Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

What is OP-AMP?
Block diagram of OP-AMP
OP-AMP Parameters
Ideal and Practical Characteristics of OP-AMP
Study of IC 741
Concept of Virtual Ground
Applications of OP-AMP
▪ Inverting Amplifier
▪ Non-inverting Amplifier
▪ Summing Amplifier
▪ Subtractor
▪ Comparator

What is OP-AMP?

OP-AMP is a multistage high gain differential amplifier. It is extensively used in signal

conditioning, filtering or to perform mathematical operations (such as addition,
subtraction, integration and differentiation). An Operational Amplifier is basically a
three-terminal device which consists of two high impedance inputs and one output.

Schematic symbol of OP-AMP

Let, the open loop gain of op-amp is

denoted by ‘A’
V1 = Voltage at non-inverting terminal &
V2 = Voltage at inverting terminal

Vid = V1 − V2 ➔ Differential input voltage

Vo = Output Voltage

∴ Vo = A Vid = A (V1 − V2 )

i] when, V1 = 0 ➔ V0 = −𝐴V2
ii] when, V2 = 0 ➔ V0 = 𝐴V1

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Block diagram of OP-AMP

An operational amplifier is a direct-coupled high gain amplifier usually consisting of

one or more differential amplifiers followed by a dc level shifter and output stage [push
pull amplifier]. Since, an op-amp is a multistage amplifier, it can be represented by a
block diagram as shown in figure:

1. Input Stage: The first stage is double ended high gain differential amplifier (i.e., dual
input balanced output differential amplifier). This stage is generally responsible for
most of the gain of op-amp. Also, this stage determines the input resistance of op-amp.

2. Intermediate Stage: The second stage is called as Intermediate stage. This is usually
another differential amplifier. It is driven by output of input stage. This stage is dual
input unbalanced (single ended) output differential amplifier. This stage provides
additional voltage gain to the input signals.

3. Level Shifting Stage: Third stage is called as level shifting stage (or Level Translator).
Usually, an emitter follower circuit is used in order to shift the DC level at the output.
Because of direct coupling between first two stages, the DC level at the output of
intermediate stage is well above ground potential. This increase in DC level limits the
output voltage swing or may distort the output signal. To overcome this problem, Level
shifting stage is used to bring this DC level to a zero volt with respect to ground.

4. Output Stage: The final stage is called output stage. This is normally complementary
push-pull amplifier. This stage increases the output voltage swing and current supplying
capacity of the op-amp. A well-designed output stage also provides low output
resistance.

OP-AMP Parameters:

1. Input Bias Current: The input bias current (IB) is the average of the currents
enter into the two input terminals with the output at zero volts. Typically, the input bias
current is around 80 nA. Ideally, input bias current should be ZERO !

IB1 + IB2
IB =
2

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

2. Input Offset Current: The input offset current is the difference between the two
input currents of the op-amp with the output at zero volts. Typically, the input offset
current for a 741 op-amp is 20 nA.

Ioffset = | IB1 − IB2 |

3. Input Offset Voltage: In the ideal op-amp when both inputs are at zero volts the
output should be zero volts. But, due to imbalances within the device a small amount
of voltage will appear at the output. This extra voltage can be eliminated by giving a
small voltage called Input offset voltage (VOS) to the amplifier. Typically, the input offset
voltage for a 741 op-amp is around 1 mV.

4. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): In OP-AMP, output voltage is

proportional to the difference between the voltages applied to its two input terminals
[Vo = A Vid = A (V1 − V2 )]. When the two input voltages are equal, ideally the output
voltages should be zero. A signal which is applied to both input terminals of the op-amp
is called as Common Mode Signal. Usually, common mode signal is an unwanted noise
voltage.

The ability of an op-amp to suppress common-mode signals is expressed in terms of

its common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential
voltage gain to common-mode voltage gain

Ad Differential voltage gain

CMRR = =
Ac Common Mode voltage gain

In dB it is given by the expression,

Ad
CMRR = 20 log10 ( ) dB
Ac

where, Ad = Differential Voltage Gain and Ac = Common Mode Gain

*High value of CMRR means op-amp has better ability to reject common mode signals
like electrical NOISE. Ideally, CMRR should be infinite !

