball 10-mm ball scope MPa
16

68 .... .... .... 940 97

67 .... .... .... 900 95
66 .... .... .... 865 92
65 .... 739 .... 832 91
64 .... 722 2.28 800 88
63 .... 705 2.31 772 87
62 .... 688 2.33 746 85
61 .... 670 2.36 746 83
60 .... 654 2.40 697 81 ....
59 .... 634 2.43 674 80 2247
58 .... 615 2.47 653 78 2172
57 .... 595 2.51 633 76 2103
56 .... 577 2.55 613 75 2034
55 .... 560 2.58 595 74 1979
54 .... 543 2.63 577 72 1917
53 .... 525 2.67 560 71 1855
52 .... 512 2.71 544 69 1806
51 .... 496 2.75 528 98 1744
50 .... 481 2.79 513 67 1689
49 .... 469 2.83 498 66 1648
48 .... 455 2.87 484 64 1599
47 .... 443 2.91 471 63 1551
46 .... 432 2.94 458 62 1510
45 .... 421 2.98 446 60 1462
44 .... 409 3.02 434 58 1420
43 .... 400 3.05 423 57 1386
42 .... 390 3.09 412 56 1351
41 .... 381 3.12 402 55 1317
Contd...
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 143

Contd...

Rockwell Brinell
C scale, B scale, Hardness Diam. Vickers Shore Tensile
150 kg, 100 kg, no. 3000 kg sclero- strength,
120° cone 1
___ 10-mm ball scope MPa
in. ball
16
40 .... 371 3.16 392 54 1282
39 .... 362 3.19 382 52 1248
38 .... 353 3.24 372 51 1213
37 .... 344 3.28 363 50 1186
36 109* 336 3.32 354 49 1158
35 .... 327 3.37 345 48 1124
34 108* 319 3.41 336 47 1096
33 .... 3011 3.45 327 46 1062
32 107* 301 3.51 318 44 1034
31 106* 294 3.54 310 43 1007
30 ..... 286 3.59 302 42 979
29 .... 279 3.63 294 41 951
28 104* 271 3.69 286 41 924
27 103* 264 3.74 279 40 903
26 ..... 258 3.78 272 38 876
25 ..... 253 3.81 266 38 855
24 101* 247 3.84 260 37 834
23 100 243 3.88 254 36 814
22 99 237 3.93 248 35 793
21 ..... 231 3.98 243 35 779
20 98 226 4.02 238 34 758
18* 97 219 4.09 230 33 731
16* 95 212 4.15 222 32 703
14* 94 203 4.24 213 31 676
12* 92 194 4.33 204 29 648
10* 91 187 4.42 196 28 620
8* 90 179 4.51 188 27 600
6* 87 171 4.58 180 26 579
4* 85 165 4.67 173 25 552
2* 83 158 4.77 166 24 531
0* 82 152 4.84 160 24 517
*Values are beyond normal range; given for information only
SOURCE: “Ryerson Stock List,” Joseph T. Ryerson and son, Inc., by permission

Machinability The machinability of a material is its adaptability to cutting.

Machinability depends on the hardness and toughness of a material, as well as the
cutting speed, the kind and quality of tool used, cutting-tool angles, the kind and
quality of coolant, the rigidity of the machine, and the rigidity of the tool support. The
standard for machinability is B1112 screw stock rated at 100 per cent. In making a
test, cutting tools of uniform shape, analysis, and heat treatment are used, and com-
parisons are made between the machinability of B1112 screw stock and the tested
material.
144 Tool Design

Since the mechanical properties of tool steel make it difficult to machine, probably at
best the machinability rating would be 30 per cent that of B1112 screw stock. This low
rating requires that the machinability of tool steels be based on W1 water-hardening
tool steel at an arbitrary rating of 100. Table 3.3 gives machinability ratings of tool
steel based on this system.

Table 3.3 Machinability ratings of tool steels water-hardening grades rated at 100
Tool-steel group Machinability rating

W 100
S 85
O 90
A 85
D 40–50
H (Cr) 75
H (W or Mo) 50–60
T 40–55
M 45–60
L 90
F 75
P 75–100
SOURCE: (ASM, “Metals Handbook,” 8th ed., vol. 1, 1961, by permission.

Endurance limit Many tool parts, such as punches and milling cutters, are sub-
jected to a loading cycle in which the stress is not steady but is varying or reversing.
If a large number of cycles are endured during the life of the tool, it may fail although
the greatest stress imposed may be much lower than the yield point of the material.
This type of failure, in which a progressive fracture such as a crack spreads under
repeated cycles of stress, is known as fatigue. Resistance to fatigue depends largely
on the shape of the part, the condition of the surface, and the presence of salt water,
acids, or other corrosive elements. Abrupt changes of section, notches, holes, sharp
corners, and shoulders in a machine part all reduce its ability to resist fatigue, as do
toolmarks, scratches, quenching cracks, and similar defects. But if all these “stress
raisers” are avoided and a specimen of the material is subjected to a complete rever-
sal of stress for more than 107 cycles without failure, the maximum stress endured is
called the endurance limit.

Cost Although cost is not a property of materials, it must be considered in the selec-
tion of material. Prices are constantly changing, and the relative price or availability
of different materials varies from day to day. It is an important part of the designer’s
job to keep up to date in order to make wise choices at the start of a design. Last-
minute changes and corrections cost the company money, and while the designer is
not the final authority on costs, he can do much towards the smooth processing of an
engineering project by making wise choices. Each choice should be made on then
merits of each case, and careful consideration should be given to all the properties
and requirements. Rigid rules and formulas have no place here. In some cases, the
cheapest material may prove most expensive in the long run, and in others the perfor-
mance of an expansive material may well justify the extra expenditure.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 145

3.3 FERROUS TOOLING MATERIALS

3.3.1 Tool Steels
Technically any steel used as a component part of a tool could be called a tool steel.
This is a vague definition, as almost any steel could be used for certain parts of a tool.
To be more specific, a steel containing alloying elements that enable it be heat treated
to obtain desirable characteristics such as strength, hardness, toughness, and wear
resistance could be referred to as a tool steel. This definition is still rather general, as
several grades of standard alloy constructional steel are capable of being heat treated
to obtain the above characteristics.
The term tool steel as used in present-day industry refers to a group of high-quality,
carefully manufactured steels that are characterised by high hardness and resistance
to abrasion. Certain groups of tool steels also have a high resistance to softening at
high temperatures. They are separated from alloyed and heat treatable constructional
steels by precise production and quality-control methods. Tool steels are generally
melted in small-tonnage electric furnaces to ensure the absence of contamination
and obtain more precise control of melting conditions. Tool steels for critical applica-
tions are produced by a vacuum melting process. Rigourous inspection procedures
are employed throughout the manufacture of tool steel. For example, entire bars may
be subjected to magnetic-particle and ultrasonic inspection for surface and internal
defects.
The high price of alloying elements and precise production requirements and qual-
ity control are the reasons for the high cost of tool steels. However, when we stop to
consider that tool steels are made into a complicated tool or die which has required
hundreds of man hours in its manufacture and will produce thousands or even millions
of parts, it is well worth the extra cost.
In the past, tool steels have been classified in several ways. One common method
has been to classify them according to the method of quenching, such as water-
hardening steels, oil-hardening steels, and air-hardening steels. Another method is
to classify them according to alloys, such as carbon tool steels and alloy tool steels.
Still another method has been to classify them according to applications such shock-
resisting steels, cold-work steels, hot-work steels, die-casting die steels, tool and die
steels, etc.
The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) have developed a system of classifying tool steel which groups grades of simi-
lar properties as shown in Table 3.4. This system of classification will be used through-
out this book.

Water-hardening tool steels: group W The water-hardening or carbon steels (group

W) are one of the oldest types of tool steels. They depend primarily upon carbon con-
tent for their heat-treatable properties, with additions of chromium and vanadium.
Chromium is added to increase hardenability and wear resistance, while vanadium
is added to refine the grain for added toughness. Carbon content varies from 0.60 to
1.40 per cent, with approximately 1.0 per cent carbon being most common.
Group W steels are shallow hardening except for small tools under 12 mm in diam-
eter. They will harden with a hard case and tough core and have low resistance to
Table 3.4 Classification and composition of principal types of tool steels
Designation C Mn Si or Ni Cr V W Mo Co

Water-hardening tool steels

W1b 0.60-1.40a ... ... ...
146 Tool Design

W2b 0.60-1.40a ... ... ... 0.25

a
W3 0.60-1.40 ... ... 0.50
W4 0.60-1.40a ... ... 0.25
W5 0.60-1.40a ... ... 0.50
W6 0.60-1.40a ... ... 0.25 0.25
a
W7 0.60-1.40 ... ... 0.50 0.20
Shock-resisting tool steels
S1b 0.50 ... ... 1.50 ... 2.50
S2 0.50 ... 1.00 Si ... ... ... 0.50
S3 0.50 ... ... 0.75 ... 1.00
S4 0.50 0.80 2.00 Si
S5b 0.50 0.80 2.00 Si ... ... ... 0.40
Oil-hardening cold-work tool steels
O1b 0.90 1.00 ... 0.50 .... 0.50
O2 0.90 1.60

06 1.45 ... 100 Si ... .... 0.25

07 1.20 ... ... 0.75 ... 1.75 0.25 opt

Air-hardening medium-alloy cold-work tool steels

b, c
A2 1.00 ... ... 5.00 ... ... 1.00

A4 1.00 2.00 ... 1.00 ... ... 1.00

Contd...
Designation C Mn Si or Ni Cr V W Mo Co

A5 1.00 3.00 ... 1.00 ... ... 1.00

A6 0.70 2.00 ... 1.00 .... ... 1.00

A7 2.25 ... ... 5.25 4.50 ... 1.00

High-carbon high chromium cold-work steels

D1 1.00 ... ... 12.00 ... ... 1.00

D2b, c 1.50 ... ... 12.00 ... ... 1.00

b, c
D3 2.25 ... ... 12.00
b
D4 2.25 ... ... 12.00 ... ... 1.00

D5(b) 1.50 ... ... 12.00 ... ... 1.00 3.00

D6 2.25 ... 1.00 Si 12.00 ... 1.00

c
D7 2.35 ... ... 12.00 4.00 ... 1.00

Chromium hot-work tool steels

H11 0.35 ... ... 5.00 0.40 ... 1.50

H12b 0.35 ... ... 5.00 0.40 ... 1.50

b, c
H13 0.35 ... ... 5.00 1.00 ... 1.50
H14 0.40 ... ... 5.00 ... 5.00
H15 0.40 ... ... 5.00 ... ... 5.00
H16 0.55 ... ... 7.00 ... 7.00
Tungsten hot-work tool steels
Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 147

H20 0.35 ... ... 2.00 ... 9.00

Contd...
Designation C Mn Si or Ni Cr V W Mo Co
b
H21 0.35 ... ... 3.50 ... 9.50
H22 0.35 ... ... 2.00 ... 11.00
H23 0.30 ... ... 12.00 ... 12.00
148 Tool Design

H24 0.45 ... ... 3.00 ... 15.00

H25 0.25 ... ... 4.00 ... 15.00
H26 0.50 ... ... 4.00 1.00 18.00
Molybdenum hot-work tool steels
H41 0.65 ... ... 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.00
H42 0.60 ... ... 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00
H43 0.55 ... ... 4.00 2.00 ... 8.00
Tungsten high-speed tool steels
T1b, c 0.70 ... ... 4.00 1.00 18.00
T2c 0.85 ... ... 4.00 2.00 18.00
T3c 1.05 ... ... 4.00 3.00 18.00
T4 0.75 ... ... 4.00 1.00 18.00 ... 5.00
T5 0.80 ... ... 4.00 2.00 18.00 ... 8.00
T7 0.75 ... ... 4.00 2.00 14.00
T8 0.80 ... ... 4.00 2.00 14.00 ... 5.00
T15c 1.50 ... ... 4.00 5.00 12.00 ... 5.00
Molybdenum high-speed tool steels
M1b, c 0.80 ... ... 4.00 1.00 1.50 8.50
M2b, c 0.85 ... ... 4.00 2.00 6.25 5.00
M3b, c, d 1.00 ... ... 4.00 2.40 6.00 5.00
M4 1.30 ... ... 4.00 4.00 5.50 4.50
Contd...
Designation C Mn Si or Ni Cr V W Mo Co
M6 0.80 ... ... 4.00 1.50 4.00 5.00 12.00
M7 1.00 ... ... 4.00 2.00 1.75 8.75
M10b, c 0.85 ... .... 4.00 2.00 ... 8.00
M15 1.50 ... ... 4.00 5.00 6.50 3.50 5.00
M30 0.80 ... ... 4.00 1.25 2.00 8.00 5.00
M33 0.90 ... ... 3.75 1.15 1.75 9.50 8.25
M34 0.90 ... ... 4.00 2.00 2.00 8.00 8.00
M35 0.80 ... ... 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 5.00
M36 0.80 ... ... 4.00 2.00 6.00 5.00 8.00
Low-alloy special-purpose tool steels
L1 1.00 ... ... 1.25 ...
L2 0.50-1.10(a) ... ... 1.00 0.20
L3 1.00 ... ... 1.50 0.20
L4 1.00 0.60 ... 1.50 0.20
L5 1.00 1.00 ... 1.00 ... ... 0.25
L6 0.70 ... 1.50 Ni 0.75 ... ... 0.25 opt
L7 1.00 0.35 ... 1.40 ... ... 0.40
Carbon-tungsten tool steels
F1 1.00 ... ... ... ... 1.25
F2 1.25 ... ... ... ... 3.50
F3 1.25 ... ... 0.75 ... 3.50
Low-carbon mould steels
P1 0.10 max ...
P2 0.07 max ... 0.50 Ni 1.25 .... .... 0.20
Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 149
Contd...
Designation C Mn Si or Ni Cr V W Mo Co
P3 0.10 max .... 1.25 Ni 0.60
P4 0.07 max .... .... 5.00
P5 0.10 max .... .... 2.25
150 Tool Design

P6 0.10 .... 3.50 Ni 1.50 0.20

P20 0.30 ... ... 0.75 .... .... 0.25
PPT 0.20 1.20 Al 4.00 Ni
Other alloy tool steelse
6G 0.55 0.80 0.25 Si 1.00 0.10 .... 0.45
6F2 0.55 0.75 0.25 Si, 1.00 0.10 opt ... 0.30
1.00 Ni
6F3 0.55 0.60 0.85 Si, 1.00 0.10 opt ... 0.75
1.80 Ni
6F4 0.20 0.70 0.25 Si, ... ... ... 3.35
3.00 Ni
6F5 0.55 1.00 1.00 Si, 0.50 0.10 ... 0.20
6F6 0.50 ... 2.70 Ni 1.50 ... ... 0.20
6F7 0.40 0.35 4.25 Ni 1.50 ... ... 0.75
6H1 0.55 ... ... 4.00 0.85 ... 0.45
6H2 0.55 0.40 1.10 Si 5.00 1.00 ... 1.50
a
Various carbon contents are available in 0.10% ranges.
b
Stocked in almost every warehousing district and made by the majority of tool-steel producers.
c
Available as free-cutting grade.
d
Available with vanadium contents of 2.40 or 3.00%.
e
The designations w of these steels are similar to those used in the 1948 w “Metals Handbook,” expect they were previously written with Roman numerals (V1 F2, etc). Neither
AISI nor SAE has assigned type numbers to these steels.
SOURCE: ASM, “Metals Handbook”, 8th ed., vol. 1, 1961, by permission.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 151

heat softening. They are easy to machine compared to other steels and require rela-
tively simple heat-treating methods. They are suitable for light or medium cold impact
operations such as coining, cold heading, punching, knurling, embossing, and for
wood and metal hand cutting tools. They are probably the best all-round tool steels
under low-temperature working conditions.
The water-hardening tool steel should not be used when the tool has drastic dimen-
sional changes, sharp corners, or holes near the edge of the tool. Tools of this nature
have a tendency to crack during heat treatment because of quenching stresses
caused by uneven cooling and stress concentration points. They should not be used
when high working temperatures will be encountered, as the tool will soften. They
should not be used where distortion during heat treatment would present a problem.
Group W steels have a tendency to warp during quenching.
When the tool is relatively complicated and there is a question whether the tool will
crack during heat treatment, the W group of tool steels should not be used. The added
expense of oil-or air-hardening grades may pay in this situation.

Shock-resisting tool steels: group S These steels are used for stock operations at
normal temperatures and where maximum abrasion resistance is not required. They
contain less carbon and have higher toughness, and hardness is usually below RC60.
They are oil-and water-hardening steels.
The chief alloying elements are silicon, chromium, tungsten, and molybdenum. These
alloys increase hardenability and provide heat and wear resistance. The high-tung-
sten types are characterised by higher heat resistance.

Oil-hardening cold-work steels: group O Group O tool steels are one of the more
important groups in that they are able to overcome some of the difficulties encoun-
tered in the use of water-hardening steels (group W). They lend themselves to safer
hardening and have less dimensional change during heat treatment. They are rel-
atively inexpensive, readily available, have good machinability, good resistance to
decarburisation, and have a high enough carbon content to provide good wear resis-
tance. The depth of hardening is greater than that of water-hard steels, and as a result
they are usually less tough. They do not have high red hardness and therefore must
be used for tools that will operate near room temperature.
These steels have a wide range of applications. Specific examples are blanking,
bending, trimming, coining, shearing and shaping dies, thread-rolling dies, broaches,
knurling tools, gauges, and other application beyond the scope of carbon grades.

Air-hardening cold-work steels: group A Air-hardening tool steels have the advan-
tages of oil-hardening tool steels but to a greater extent. Manganese, chromium,
molybdenum, and vanadium are the chief alloying elements, and their main func-
tion is to promote air-hardening characteristics which result in excellent dimensional
stability. The high carbon content provides good wear resistance, and the high-man-
ganese grades may be hardened at lower temperatures, thus reducing scalling and
further reducing dimensional change. In general, machinability is not as high as in the
water- and oil-hardening grades.
152 Tool Design

The air-hardening grades are applicable to intricate tool shapes such as thread-rolling
dies, long slender broaches, dies with projections, and other applications where resis-
tance to distortion and abrasion is of prime importance.

High-carbon-high-chromium cold-work steels: group D Group D tool steels com-

bine high wear resistance with deep hardening properties. These characteristics are
caused by the high content of chromium and carbon. They have extremely low dimen-
sional change during hardening and have a medium resistance to heat softening.
They are susceptible to edge brittleness, which makes them unsuitable for edge-
cutting tools.
Specific applications for group D steels are wire-drawing dies, master gauges, intri-
cate blanking and piercing dies, and other applications where dimensional stability
and long-wearing properties are important.

Hot-work tool steels: group H The tool steels discussed to this point have from
low to medium resistance to heat softening. Group H tool steels have been alloyed
to withstand high working temperatures for such applications as hot-forging dies, hot-
extrusion dies, hot shears, die-casting dies, and plastic-moulding dies. The main alloy-
ing elements for this group of steels are chromium, molybdenum, and tungsten. The
hot-work tool steels are divided into three groups, depending upon the major alloying
element.

Chromium hot-work tool steels (group H11 to H16) These contain from 5 to 7
per cent chromium and smaller amounts of vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
In addition to good red-hardening properties, they are extremely deep hardening and
have good dimensional stability during hardening.