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

5. Slew Rate (SR): The slew rate is the maximum rate of change in output voltage per
unit of time. The slew rate indicates how fast the output of an op-amp can change in
response to changes in input frequency.

It is expressed in volts per microseconds

and typical value for the slew rate is 0.5
V/μs.

dVout
SR = |
dt max

Ideally, Slew Rate should be ∞

Ideal and Practical characteristics of OP-AMP:

Sr. No. Characteristics Ideal Typical value for IC 741

1. Voltage gain (open loop), A ∞ 2 × 105
2. Input Impedance, Ri ∞ 2 MΩ
3. Output Impedance, Ro 0 75 Ω
4. Bandwidth, BW ∞ 1 MHz
5. Common Mode Rejection Ratio ∞ 90 dB
(CMRR)
6. Slew rate, SR ∞ 0.5 V/µs
7. Input offset voltage 0 1 mV
8. Input offset current 0 20 nA
9. Input bias current 0 80 nA

Study of IC 741

▪ The 741 OP-AMP IC was first

manufactured by Fairchild
semiconductors in the year 1968.
The number 741 itself has no such
meaning
▪ It can be remembered as IC having
7 functional pins, 4 pins capable of
taking input and 1 output pin. The
main intention of this 741 op-amp
is to strengthen AC & DC signals
and for mathematical operations.

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Concept of Virtual Ground

As the name indicates it is virtual, not real ground. In op-amp the term virtual ground
means that the voltage at that particular node is almost equal to ground voltage (0V). It
is not physically connected to ground. This concept is very useful in analysis of op-amp
circuits and it will make a lot of calculations very simple.

We know that an ideal op-amp will provide

infinite voltage gain.

Vout
Gain (A) = =∞
Vin

When gain is infinite, the input voltage Vin

must be zero.

Here, input voltage is nothing but the difference between voltages at inverting and non-
inverting terminals.

Thus, Vin = Vid = V1 − V2

i.e.,
0 = V1 − V2
∴ V1 = V2

“The simple meaning of virtual ground is that the potential at inverting and non-
inverting terminal is always same. If anyone of these two terminals is grounded then the
second terminal will also have ground potential.”

Negative Feedback Amplifier using op-amp:

Open Loop Gain [A] of an operational amplifier can be very high, as much as 1,00,000
or more. However, this very high gain is of no real use to us as it makes the amplifier
both unstable and hard to control !

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

As the open loop DC gain of an operational amplifier is extremely high we can therefore
afford to lose some of this high gain by connecting a suitable resistor from the output
terminal back to the inverting input terminal to both reduce and control the overall
gain of the amplifier. This then produces and effect known commonly as Negative
Feedback, and thus produces a very stable Operational Amplifier based system.

Applications of OP-AMP:

➢ OP-AMP applications can be classified into two types:

1. Linear applications and
2. Non-Linear applications
➢ A circuit is said to be linear, if there exists a linear relationship between its input and
the output. Similarly, a circuit is said to be non-linear, if there exists a non-linear
relationship between its input and output.
➢ In Linear applications, op-amp works in Amplifier mode [Example: Non-inverting &
Inverting amplifier, Voltage Follower, Summing Amplifier, Subtractor etc.]
➢ Whereas, in Non-Linear applications op-amp works in Switching Mode [Example:
Comparator, Zero crossing detector etc.]