Tungsten hot-work steels (group H20 to H26) Containing from 9 to18 per cent
tungsten and 2 to 12 per cent chromium these alloys increase in resistance to high-
temperature softening and washing compared to grades H11 to H16. They are, how-
ever, more brittle at working hardness and generally cannot be successfully water
cooled during service.

Molybdenum hot-work steels (group H41 to H43) These contains 5 to 9.5 per cent
molybdenum, 4 per cent chromium, 1.5 to 6.5 per cent tungsten, and smaller amounts
of vanadium. They have properties almost identical to those of the H20 to H26 steels,
their main advantage being a lower initial cost.

High-speed tool steels The high-speed tool steels have a high degree of red
hardness and high abrasion resistance along with a comparable degree of shock
resistance. Their primary use is as a material for cutting tools, although they have
other applications, such as extrusion dies and blanking punches and dies. Their
major alloying elements are tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium, and
in special grades, cobalt is added to give superiority in red hardness and abrasion
resistance. High-speed steels are more difficult to machine and grind because of the
high carbon and alloy content.
The high-speed steels have been divided into tow groups: (i) tungsten high-speed
steels, group T, and (ii) molybdenum high-speed steels, group M. There is little differ-
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 153

ence in the characteristics of the two groups. The main deference is in the initial cost,
group M being approximately 30 per cent less for equivalent grades.
The general-purpose grades of high-speed steel are Y1, M1, M2, and M10. When
the highest possible red hardness is required in a cutting-tool material, a cobalt high-
speed steel such as M6 may be used. However, the cobalt high-speed steels are
higher in cost and are difficult to machine, heat treat, and grind.

Special-purpose tool steels A number of tool steels that do not fall into the basic
tool-steel categories have been divided into the following groups:
Low-alloy special-purpose tool steels, group L These steels are similar to the water-
hardening steel (group W) with the addition of chromium and other elements for
greater wear resistance and hardenability. The L6 grade has additions of nickel for
increased toughness and hardenability. They are used where high wear resistance
and toughness are required, as in bearing, chuck parts, and indexing fingers.
Carbon-tungsten tool steels, group F These water-hardening steels have high wear
resistance because of the high carbon and tungsten content. They are used for high
wear, low temperature, and low-shock applications, as in wire drawing dies, paper-
cutting knives, forming tools, and burnishing tools.
Low-carbon mould steels, group P Group P steel are alloy carburising steels pro-
duced to tool-steel quality. They have a low hardness in the annealed state and are
generally carburised for greater wear resistance after being machined. Their major
application is moulds for injection or compression moulding of plastics.

3.4 CAST IRON

Gray cast iron is sometimes used as the main body of jigs and fixtures. It is some-
times easier to cast a shape than to build it up with several places of steel. Metal may
be placed to better advantage, and as a result the weight of the fixture or jig may be
reduced. The stability and compressive strength of gray cast iron, as well as its ease
of casting, make it suitable for this purpose.
Cast iron is also used in the construction of large forming and drawing dies and as a
material for die-set shoes.

3.5 MILD OR LOW-CARBON STEEL

Low-carbon steels are used extensively by the tool designer. Hot and cold-rolled flats,
cut to size and properly machined, are used as component parts of jigs and fixtures
where wear resistance and maximum strength are not a necessity. Standard struc-
tural shapes are used in construction of frameworks for large jigs and fixtures.
Cold-roller shapes are smoothly and accurately finished and are commonly used for
component part that require little or no machining. Hot-rolled shapes have an oxide
scale and are not finished as accurately as cold-rolled but are lower in cost and there-
fore may be used when extensive machining is necessary. Hot-rolled shapes are
also better suited when the tool is fabricated by welding, as cold-rolled steel has a
greater tendency to warp when heated or machined due to the extra stresses set up
during the cold-rolling operation at the steel kill, which are relieved during heating or
machining.
154 Tool Design

3.6 NONMETALLIC TOOLING MATERIALS

Rubber This material, in the form of a rubber pad, is used in various specialised
forming, drawing, blanking, and bulging operations. It is also used as stripper material
with conventional punches and dies.

Masonite This is a cellulose material that is sometimes used for the construction of
punches and dies in drawing operations on thin gauges of metal. Typical examples
would be form blocks in rubber forming and stretch dies. It can be used for blanking
and punching operation providing steel inserts are used to provide cutting surfaces.
Its advantages lie in its lightweight, ease of working, ease of repair, and the fact that
it does not scratch the finished part.

Densified wood various woods are laminated and impregnated with phenolic resin
and compressed to about 50 per cent of the original thickness of the wood layers.
Dandified woods are used in the construction of forming and drawing dies for soft
materials. They are also used for the die-board components of steel-rule dies.

Plastics The aircraft industry is responsible for the major developments of plastics
as tooling materials, because of short lead time and limited production runs of aircraft
parts.
The advantages of plastics as tooling materials are reduced labour costs, reduced
lead time, ease of tool-design changes, easy revision and repair, inexpensive fabri-
cating equipment, ease of duplicaton, and resistance to moisture, temperature, and
chemicals. The choice between plastics and other conventional tooling materials gen-
erally depends upon the severity of operation and the length of the production run.
The major plastics used in various types of tooling are phenolics, polyesters, ure-
thanes, and epoxies. They are suited for an unlimited number of applications, such
as stretch dies, hydraulic-press dies, draw dies, and duplicator pattern. They can be
laminated with other materials, surface-cast, mass-cast, or used as paste plastic tool-
ing. Chapter 11 is devoted to the subject of plastic tooling.

Oxide cutting tool materials As a tooling material, the application of oxides is gen-
erally limited to cutting tools. It is a relatively new cutting-tool material, having been
brought to public attention in 1955. Many improvements have been made since its
introduction, and for certain machining operations it has distinct advantage. It does,
however, have distinct limitations. As it is one of the newer cutting tools, it will con-
tinue to improve in the future.
At the present time, oxide cutting tools are basically composed of aluminium oxide,
Al2O3. It should be noted that this is the same material used in aluminium oxide grind-
ing wheels. Some are bonded together with metallic binders, while others are fused
together without the use of other elements. They were originally referred to as ceram-
ics, but more recently the term oxides is being used, as it is more descriptive of
the main ingredients. The main characteristics of oxide tools are high compressive
strength, high hot hardness, high abrasive resistance, low heat conductivity, resis-
tance to galling and welding. Compared to cemented carbides, oxides are generally
slightly harder, but they are considerably weaker when exposed to bending and ten-
sion loads. As a result, tools must be designed so that the oxide is loaded in com-
pression along with insert shapes that are geometrically blocky. Oxides can be run
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 155

at much higher speeds than carbides because of their oxidation resistance at high
temperatures. They have been run at 5500 m/min under laboratory conditions, but
speeds of 180 to 500 m/min are typical. When cutting speeds are concerned, oxide
cutting tools begin where cemented carbides leave off.
The low strength of oxide cutting tools is their chief limitation. They are not suitable
for shock loads of interrupted cuts. For this reason, they have not yet been applied
successfully for milling operations. It is not possible to braze inserts successfully to
steel shanks because of their nonwetable properties. This, of course, is an advantage
when cutting metal, as there is a reduced tendency for chips to weld to the tool. Oxide
inserts are held mechanically or by resin bonding. Resin bonding is possible because
of the low heat conductivity of the oxide insert.
Another factor to be considered when using oxides as cutting tools is that machine
tools must have greater power, speed, and must be in excellent working condition.
There can be no slip in the bearings, slides, and driving and feeding mechanisms
of the machine. The tool-and work-holding mechanisms must be rigid and free from
vibration.
The present practical applications of oxide cutting tools are in the machining of cast
iron, carbon, and low-alloy steels; finishing of hard steels (RC60 to 65) at high speeds,
and other highly abrasive nonmetallics.

Diamond Although limited in their application, diamonds as a tooling material

should be mentioned. Diamond powder is used for grinding and polishing, while
whole diamonds are used as turning tools, grinding-wheel dressers, and inserts for
wire-drawing dies.
Industrial diamonds are either natural or man-made. They are considered to be the
hardest known substance. Other characteristics are high abrasion resistance, chemi-
cal inertness, high strength, high heat conductivity, melting point, high modulus of
elasticity, and low compressibility.
Diamonds are used in precision production turning of plastics, precious metals, light
metals, and difficult-to-machine materials. They are used in place of other cutting tool
materials because their hardness and lasting sharp cutting edges reduce deflection
forces and cut through the grain structure of the material. This results in less surface
smear, an exellent surface finish, and extremely close tolerance work. They are gen-
erally used only as finishing tools with light cuts, fine feeds, and high cutting speeds.
Depths of cut may be from 25 to 13 mm, with tolerance of 1.3 mm and closer being
held. The machining speed is usually as high as the machine will operate without
vibration.

3.7 NONFERROUS TOOLING MATERIALS

Sintered carbides The sintered, or cemented, carbides are basically hard carbides
of tungsten, titanium, and tantalum held together with a cobalt binder. Other materials
may be involved, such as chromium and nickel. They are products of powder metal-
lurgy, which fundamentally consist of mixing powder carbides with powder cobalt in
a ball mill, followed by pressing or compacting the mixed powder into the desired
shape. The resulting blank is then presintered to increase the hardness so that it can
156 Tool Design

easily be handled and formed. It is then formed by various machining methods and
final-sintered to complete the process.
Sintered carbides are characterised by high hardness (RA85 to 93), high compres-
sive strength, and high red hardness. They are used for metal cutting more than any
other operation. Cutting speeds and feeds are generally higher than those used with
high-speed steel and cast-alloy cutting –tool materials. For example, steels may be
successfully machined from 30 to 300 m/min.
They are broadly classified in two groups: (i) the strains tungsten carbide grades,
containing tungsten carbide and cobalt along with small amounts of titanium and tan-
talum, and (ii) the steel-cutting grades containing larger amounts of titanium and tan-
talum carbides. The straight tungsten carbide cutting grades are used for machining
cast iron, nonferrous alloys, and nonmetallic materials. The steel-cutting grades are
used for machining steels and steel alloys. The heavy additions of titanium tantalum
prevent the steel chip from causing crate ring (washing out of carbide particles from
behind the cutting edge).
In addition to metal cutting, sintered carbides are used for wire-drawing dies, long-
run blanking dies, mandrels, gauges, wear pads, boring bars, and other applications
where strength, rigidity, and resistance to heat and wear are necessary.

Cast nonferrous alloys Sometimes referred to as cast alloys, these tool materials
are chiefly composed of cobalt, chromium, tungsten, and carbon. They are usually
cast to the desired shape and size, and thus are named cast alloys. High red hard-
ness and abrasion resistance are characteristics of these alloys. They do not have to
be heat treated, as hardness in the as-cast condition is RC60 to 65. The hard grades
are primarily used as cutting tools and are able to withstand cutting speeds twice as
high as employed with high-speed cutting tools. They are weaker and more brittle
than high speed tools but are able to withstand more shock than carbide cutting tools.
The result is that they serve as a cutting material with characteristics intermediate
between high-speed steel and sintered carbides.
Cast alloys are available commercially in a variety of sizes and shapes. They may
be ground with the same wheels used for grinding high-speed steels. Since they are
more costly than high-speed steel, the tools are not made entirely of the alloy materi-
als except in the smaller sizes. Cast-alloy inserts may be brazed, welded, or mechani-
cally attached to mild-steel shanks.
Other applications for cast alloys are burnishing rollers, wear strips, antifriction bear-
ings exposed to high heat, and hard facing of dies and gauges.

Zinc-base alloys These alloys may be used as materials for punches and dies for
short-run production of aluminium sheet up to 1.5 mm thick. The main advantage of
this application is the ease and speed of fabrication. They may be used in the form
of tooling plate or may be cast. Cast tools form well to the desired shape and require
little machining. When used as punch and die materials, zinc-base alloys tend to flow
toward the cut, and in this respect tend to be self-sharpening.

Bismuth alloys The bismuth, or low-melting, alloys are alloys of bismuth, lead, tin,
cadmium, and other matals. They are referred to as low-melting alloys because the
melting points may be below the boiling point of water. High-bismuth alloys expand
when they solidify, which makes them excellent material for duplicating mould detail.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 157

Bismuth alloys are available commercially in a number of compositions, depending

upon the characteristics desired. Specific applications are moulds for duplicating
plaster or plastic patterns, anchoring punches and dies for blanking, chucks for hold-
ing special or engraving and duplicating.

Magnesium The important characteristic of magnesium compared to other materi-

als is its lightweight. For this reason, it is used as structural material for large assem-
bly fixtures in the aircraft industry. The main advantage is that fixtures are easier to
handle. Another advantage is that it does not deflect under its own weight, as many
heavier materials do. It is also easily machined and welded. Its thermal expansion is
almost the same as aluminium, which make it particularly well suited for the aircraft
industry.
Magnesium is also used as tooling plate and facing material for forming blocks.

3.8 HEAT TREATING

The tool designer is usually not responsible for the heat treating of tool steels; how-
ever, he should have a good knowledge of heat-treating capabilities of his company,
as they must be taken into consideration as he designs various types of tools. The only
way to fully understand his company’s heat-trating capabilities is to have a through
understanding of heat-treating processes.
Before beginning the discussion of actual heat-treating practises, it would be well to
define common terms that are associated with the heat treatment of tool steels.

Heat treatment Heat treatment, or heat treating, is a process whereby the physical
properties of a metal are changed by subjecting it to a combination of heating and
cooling. The purpose may be to harden, soften, toughen, stress-relieve, increase
machinability, increase strength, or a combination of these. The degree and rate of
heating and cooling will depend upon the properties desired.

Normalising The purpose of normalising is to put a ferrous material back into a nor-
mal structure after forging, casting, or improper heat treatment. The process results in
grain refinement, homogeneity of the structure, and, in some case, increased machin-
ability. These properties put a steel into a condition that enable it to respond correctly
to further heat treatments.
Normalising is accomplished by heating the steel to approximately 40oC above the
usual hardening temperature and allowing it to cool in still air.

Annealing The purpose of annealing is generally to soften, although the term is

sometimes used when the purpose is to stress relieve. A tool steel may be too hard
to machine as the result of the hammering, rolling, or improper cooling at the mill;
or a tool may have been previously hardened and require annealing for additional
machining.
Annealing for the purpose of softening is accomplished by heating the steel to a tem-
perature slightly above its hardening temperature and cooling slowly in the furnace
or should be carried out to low temperatures. Exact annealing temperatures may be
obtained from the manufacturer of the particular type of tool steel.
158 Tool Design

Spheroidising Carbon steel with a high percentage of carbon (one per cent and
over) may be difficult to machine even though they have been annealed. This is due
to an excess of hard plates of iron carbide. Iron carbide is quite hard, and the cutting
tool is required either to cut through the iron carbide plates or push between them in
order to remove metal. A heat-treating process which will improve the machinability
of a steel in the length of the carbides and process which will improve the machin-
ability of a steel in the length of the carbides and produces a spheroidal or globular
form. This structure is easier to machine, as the tool can get between the carbide
more easily.
Spheroidising is accomplished by prolonged holding at a point just below the lower
critical temperature or by heating and cooling alternatively between temperatures that
are just above and below the lower critical temperature.

Critical Temperature The critical temperature, or critical point, is the temperature

at which various transformations occur in steel occur in steel as it passes through its
critical range. In order for the steel to harden, it muss be heated above this tempera-
ture. The critical temperature varies with the analysis of the steel.

Critical cooling rate The critical cooling rate is the quenching speed needed to
harden a steel.

Hardenability The hardenability of steel is its ability to harden when quenched from
its hardening temperature, as measured by its surface hardness and by the depth of
hardening below the surface. As explained earlier, water-hardening tool steels have
a hard shell and tough core after hardening. This is because they must be quenched
very rapidly in order to reach maximum hardness. The hard shell and tough core
result because the inside cools slower than the outside. Oil-hard steels harden when
cooled more slowly, thus the hardness penetration or hardenability, is greater.

Stress relieving Stress relieving consists of heating the steel to a suitable tempera-
ture, holding it long enough to reduce residual stresses, and following by slow cooling.
For example, if a large amount of metal is machined from a tool, a certain amount of
stress is set up as the result of the machining operation. When heat treated, the tool
may warp because of the strains produced when the stresses are relieved. This can
be prevented by rough machining the tool, giving the tool a stress-relieving heat treat-
ment, and finally machining the tool to finished size.
The stress-relieving temperature is slightly below the critical point of steel. Furnace
cooling is preferred; however, cooling in an insulating material such as lime of ashes
is acceptable.

Stabilising Heat-treated steels have a tendency to change dimensions slightly over

a long period of time. This dimensional change may be very small, but in the case of
very accurate gauges, this change may be detrimental. To combat this slight dimen-
sional change, tools may be artificially aged, or stabilised. This is accomplished by
hardening and tempering the tool and before final lapping the tool is heated in boiling
water, followed by cooling naturally back to room temperature. The tool is then “fro-
zen” in dry ice or suitable deep-freeze equipment and again allowed to return to room
temperature. This cycle of heating and cooling is repeated four or five times. The tool
is then lapped to finish size. Stabilising as described can have the same effect as 10
to 20 years of natural aging.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 159

Hardening Tools are hardened to give them strength and wear resistance. Hardening
is accomplished by heating the tool to above its hardening temperature (supplied by
the manufacturer of the tool steel) and quenching it in the proper medium. Hardening
will be discussed in detail later in this chapter.

Pack hardening Pack hardening is a process whereby the tool to be hardened is

packed in a material to protect it from the atmosphere and prevent scaling and decar-
burisation. This process is often used when a hardening furnace with a controlled
atmosphere is not available. The tools are generally packed in a container with clean
cast-iron chips, and the entire container is placed in the furnace. The pack is then
heated to the hardening temperature. Sometimes a thermocouple is placed in the
pack near the part to determine when the part reaches the hardening temperature.
Cast-iron chips are used because they add little or no carbon to the surface of the
part.

Quenching Quenching is cooling a heated piece of metal. The quenching medium

refers to the substance in which the metal is cooled. Common quenching media are
brine, water, oil, caustic soda in water, molten salts, and still air. Quenching will be
given thorough consideration later in this chapter.

Tempering Tempering, sometimes known as drawing, is a process whereby a cer-

tain degree of hardness is sacrificed to relieve strains and increase toughness. This
is accomplished by reheating the steel after hardening to a temperature much lower
than the hardening heat. The length of time required to draw or temper a tool depends
upon its size and shape.
Tempering may be done in baths of oil, salts, or lead, whose temperatures are pyrom-
eter-controlled. A box-type furnace with controlled temperature may also be used.
The advantage of liquid baths over box-type furnaces is that they heat faster and the
temperature is uniform throughout the bath.
It should be noted that although a tempered tool will lose some of its hardness, the
purpose of tempering is not to decrease hardness. The purpose of tempering is to
decrease internal strains and increase toughness. For instance, in the heat treat-
ment of metal-cutting tools, it would be desirable to have the tool as hard as possible.
However, if the tool was not tempered, the internal strains set-up by hardening could
cause the tool to crack at the slightest shock load. Therefore, they are tempered at a
relatively low heat only relieve strains. Hardened tools that have not been tempered
have been known to crack when left on the bench overnight.
An example of tempering for toughness would be in the heat treatment of pneumatic
tools. Here the tool is exposed to heavy shock loads, and maximum toughness is
desired. Tempering would be performed at a higher temperature than in the heat treat-
ment of the previous cutting tool to give maximum toughness.