Inverting Amplifier:

In the Inverting Amplifier circuit the operational amplifier is connected with feedback
to produce a closed loop operation. When dealing with operational amplifiers there are
two very important rules to
remember about inverting
amplifiers, these are:

1. No current flows into input

terminal
2. V1 always equals V2 [by the
concept of Virtual ground]

By using these two rules we can

derive the equation for
calculating the closed-loop gain
of an inverting amplifier:

Vin − VX VX − Vout
Iin = and IF =
R in RF
Also, we have
Iin = IF

Vin − VX VX − Vout
∴ =
R in RF
∵ X is virtual ground
𝑖. 𝑒. , VX = 0V

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Vin −Vout
=
R in RF

Vout RF
= −( )
Vin R in

RF
∴ Voltage Gain (AV ) = − ( )
R in

This is closed loop gain of op-amp when used in inverting configuration. Negative sign
shows phase shift of 180 degrees between output and input voltages.

Ex: For the inverting amplifier as shown in fig. 𝐑 𝑭 = 20 KΩ, 𝐑 𝐢𝐧 = 10 KΩ and 𝐕𝐢𝐧 =
2V (peak-to-peak). Find output voltage 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 . Draw input output waveforms.

Solution:

We know that the gain of inverting

amplifier is given by,

Vout RF
AV = = −( )
Vin R in
i.e.,

RF 20 KΩ
Vout = − ( ) Vin = − ( ) 2V = −4V (peak to peak)
R in 10 KΩ

Input Output Waveform for the given inverting amplifier is as follows:

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Non-inverting Amplifier:

In this configuration, the input voltage signal, (Vin) is applied directly to the non-
inverting (+) input terminal which means that the output gain of the amplifier becomes
“Positive” in value in contrast to
the “Inverting Amplifier” circuit
whose output gain is negative in
value.

Two important rules to remember

about non-inverting amplifier are:
1. No current flows into input
terminal
2. Vinv always equals to Vnon-inv
[by the concept of Virtual
ground]

Because of this virtual earth node the resistors, RF and Rin form a simple potential
divider network across the non-inverting amplifier as shown below:

By using the formula to calculate the output

voltage of a potential divider network, we
have:
R in
V1 = ( )V
R in + R F out

But Vin = V1

R in
∴ Vin = ( )V
R in + R F out

Vout R in + R F
=( )
Vin R in

Vout RF
𝑖. 𝑒. , = (1 + )
Vin R in

RF
Voltage Gain (AV ) = (1 + )
R in

This is closed loop gain of op-amp when used in non-inverting configuration

Ex: For the non-inverting amplifier 𝐑 𝐟 = 10 KΩ, 𝐑 𝐢𝐧 = 10 KΩ and 𝐕𝐢𝐧 = 2V (peak-to-

peak). Find output voltage 𝐕𝐨𝐮𝐭 . Draw input output waveforms.

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Solution: We know that the gain of non-inverting amplifier is given by,

Vout RF
AV = = (1 + )
Vin R in

RF 10 KΩ
Vout = (1 + ) Vin = (1 + ) 2V = 4V (peak to peak)
R in 10 KΩ

Voltage Follower:

➢ A voltage follower is an electronic

circuit, which produces an output that
follows the input voltage. It is a special
case of non-inverting amplifier. If we
consider the value of feedback
resistor, RF as zero ohms, then a non-
inverting amplifier becomes a voltage
follower.
➢
➢ The circuit diagram of a voltage
follower is shown in the figure.

➢ The output voltage Vo of a voltage follower is equal to its input voltage Vi. Thus,
the gain of a voltage follower is equal to one since, both output voltage Vo and input
voltage Vi of voltage follower are same.

➢ The voltage follower circuit is ideal to serve as buffer (or isolation unit). It is also
used in sample & hold circuit, filters etc.