Double tempering Higher alloyed tool steels (high-speed and hot-work steels) that
are hardened from high temperatures are double tempered. This is to achieve the
maximum effect of the tempering treatment. These steels retain austenite tin the
quench, and fresh toughen the newly formed martensite formed in the first temper.1
The second temper is usually 25 to 50o lower than the first temper.

1
For a definition of austerite and marterisite, see Sec. 3.9.
160 Tool Design

Decarburisation Decarburisation is the loss of carbon on the surface of ferrous

alloys. This is the result of oxygen reacting with the surface of the metal when it is
hot. Tool steels have a decarburised surface when they are received from suppliers.
This surface is sometimes referred to as bark and must be removed before the steel
is usable as a tooling material. If it is not removed, the tool surface would be soft after
heat treament because of the lack of carbon. Failure to remove bark may also result
in cracking during heat treatment. The process of removing the decarburised surface

Table 3.5 Amount of material to be removed to eliminate decarburized surface of tool

steel*
Dimension of bar, mm Minimum amount to be removed per side, mm

Up to 12.5 0.40
Over 12.5 to 32 0.80
Over 32 to 76 1.6
Over 76 to 127 3.2
Over 127 4.8
*For rectangular sections use the machining allowances shown when the width is less than four time the thick-
ness. when the width is four times the thickness or wider, use double the machining allowances for the thickness
dimension.
SOURCE: Carpenter Steel Company, “Tool Steel Simplified,” 2d ed., 1960, by permission.

by use of a machine tool is called barking. Table 3.5 shows the amout of material to
be removed by matching in order to remove the decarburised surface.
Many tools-steel companies offer prefinished decarburised-free (DCF) flats that do not
require barking to remove the decarburised surface. DCF flats and squares require
little or no preparation before layout. Substantial savings may accrue from the use of
these materials.
Decarburisation is also of concern when hardening finished parts in furnaces that
have no means of controlling the furnace atmosphere. Parts will have a “soft” surface
because of the loss of carbon. The control of decarburisation will be discussed later
in this chapter.

Microstructure Microstructure refers to the structure of polished and etched met-

als as revealed by a microscope. The study of microstructure is called microscopy
or metallography. The microstructure of tool steels depends primarily upon the heat
treatment to which it has been subjected. A trained metallurgist is able to observe
the microstructure of a tool steel and tell whether it has responded properly to heat
treatment.
The various structures of carbon steels are called cementite, ferrite, pearlite, austen-
ite, and martensite. These terms will be explained in Section 3.9. The tool designer
should be familiar with and in trade journals related to his profession.

Preheating Preheating sometimes precedes the regular heat-treating procedure,

especially in the case of higher alloyed tool steels such as high-speed steel. The
purpose is to reduce the thermal shock resulting when a cold tool is placed directly
into a very hot furnace and to arrange the carbides in a more favourable condition for
dissolving at the higher temperature. Reducing thermal shock helps prevent warp-
ing and cracking, Preheating also serves to relieve machining stresses. Preheating
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 161

temperatures vary from 650 to 870oC, depending upon the type of tool steel being
treated.

3.9 APPEARANCE OF CARBON IN STEEL

To better understand heat treatment and what actually causes metal to react to heat
treatment, one needs to know the various constituents of steel as they appear at vari-
ous temperatures. Carbon steel will be used be used as an example, and although the
various tool-steel alloys may react somewhat differently, carbon steel will serve as a
hosts for general understanding.
At room temperatures, carbon in steel occurs as iron carbon (a compound of iron and
carbon, Fe3C which contains 6.67 per cent carbon by weight). It is hard, brittle, has
low tensile strength, and high compressive strength. It is this substance which causes
difficulty in machining high-carbon steels. Low-carbon steels contain iron carbide but
not in such quantity as high-carbon steels. Metallurgists call the iron carbide constitu-
ent cementite.
Along with cementite, there exists in steel a soft substance composed of nearly pure
iron. Metallargists call this substance ferrite. It is the principal constituent of all steels
and the predominant one in low-carbon steels. When the carbon content of steel is
low, very little cementite is formed and the structure will appear very much like pure
iron. As the carbon content increases, more cementite is formed in narrow layers
and areas of cementite and ferrite are called pearlite. Under a microscope, it has the
appearance of mother-of-pearl, from which its name is derived.
As the amount of carbon is increased, the pearlite areas increase and the amount of
ferrite decreases unttil 0.85 per cent carbon is reached. At this point the structure is
all pearlite. When the carbon is higher than 0.65 per cent, and envelope of cementite
surrounds the pearlite and appears a white networks after etching (see Fig. 3.1 for
micrographs showing these constituents).

(a) Annealed 1020 steel (b) Annealed 1040 steel

Fig. 3.1 Micrographs showing the common constituents of carbon steel: (a) annealed
1020 steel (b) annealed 1040 steel (The Carpenter Steel Company)
162 Tool Design

As steel is heated, no significant change takes place in the structure until a tempera-
ture of about 720°C is reached. At this temperature the cementite begins to go into
solid solution with the ferrite. The formation of this solution is similar to that of a solu-
tion of salt in water, except that the cementite and ferrite are both solid. As further
heating takes place, the solid solution grows until all the cementite and ferrite disap-
pear. The iron carbide, instead of being found in pearlite grains, is distributed uni-
formly throughout the entire solution, and any small area analyses the same as any
other. When viewed through a metallurgical microscope, the new structure (the solid
solution) has a bleak appearance similar to that of a pure metal. This new structure is
known to metallurgists as austenite.
The range of temperature within within which the austenite is formed is referred to
as the critical range or transformation range. The limiting temperatures of the ranges
depend upon the amount of carbon in this example or in the composition of the alloy
in tool steel. Lower carbon content, the wider the transformation range will be. Upon
increasing the carbon content, the transformation range will become narrower until
the carbon content reaches 0.83 per cent. At this point the limiting temperatures
merge and become one, and the change to a solid solution will occur at one time. This
temperature is generally given as 723°C.
Further heating above the transformation range causes no other change in steel
except to enlarge the size of the grain. Higher the temperature and longer the steel is
held at this temperature, coarser the grain will become.
If the steel is allowed to cool slowly through the transformation range, the reverse
will take place but at a temperature of about 5° lower. The structure will be the same
as in the beginning, with the exception of the grain size. The maximum temperature
reached above the transformation range determines the final effective grain size. This
point should be remembered, as a tool may be spoiled by heating it too high above
the transformation range during heat treatment. This would result in a very coarse
grain structure that would be detrimental to the tool.
Steel in the solid state is always made up mostly of crystalline grains, but at different
temperatures the internal structure of the crystals is not always the same. This phe-
nomenon is known as allotropy, which means that certain metals may exist in more
than one crystalline structure. For our purposes, it is only necessary to understand
that the crystals of steel exist in one structure above the transformation range and in
an entirely different structure below the transformation range. Transformation in iron
and steel depend upon transitions from one allotropic form to another. Metallurgists
refer to the structure above the transformation range as the gamma structure, while
the structure below the transformation range is know as the alpha structure.
When this change of structure occurs, i.e., from alpha to gamma, certain physical
changes may be observed. If a thermocouple (a high-temperature measuring device)
is placed within a block of steel heated, one will observe a check in the rise of tem-
perature as the steel passes through the transformation range. This would indicate
that a physical change is taking place within the steel, as energy in the form of heat is
being absorbed. Upon slow cooling back through the transformation range, there will
be a rise in temperature, indicating the reverse has taken place.
Another change which can be observed as the steel block goes through the trans-
formation range is the loss of magnetism. A magnet that is attached to the block
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 163

at room temperature drops off when the steel is heated through the transformation
range. Noting the loss of magnetism by use of a permanent magnet has been used
as a method to determine when steel has reached its hardening temperature, but it
is not reliable, as the hardener cannot be sure that the whole body of steel has been
completely transformed.
The third physical change is that of volume. It is commonly known that when a steel
block is heated it will expand evenly in all directions. This change occurs uniformly
with the increase in temperature until the steel reaches the transformation period. As
the steel goes through the transformation period, there is a decrease in volume. This
is due to the rearrangement of the atoms of the individual crystals. This change in
volume has a great effect on warping and cracking during heat treatment.
The effect of slow heating and slow cooling of steel has been discussed. To under-
stand why steel reacts to heat treatment, it will be necessary to consider rapid cooling
of steel.
As previously described, steel in the austenitic condition is a uniform solid solution
existing in crystalline form. If it is suddenly cooled through the transformation range, it
will retain its austentic structure at temperatures much below those at which it would
be retained at a slower cooling rate. This is because insufficient time is allowed for the
iron carbide to diffuse out of the austenite naturally, and the structure cannot revert
back into the original alpha structure that existed below the transformation range.
After cooling to room temperature, the result would be that the iron carbide would
come out of solution in extremely small particles and form a needlelike structure dis-
tributed evenly throughout the alpha iron. This new structure is known as martensite.
It is very hard, brittle, strong and is the constituent of fully hardened steel. The degree
of hardness, strength and brittleness depend upon the carbon content only. Hardness
is due to the extremely fine grain of the alpha structure along with finely divided hard
iron carbide particles dispersed in it.
This phenomenon of hardening during quenching takes place in two stages. The first
occurs when the steel cools rapidly from the austenising temperature to about 205 to
260°C. If the steel is not cooled rapidly enough through this range, softer constituents
will form and the steel will not reach maximum hardness. If the steel has been cooled
fast to about 205 to 260°C, softer constituents will not form and the steel will have to
harden, whether the tool cools further in the cooling bath or is pulled from the bath
and allowed to cool in still air. At this time the tool is relatively soft and can be bent.
Experienced hardeners take advantage of this fact and quickly pull tools from the
quench and straighten them before they begin the final stage of hardening. The trick
is to know when to pull them from the bath.
The second stage or actual hardening takes place at the end of the quenching cycle
and occurs at quite low temperature. These low temperatures can be obtained by
leaving the tool in the quenching bath during the entire quenching cycle or by pulling
the tool from the quenching bath at about at about 260°C and allowing it to cool in air.
This is providing that the tool has cooled fast enough to the 260°C point.
It is therefore necessary to make sure that the tool cools to a point low enough to com-
plete its entire hardening cycle before subjecting it to tempering treatments. Generally,
a tool has completed its hardening cycle when its temperature has dropped below the
boiling point of water.
164 Tool Design

Matensite, in the as-quenched condition,

is generally too brittle for most applica-
tions. This is due to high residual stresses
set up during quenching. It is therefore
necessary to temper the steel, which con-
sists of reheating it to some temperature
below the transformation range.
Reheating below 205°C does not seem
to modify the martensitic structure notice-
ably, but it does provide a great deal of
stress relief. Reheating above 205°C
allows gradual transformation of the mar- Fig. 3.2 Martensite, normal treated struc-
tensitic needlelike structure to a more ture, W1 tool steel (The Carpenter
granular form. Higher the temperature, Steel Company)
larger the granular particles become.
This type of structure is generally referred to as tempered martensite. A micrograph
of martensite is shown in Fig. 3.2.
So far in this discussion of heat-treating operations, the subject of specific tempera-
tures for the various operations has been avoided. This is because each steel has its
own heat-treating temperatures and procedures, which have been determined by its
manufacturer. The manufacturer’s recommendations usually are general in order to
try to cover as many application as possible. This is not to say that the manufacturer’s
recommendations cover all applications.
A person with a great deal of heat-treating experience may have sufficient knowledge
to enable him to depart from the manufacturer’s recommendations. His company
may be large enough to experiment with various types of steels and determine the
best methods and heat-treating temperatures. Smaller companies, however, may not
have the time or capital to experiment and therefore must rely on the manufacturer’s
recommendations.

3.10 FACTORS AFFECTING HEAT TREATING

Each tool-steel manufacturer has spent a great deal of time and money in the develop-
ment of his particular tool steel. Each company usually refers to his tool-steel products
by brand name, and although each brand name falls into various AISI classifications,
this does not mean every tool steel listed under an AISI classification reacts the same
to the same kind of heat treatment. This is another reason for relying on the tool-steel
manufacturer’s recommendations. If the hardener follows the recommendations to the
letter and heat treating fails to produce the required properties, he should immediately
call in the manufacturer’s representative, rather than experiment with different heat-
treatment temperatures and procedures. The manufacturer is better able to cope with
heat-treating problems, as this is his business. If he cannot solve the problem on the
basis of his past experience, he certainly will want to add the new challenge to his
background of experience.
The tool-steel business is highly competitive, and the manufacturer will want his prod-
uct to satisfy the user in every respect. He cannot afford to put a poor product on the
market, as there are too many tool-steel companies that produce high-quality prod-
ucts. The manufacturer can be trusted, in fact, he must be trusted.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 165

Tool-steel companies publish heat-treating guides for their products obtainable free
of change Instructions for heat treating are given for each different type of steel. After
studying the instructions for various steels, it becomes apparent that heat treating
boils down to questions of temperature, time, atmosphere, and cooling rate. The fol-
lowing discussion will be concerned with these questions.

Temperature If the hardening temperature is too low, the tool-steel will not harden
properly or may harden only on the outer portions. On the other hand, if it is too
high, excessive grain growth, scaling, decarburisation, and warping may be the result.
Coarse grain causes brightness, and excessive decarburisation causes soft surface
hardness. Warping due to over heating is caused by excessive hardening strains.
Indication that hardening temperature may have been used are thumbnail cracks,
which are typical of tools with tapered sections, and deep cracks that indications of
too high a hardening temperature.
One indication that too low a hardening temperature has been used is that only the
outer portions of the tool have been heated and therefore only these portions have
gone through the transformation range. This nonuniformity can produce cracks during
quenching. Such cracking is characterised by “shelling off” of corners and edges (see
Figs. 3.3 and 3.4 for examples of improper hardening temperatures).

Fig. 3.3 Tool failures as the result of excessive hardening temperatures

(Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Fig. 3.4 Tool failure as the result of too low a hardening temperature
(Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

Heat-treating instructions usually give a range of hardening temperatures and not just
one temperature. An experienced tool designer may call for the high side of the tem-
perature range when greater hardness penetration is required or the low side when
166 Tool Design

less hardness penetration or resistance to cracking is desired. The low side may also
be used when hardening small, long, thin parts that have a tendency to sag and flow
plastically at the hardening temperature. (This is not to say that they may not have to
have other support.)
Another factor concerning temperature is that the temperature controls heat-treating
equipment should be checked periodically. Faulty controls and indicating equipment
may cause too high or low a temperature without the heat-treater being aware of it.

Time Time in heat treating involves the rate at which the steel is heated to its hard-
ening temperature, the degree of soaking at this temperature, the length of soaking at
the tempering temperature, etc. Time is affected by various factors that will be pointed
out in the following discussion.
There has been considerable discussion about time required to heat tool steel to the
required hardening temperature. In the past, it was considered quite important to heat
the furnace and tool together in order to obtain a slow and uniform part, the reasoning
being that the surface of the steel was believed to reach the hardening temperature
before the inside. This has been proved untrue. According to literature published by
the Carpenter Steel Company, when the entire outside surface of a tool is up to fur-
nace heat, the centre is also up to heat. This is true regardless of mass. Knowledge
of this fact enables the centre as the steel will absorb the heat. It should be noted that
this does not apply to steels which have high hardening temperatures and require
preheating.
Thus, there are two methods used by hardeners whereby tools are heated for harden-
ing. One consists of heating the furnace and tool together, while the other consists
of placing the tool in a hot furnace that has already reached hardening temperature.
It is obvious that heating the tool and a furnace together would be time consuming,
especially in production treating, and therefore placing the tool in a hot furnace has a
definite advantage. The high quality of modern steel will allow this method of heating,
and the hardener need not be hesitant to use it. It may be necessary to heat the tools
and furnace together if the tool has considerable variation in section, as non-uniform
heating in this case could cause cracking.
The question now arises of how long the tool should be soaked after the tool has
reached the hardening temperature. It is desirable to use as short a soaking time as
possible in order to reduce decarburisation and grain growth.
An old rule of thumb has been to soak 1 hr per 25 mm of thickness of tool. Why so
long? If the inside of the tool comes to the same temperature as the outside almost
simultaneosly, certainly the transformation period will take place at about the same
speed. Soaking time need only be long enough to ensure that the entire tool has gone
through the transformation period. The real question is: When does the tool reach
hardening temperature?
Experienced hardeners are able to tell when the tool is up to heat by comparing its
colour with that of the thermocouple in the furnace. Some hardeners claim they can
tell by the “blush” on the tool. Whatever the method, it is recommended the hard-
ener use a soaking time of 5 min per 25 mm of thickness after the tool has reached
hardening temperature. Higher alloyed tool steels containing appreciable amounts of
chromium require longer soaking periods in order to obtain the proper carbide solu-
tion. The rule in this case is to soak at the hardening temperature 20 min plus 5 min
per 25 mm of thickness.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 167

Time is as important in tempering as it is in hardening. When the tool is placed in the

tempering furnace, a certain period is required to reach the tempering temperature
and another period is necessary to provide soaking at the tempering temperature,
as was the case in hardening. Determining when the tool has reached the tempering
temperature is a problem, as there is no easy and practical way. Blacksmiths used
to determine tempering temperatures by oxide colours, but for the most part, this
method has been discontinued in modern toolmaking departments.
The type of tempering equipment will have an effect on the length of time required to
reach the tempering temperature. For example, a tool may reach tempering tempera-
ture in a bath or circulating air furnace in one-half the time it takes the tool to reach
temperature in a quiet hot-air oven.
Manufacturer’s instructions provide the hardener with tempering temperatures to
obtain the desired characteristics of a particular tool. They generally specify the
length of soaking time at the tempering temperature, meaning the tool should be
soaked this length of time after it reaches the tempering temperature. The total time
required to temper the tool is the given soaking time plus the time required to get up
to heat. Table 3.6 and 3.7 will give a general idea of the time needed to reach the
tempering temperature.

Table 3.6 Approximate time to reach drawing temperatures in a hot-air oven without
forced circulation
Drawing temperature °C Time, min per mm of thickness

Cubes or spheres* Long squares Average flat tools*

or cylinders*

149 1.18 2 3.5

204 1 1.8 2.6
260 1 1.6 2.4
371 0.8 1.4 2
482 0.8 1.2 1.6
*A form tool 76 mm diam by about 76 mm long would be “like a sphere.” Since it measures
76 mm thick, it would require about 75 min. to reach 204°C in a hot-air drawing oven without forced circulation.
A reamer would be “like a long cylinder”; and a blanking die measuring 102 × 32 × 204 mm would be an “aver-
age flat.”
SOURCE: Carpenter Steel Company, “Carpenter Matched Tool and Die Steel manual, “permission.