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Summing Amplifier:

Many applications in electronic circuits require two or more signals to be added or

combined into a single output. The summing amplifier does the exact same thing. For
this reason, summing amplifier is also called as ‘Voltage Adder’ since its output is the
addition of voltages present at its input terminal. The summing amplifier uses an
inverting amplifier configuration i.e. the input is applied to the inverting input terminal
of the op-amp, while the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground. Due to
inverting configuration, the output of Summing amplifier is out of phase with respect
to the input by 180o. Circuit shown in figure below will work as summing amplifier:

By applying KCL we get, Ia + Ib + Ic = IF … since, IB = 0

Va − V2 Vb − V2 Vc − V2 V2 − Vo
+ + =
Ra Rb Rc RF

By the concept of virtual ground we have: V1 = V2 = 0 V

Va Vb Vc Vo
+ + =−
Ra Rb Rc RF

RF RF RF
Vo = − ( Va + Vb + V)
Ra Rb Rc c

when R a = R b = R c = R, equation becomes:

RF
Vo = − (V + Vb + Vc )
R a

This means that the output voltage is equal to the negative sum of all the inputs times
the gain of the circuit; hence, the circuit is called Summing amplifier. When R 𝐹 = R the
gain of circuit will be 1 and the output voltage is equal to the negative sum off all input
voltages. Thus,
Vo = −(Va + Vb + Vc )

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Subtractor:

A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in the figure. Here,
neither input is grounded. A close examination of the circuit reveals that it is a
combination of inverting and non-inverting amplifiers. When Vb is zero, the circuit
appears as an inverting amplifier while when Va is zero the circuit becomes non-
inverting amplifier. Since, the circuit has two inputs Va & Vb , Superposition Theorem
[SPT] will be used to determine the voltage gain of amplifier.

SPT: The output of a linear circuit when multiple independent sources are acting at the
same time is equivalent to the sum of the outputs due to each independent source acting
at a time.

Case[i]: When Vb = 0V, circuit

becomes an inverting amplifier and
thus, output voltage due to input Va
is Voa and it is given by:

RF R
Voa = − ( ) Vinv = − Va = −Va
R in R

Case [ii]: When Va = 0V, the

circuit becomes non-inverting
amplifier having voltage divider
network consisting of two resistors
at the non-inverting terminal.
Therefore,

R Vb
Vnon−inv = Vb =
R+R 2

Thus, output due to input Vb is

Rf
Vob = (1 + )V
R in non−inv

R Vb
Vob = (1 + ) = Vb
R 2
Thus, the net output voltage
Vo = Vob + Voa

Vo = Vb − Va

Thus, the output voltage Vo is equal to the voltage Vb applied to the non-inverting
terminal minus the voltage Va applied to the inverting terminal; hence, the circuit is
called Subtractor.

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Comparator:

A comparator, compares a signal voltage on one input of an op-amp with known voltage
called the reference voltage on the other input. It is an open loop op-amp with the
output may be (+) or (-) saturation voltage, depending upon which input is larger.
Comparators are used in Schmitt trigger, level detectors and oscillators. Figure shows
an op-amp used as a non-inverting comparator.

The diodes D1 & D2 protect the op-amp from

damage due to excessive input voltage Vin .
R1 in series with Vin is used to limit current
through D1 & D2. To reduce offset problems,
a resistance R is connected between
inverting input and reference voltage.

A fixed reference voltage Vref of 1V is applied

to the inverting input and other time varying
signal voltage vin is applied to the non-
inverting input. Because of this arrangement
circuit is also called as Non-inverting Comparator.

When Vin < Vref , the output voltage Vo is at −Vsat (≅ −VEE ). Because, voltage at
inverting input is higher than that of at non-inverting input.

When Vin > Vref , the non-inverting input becomes positive with respect to inverting
input. Thus, Vo = +Vsat (≅ +VCC ). Thus, output changes from one saturation level to
another whenever Vin ≅ Vref .

Following figures show input output waveforms for Non-inverting comparator with
different values of Vref .

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 Unit 02: Operational Amplifier

Important Questions:

1. Draw and explain block diagram of Operational Amplifier.

2. Explain the working of inverting amplifier. Derive expression for its gain.
3. Discuss various ideal characteristics of OPAMP.
4. Explain the working of non-inverting amplifier using OPAMP. Derive an expression
for its voltage gain.
5. Explain working of Summing Amplifier using OPAMP
6. With the help of suitable diagram explain the working of comparator circuit using
OPAMP.

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