Vent
Atmosphere Before entering into discussion of
furnace atmosphere, it would be well to discuss the
various types of furnaces commonly used for heat
treating tools. Most furnaces for this type of heat
treating are muffle type, semimuffle type, liquid-bath Muffle
furnaces. A muffle furnace basically consists of a
closed refractory retort mounted in the approximate Burners
centre of the outer shell of the furnace. In gas-fired
furnace, combustion gases do not enter the retort
(muffle) but encircle it. The furnace atmosphere is Combustion area
ordinary air unless some means is provided to mod- Fig. 3.5 Cross section of gas-
ify it. Figure 3.5 shows a gas-fired muffle furnace. fired muffle furnace
168 Tool Design

Table 3.7 Approximate times to reach drawing temperatures in a circulating-air oven

or an oil bath
Drawing Times, min per mm of thickness

temperature, °C Cubes or Long squares or Average flat tools*

spheres* cylinders*

149 0.6 0.8 1.18

204 0.6 0.8 1.18
260+ 0.6 0.8 1.18
371 0.6 0.8 1.18
482 0.6 0.8 1.18
*A form tool 76 mm diam by about 76 mm long would be “like a sphere.” Since it measures
76 mm thick, it would require about 204°C, 75 min. to reach in a hot-air drawing oven without forced circulation.
A reamer would be “like a long cylinder”; and a blanking die measuring 102 × 32 × 204 mm would be an “aver-
age flat.”
†Oil baths should not be used above about 260°C.
SOURCE: Carpenter Steel Company, “Carpenter Matched Tool and Die Steel Manual,“ by permission.

Electric furnaces have the characteristics of

a muffle furnace in that heating elements are
placed around this muffle.
The semimuffle furnace consists of a refractory Refractory
hearth supported above the bottom of the outer
shell of the furnace. Gas burners direct the flame Burners
under the hearth, and the combustion products
rise through the space between the plate and
the sidewalls of the furnace and finally through Combustion area
vent holes in the furnace roof. The furnace atmo-
Fig. 3.6 Cross section of gas-fired
sphere consists of the combustion products, but
semimuffle furnace
the tools being heated do not lie in the direct
path of the flame. Figure 3.6 shows a semimuffle furnace.
Liquid-bath, or pot, furnaces consist of a pot containing a molten salt or metal sus-
pended into a refractory-lined furnace. It is usually fired by gas or oil or heated elec-
trically. There is no contamination from the outside atmosphere. Salts may provide
either a neutral or active bath. A neutral salt will heat the tool without any chemical
effects, and an active bath will impregnate the surface of the tools with carbon, nitro-
gen, etc., to give a hard surface.
Generally speaking, there are three types of atmosphere found in heat-treating fur-
naces: (i) neutral, (ii) oxidising, and (iii) reducing. A truly neutral furnace atmosphere
does not affect the composition of the tool being heated and is a term used rather
loosely among hardeners. A truly “neutral” atmosphere is hard to obtain. An oxidising
atmosphere contains an excess of oxygen caused by more air than necessary being
admitted to the fuel mixture (In gas-fired furnaces). A reducing atmosphere is just the
opposite. Not enough air is admitted to the fuel mixture to burn the fuel completely,
and as a result an excess of combustible gases is left in the furnace. Electric furnaces
are naturally oxidising because room air may enter the furnaces, unless some means
is provided to prevent air entry.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 169

It has already been noted that the atmosphere surrounding the tool in a furnace has
a great deal to do with surface condition, along with the duration of heating and the
temperature level maintained. In order to control the atmosphere, many modern heat-
treating furnaces provide an artificial atmosphere whose characteristics produce the
desired results on the heat-treated part. These are known as controlled-atmosphere
furnaces. Some furnace atmospheres are produced which will protect the tool or heat-
treated part from oxidation or scaling, while others are formulated to prevent the addi-
tion of carbon in the surface of the part.
The principle of controlled-atmosphere furnaces is that gases are generated or pro-
duced outside the furnace and then piped into the heating chamber. Features are
incorporated into the furnace design to prevent loss of gas and to minimise have a
means of controlling the moisture content of the atmosphere. Figures 3.7 and 3.8
show one type of controlled-atmosphere furnace.

Fig. 3.7 Controlled-atmosphere box furnaces. Note atmosphere generator partially

hidden by left-hand furnace (Lind berg Hevi-Duty)

Since many tool and die shops still use furnaces that are not equipped with external
atmosphere controls, it would be well to discuss control of scaling and decarburisation
with reference to this type of furnace.
It should be mentioned at this point that the composition of various tool steels may
have a great deal to do with surface condition after heat treatment. Some types tend
to scale or decarburise more than others.
Contrary to common belief, an oxidising atmosphere does not necessarily mean a
decarburised surface. It will scale the surface, but in the case of many tool steels it will
not decarburise the metal underneath. On the other hand, a reducing atmosphere will
170 Tool Design

Fig. 3.8 Air-cooled 500-cfh Hyen endothermic atmosphere generator for use with box
furnaces (Lind berg Hevi-Duty)

not scale the surface, but if a large amount of water vapour is present, decarburisation
will be the result. Water vapour cannot be controlled on a manual furnace; therefore,
if a small amount of scaling is not objectionable, a manually controlled gas furnace
should be adjusted to excess oxygen to do a good hardening job. However, steels with
high hardening temperatures will have to be pack-hardened, as objectionable scaling
will occur at these higher temperatures.
Another method of preventing scaling and decarburisation is a carbon muffle. A muffle
of pure carbon is placed in the furnace, and tools to be heat treated are placed in the
muffle. The muffle generates its own atmosphere from its partial oxidation. This type
serves very well for hardening temperature in the 926 to 1316°C range (see Figs 3.9
and 3.10 for examples of a carbon muffle).

Fig. 3.9 The Sentry Diamond Block carbon muffle (Sentry Company)
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 171

Fig. 3.10 The Sentry Diamond Block carbon muffle in use (Sentry Company)

There are other device available commercially to help prevent scaling and decar-
burisation. One such device is a metal-foil container in which the tool is wrapped; he
whole container is placed in the furnace. The metal-foil container provides a protective
sheath and automatically neutralises the entrapped atmosphere (see Fig. 3.11).

Fig. 3.11 Sen/pak metal-foil containers used to provide protective sheath and automatically
neutralise the entrapped atmosphere (Sentry Company)
172 Tool Design

Cooling rate For a steel to harden it must be cooled fast enough to produce a fully
martensitic structure. The minimum cooling rate that will avoid the formation of softer
constituents other than martensite is known as the critical cooling rate. The critical
cooling rate is primarily determined by the composition of the steel.
The cooling rate determined by the quenching process is known as the actual cool-
ing rate. If the actual cooling rate is faster than the critical cooling rate, martensite
will form and full hardening of the steel will be the result. If the actual cooling rate is
less than the critical cooling rate, full hardening will not result, as softer constituents
(pearlite) will form along with martensite. Thus, it is important that the recommended
quenching medium be used for specific tool steels.
When a tool at hardening temperature is quenched in a liquid medium, the high tem-
perature of the metal will cause the medium to vapourise at the surface of the metal. A
thin film of vapour, sometimes referred to as a vapour blanket, will surround the metal.
Cooling at this stage is relatively slow, as a vapour film is a poor heat conductor. As
the metal cools, the vapour blanket dissipates and allows the medium to come into
contact with the metal. At this point violent boiling will occur, and the cooling rate is
increased. Further cooling reduces the temperature of the metal to the boiling point of
the medium, and thereafter cooling is by conduction through the liquid.
The most common quenching media are brine, water, oil, and air. Other media some-
times used are aqueous solutions of salts, acids, and alkalies. Brine has the fastest
cooling rate, with water, oil, and air following in descending order.
Fresh water is the most convenient of all the media, but it has the disadvantage of
forming a considerable vapour blanket on the surface of the work and vapour pock-
ets in holes and recesses. The result is uneven cooling, soft spots, and high cooling
stresses and may result in cracking of the work. In a still-bath-type quench, the work
should be moved through the medium with a slow up-and –down motion in order to
wipe off as much of the vapour blanket as possible. An even better method is to use
a flush-type quench, where the water is constantly circulated during the quenching
operation.
Brine is generally made by dissolving common rock salt in fresh water. A 5 to 10%
solution is often recommended. The addition of salt inhibits the formation of the vapour
blanket at the metal surface and allows direct contact between the bath and hot metal.
It is for this reason that the quenching process is completed faster in brine than in
fresh water and not because brine dissipates heat faster.
It should be noted that water is a satisfactory quenching medium for most purposes if
it is used as a circulated or flush quench. It is not as satisfactory as brine when used
as a still-bath quench.
The quenching rate of water drops as its temperature rises; therefore, sufficient vol-
ume should be provided to prevent too high a temperature rise. Cooling coils may be
inserted in the quenching tank to keep the medium at a constant temperature. Too low
a temperature may also be detrimental, since some steel are prone to crack in a cold
quench. Generally speaking, the temperature of water for quenching purposes should
be held between 15 and 32°C.
Oil quenching baths give a slower quenching speed than water and produce less
distortion and residual stress. They are well suited for complicated shapes and tool
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 173

steels that are difficult to harden without cracking. Mineral oil are generally used for
quenching because of their availability and lower cost. Vegetable and animal oils have
been used, but are not desirable as they become gummy from the heat of the metal
and produce offensive odours.
A good quenching oil should have a high flash point and a low viscosity. It should
be stable and chemically inactive with hot metal. It should not be used cold, as an
increase in bath temperature decreases the viscosity of the oil and causes a slightly
faster cooling rate. The temperature range recommended for an oil bath is from 38 to
54oC.
When air is used as a quenching medium, cooling depends upon radiation of heat
from the surface. The tool should be supported by means of a wire basket or screen in
order to permit free circulation of air on all sides. The tool should not be placed in cold
drafts. Intricate shapes may require a fan to circulate the air gently on all sides of the
tool, but a direct blast on one side of the tool should be avoided.
The tool being quenched in an oil or aqueous bath should not be dropped into the
bath because if the tool were allowed to rest on the bottom of the tank, one side would
cool faster than the other and could cause warping. Care should be taken not to strike
the tool on the side or bottom of the quench tank. Tools with thin or protruding sections
should be immersed in such a way that the bulkiest parts enter the bath first. Long
slender parts up-and –down agitation of the tool during the quench is preferred to a
swishing around movement, since the vertical movement permits more even cooling.
A heavy oxide scale may act as an insulator and retard the flow of heat from the steel
to the quenching medium. When a heavy scale has been allowed to build up and
minimum by proper hardening practise.
The tongs used to hold the parts for quenching should be designed to hold the part
securely and yet cover as small a portion of the tool as possible. Tongs that cover
large areas of the tool tend to cause uneven cooling. Some hardeners preheat tongs
to a dull red when hardening small part to ensure against locally chilling the part. In
regard to tongs, it is probably more important that they be designed correctly, for it is
quite easy to drop and ruin a part between the furnace and quench tank.
Tools should be tempered immediately after quenching, as residual stresses set-up
during quenching continue to build up and may cause the tool to crack if tempering
is delayed for a considerable length of time. If it is impossible to temper tools imme-
diately after quenching, tools may be held in boiling water, a steam bath, or a warm
bath of quenching oil.
A word of caution at this point. Tools may be tempered too soon. For example, if a
tool is pulled from the quenching bath before the quenching cycle is complete, full
hardening will not result because the actual hardening takes place at the end of the
quenching cycle, as explained earlier. A rule of thumb to follow is to quench the tool
down to a point where it can be held with the bare hands before beginning the temper-
ing operation.

3.11 HEAT TREATMENT AND TOOL DESIGN

Although the tool designer may not be required to perform actual heat-treating opera-
tions, he will design tools that require heat treatment. This section will show that faulty
174 Tool Design

design may cause cracking and distortion during heat treatment and discusses what
can be done in the way of design to prevent these tool failures.
Tools crack during heat treatment because of internal strains which exceed the
strength of the metal. The most serious internal strains develop during the quenching
cycle of hardening treatments and are usually the result of uneven cooling. The shape
of the tool determines the evenness of cooling. Heat storage may be greater in a
heavy section of the tool, and more sides may be exposed to the quenching medium
in other areas, as in the case of outside corners. Therefore, the tool should be shaped
to allow the heating and cooling rates to be as uniform as possible. This may be par-
tially accomplished by avoiding heavy section and sharp inside corners. Light sections
will cool rapidly and harden before adjacent heavy sections, and the result is exces-
sive quenching stresses. This type of trouble can be avoided by designing the tool as
a two-piece assembly or by using an air-hardening steel if a one-piece construction is
necessary. Figure 3.12 shows an example of this type of construction.

6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 3.12 Tool failure during heat treatment as the result of a light section adjacent to a
heavy section (Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

Sharp corners should be avoided in all tool designs, as they greatly concentrate
stresses in one small area. This is true not only in heat treatment but in service as
well. A good rule is to replace sharp corners with the largest filled possible. Many a
times trouble can be avoided by simply rounding inside corners. Keyways are a typical
example, as shown in Fig. 3.13.
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 175

Fig. 3.13 Tool failure through the corner of a keyway (Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

If sharp corners are necessary, an air-hardening steel should be used, since oil-and-
water-hardening steels are susceptible to cracking through sharp corners. Another
alternative is to fabricate the tool with a large fillet and then grind out the fillet after
hardening and tempering.
Holes are another source of trouble, as holes involve section changes which result in
the development of high stresses during heat treatment. This is particularly true when
hardness of the internal surface should be uniformly hard or uniformly soft. Flush
quenching may be required to harden small holes effectively.
Uneven quenching can be avoided in holes by packing them with a suitable material
before hardening, for example, fireclay, steel wool, or asbestos. Steel wool is one of
the best materials for this purpose, as it is easily removed after heat treating.
Blind holes should be avoided whenever possible. They are especially troublesome
if they are required to be uniformly hard. In this case, an air-hardening steel should
be used. Blind holes may be packed with steel wool if they are not required to be
hardened internally.
Threaded holes in a heat-treated tool are also objectionable. The treads act as stress
risers and frequently cause cracking during a liquid quench. Threads should be placed
in the softer components of the tool whenever possible, with a thorough counterbored
hole in the hardened component to accept the cap screws (see Fig. 3.14).

Hardened tool
component
Dowel pins Soft tool
Socket-head component
cap screw

Fig. 3.14 Toll components showing threads in soft component

176 Tool Design

The location of holes and hole spacing in heat-treated tools may have an effect on
stresses during heat treatment. Holes near the edge of the tool or close together
have the same effect as thick sections adjacent to thin sections. A general rule for
hole location is to allow at least one hole diameter between the edge of the tool and
the hole. This distance should be 1.5 times the hole diameter for holes located in
the corners of the tool. Adjacent holes should have at least the thickness of the tool
between them. If the above rules cannot be adhered to, the tool should be made from
an air-hardening steel (see Fig. 3.15).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fig. 3.15 Tool failure during heat treatment because of holes too close to the edge of the
tool (Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

The tool designer should also be aware that fabrication flaws may also result in tool
failure during heat treatment. Deep scratches
and toolmarks may serve as stress concentra-
tion points. Rough holes, drill marks, countersink
marks, and deep centre holes may be sources
of trouble.
Improper grinding of hardened and tempered
tools may result in tool failure. Grinding involves
intense localised heating at the point of abra-
sion, which may set up high surface stresses in
an already stressed tool. The result may be sur-
face cracks, which appear in a network pattern
characteristic of grinding cracks. Careful grind-
ing techniques, such as frequent wheel dress-
ing, effective use of coolant, softer wheel grades,
lighter feeds and depths of cut, coarser grinding
wheels, etc., will prevent grinding cracks (see 1
2 "
Fig. 3.16). 8

The use of steel letters to stamp tooling identifica- Fig. 3.16 Network pattern of
tion on tools which are to be heat-treated should grinding cracks on heat-
be avoided. The stamp marks provide stress ris- treated tool (Bethlehem
ers which cause concentration of stresses in one Steel Corporation)
 Tooling Materials and Heat Treatment 177

area. If identification must be stamped, avoid deep stamp marks. Other methods of
marking should be used when possible (see Fig. 3.17).

Fig. 3.17 Tool failure during heat treatment because of deep stamp or tool-identification
marks (Bethlehem Steel Corporation)

The various types of tool failures which have been discussed take place during heat-
treating operations. If the heat-treating operation could be eliminated, or if heat treat-
ment could be done to a solid block before machining intricate tool shapes, these
failures could be eliminated. This is possible in some cases if machining processes
such as electrodischarge machining or electrochemical machining are available. Tool-
steel companies offer prehardened tool steel in various hardened conditions for this
purpose.

Summary

Tool must be hard, wear resistant, and have very low surface roughness. Conventional
materials do not cater to these needs; as such tooling requires special materials. This
chapter aimed to acquaint the readers with the various available tool materials.
• Tool steels can be used for tooling applications requiring high strength, hardness, toughness,
and wear resistance.
• Water hardening tool steels are recommended for light or medium cold impact operations such
as coining, cold heading, punching, knurling, embossing, etc. The water hardening tool steels
should not be used when tool has drastic dimensional changes.
• Shock resisting tool steels are recommended for pneumatic chisel, heavy duty shear blades,
punches, rivet busters, and similar tools.
• Oil hardening tool steels should be applied for applications such as blanking, bending, trimming,
coining, shearing and shaping dies.
• Air hardening tool steels are applicable for intricate tool shapes such as thread rolling dies, long
slender broaches etc.
• High carbon high chromium cold work tool steels are suitable for wire drawing dies, master
gauges, blanking and piercing dies, etc.
• Hot work tool steels are used for applications such as hot forging dies, hot extrusion dies, hot
shears, die casting dies, and plastic moulding dies.
• High speed tool steel are mainly used for metal cutting applications, although they can also be
used as extrusion dies and blanking punches and dies.
178 Tool Design

• Cast iron can be used as large forming dies and drawing dies and as material for die set
shoes.
• Mild or low carbon steel are also used extensively in tool making. One of the principle applica-
tions of this material is for jigs and fixture.
• Nonmetalic tooling materials include rubber, masonite, densified wood, plastics, oxide cutting
tool materials, diamond, etc.
• Nonferrous tooling materials include sintered carbide, cast nonferrous alloys, bismuth alloys,
magnesium, etc.
• Heat treatment is a process whereby the physical properties of the material can be change
suitably by subjecting it to a combination of heating and cooling. Heat treatment processes are
widely used techniques to achieve the required properties of the tooling material. Various heat
treatment processes includes, normalising, annealing, spheroidising, stress relieving, stabilis-
ing, hardening, pack hardening, quenching, tempering, decarburising, etc.

Questions
1. What type of load is imposed upon the work material during a punching operation?
2. What is a ductile material?
3. Why are the properties of elasticity and stiffness important to the designer of cutting tools?
4. Give an example of a tool designer’s product that must be made of material exhibiting the prop-
erty of toughness.
5. What is meant by red hardness?
6. What is the Rockwell hardness of a metal-cutting file?
7. What tool steels are harder than a metal-cutting file in a heat-treated condition?
8. The machinability rating of B1112 screw stock is 100. The machinability rating of group W tool
steels is also 100. Does this mean the adaptability to cutting is the same for both materials?
Why?
9. What is meant by the term tool steel?
10. What are the major elements in group W tool steels? What effect does each element have on
the group W steels?
11. Are group W steels suitable for hot-work applications? Why?
12. Why do group W steels machined to complicated shapes have a tendency to crack or warp dur-
ing quenching operations?
13. What are the chief alloying elements of group S tool steels?
14. What are the major advantages of group O steels compared to group W steels?
15. What is the major advantage of group A tool steels?
16. What are the characteristic of group D steels?
17. Wh