CHAPTER TWO
Review Of Related Literature
Introduction
The literature review concentrates on how learners generally
learns Mathematics. The chapter then takes into account research
that has been done on learning fractions, with emphasis on the
addition of fractions with different denumerators using paper
strips. The study takes into account the opinions of other scholars
on what fractions are, why fractions is still seen as necessary to
learn, and how they should be taught.
Learning of Mathematics
According to NaCCA (2019), in the first three years of high school,
learners are required to complete the Common Core Programme
(CCP), which places a strong emphasis on a set of rigorous,
internationally benchmarked requirements for career and higher
education readiness. These are necessary for post-secondary
education, the workplace, or both for learners. The standards
emphasize learners’ social, emotional, cognitive, and physical
development while articulating what they should know,
comprehend, and be able to perform. The Common Core
Programme (CCP) for Mathematics was introduced to replace the
objective-based curriculum of Mathematics. The CCP is centered
on the common core traits of the learner, which characterize the
critical outcomes in the three learning domains (cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective). The CCP offers an education of the
heart, mind, and hands in relation to the learner’s lifetime values,
well-being, physical development, metacognition, and problem-
solving. It is inspired by the values that are significant to the
Ghanaian community.
In the end, this will develop morally upright learners who can
actively participate in addressing
Ghana’s and the world’s growing problems.
According to NaCCA (2019), Mathematics forms an integral part of
our everyday lives and it is a universal tool for development in
any society. Mathematics is the backbone of social, economic,
political, and physical development of a country. It is a never-
ending creative process, which serves to promote discovery and
understanding. It consists of a body of knowledge which attempts
to explain and interpret phenomena and experiences.
Mathematics has changed our lives and it is vital to Ghana’s
future development. It aids in the development of thought
processes that improve accuracy, logical and critical reasoning,
and problem-solving abilities that are necessary for decision-
making.
Learning of Fractions
According to the literature, fraction instruction and learning
continue to capture the interest of Mathematics educators and
education researchers across the globe. Which representations
should be introduced first, and in what order? Should several
representations be introduced at the outset, or should only one
representation be thoroughly explored? Will there be a difference
in understanding if fractions are introduced as measurement or
counting? What proportion of success with fractions is attributed
to procedural, factual, and conceptual knowledge? Does practice
have any bearing on how well students learn to divide fractions?
In this study, there is an ongoing discussion of these and other
issues. It has been asserted that understanding fractions is very
crucial. For instance, Usiskin (2017) refuted claims made by
proponents of the metric system that, fractions were no longer
necessary because the use of calculators offer a practical method
for representing numerous numbers and have a variety of
applications. Fractions are useful for dividing up or sharing,
figuring out rates and proportions, used in formulas, and for
solving problems.
I agrees with Usiskin (2017) that teaching fractions, especially the
addition of fractions with different denumerators, is crucial since it
gives learners the chance to work through real-world issues like
having to divide objects equally among themselves.
Why is learning of addition of Fraction challenging?
Problem with terminologies
Fractions is perceived differently by different people. For instance,
Strydom (2013), defined fractions as equivalent pieces of a whole.
According to Koomen (2021), we sometimes need to divide a
whole object into equal pieces using numbers, and these pieces
are called fractions. According to Siebert (2022), using the
phrases “ratios” and “proportion” interchangeably with fractions
might lead to learning issues. Usiskin (2017) noticed coordinates,
ratios, counting units, several forms of scientific notation, and
notations. Scalars, cross-multiplication, division rates, division
ratios, and powering growth are all concepts in algebra.
According to Witherspoon (2013), fractions can be thought of as
part-wholes, subsets, ratios, quotients, and rational numbers. He
suggested that, knowing these various viewpoints on the concept
of fractions is crucial to learners, but simply knowing this is not
enough to fully understand the concept of fractions, a deeper
understanding of fractions is necessary for effective
comprehension. He offered Five ways to represent fractions: with
symbols, physical models, scenarios from everyday life, visual
images, and spoken words. Ratio, operator, quotient, and
measure are the four connected sub-constructs that Kieren (2016)
proposed which makes up the concept of fractions. He said in the
beginning: “The part-whole personality of fractions permeated the
aforementioned four subcontracts during conceptualization”. He
chose not to categorize the part whole as a fifth because of these
sub-constructs. When a fraction is connected to two concepts that
are interdependent and tightly related, it is said to fall within the
category of measure sub constructs.
First, it is seen as a number that embodies the quantitative nature
of fractions, and second, it is connected to the measure given to
some interval.
The transition from whole to fractional numbers requires students
to make a qualitative leap, according to Lamon (2019). She
emphasized that in young children’s early number concepts,
because they do not fit into the counting sequence, fractions are
not accepted as numbers. Learners who struggle to recognize
fractions as numbers tend to think of them as two separate whole
numbers, which leads to computational errors like . This supports
Wu (2001) claims that conceptualization, rather than calculation,
is the more difficult aspect of learning fractions. According to
Maharaj et al (2016), learners must have conceptual knowledge of
fractions and the operations on them in order for their learning of
fractions to make sense.
Tzur (2019) identified three threads in children’s early
rearrangement of their conceptualizations of fractions:
Equal-division of wholes into parts; Recursive partitioning of parts
(splitting); and
Reconstruction of the unit that is, the whole into reasonable
quantities. Recognizing this split, Tzur (2019) recommended that
facilitators take one of these strands at a time into consideration
while teaching rational numbers. According to Moss and Case
(2019), who adopted a psychological stance, that children with
whole numbers have two natural schemas: one for vocal counting
and the other for overall amount comparison. Additionally, in the
area of rational numbers, they believed that infants had two
natural schemas: one global structure for proportional evaluation
and one numerical structure for splitting and doubling. They
suggested that, as a strategy for learning, facilitators should
enhance and broaden naturally occurring processes.
Similarly, Mack (2018) emphasized the significance of utilizing
students’ informal knowledge based on a successful teaching
experience of addition of fractions or searching for a strategy to
teach fraction. In order to build a foundation for comprehending
fraction multiplication, she employed equal sharing scenarios in
which portions of a part might be used. For instance, sharing half
a pizza equally among three children results in each child
receiving one-third of a half. Mack (2018) observed that although
students initially did not associate taking a part with
multiplication, they could subsequently come to have a solid
understanding of the concept.
The idea of studying fractions in the early years came to light
when mathematicians advocated that fraction learning should be
removed from the primary school curriculum due to concerns with
curriculum and teaching resources (Usiskin, 2017). This was
opposed because it would deny students the chance to acquire
knowledge of whole numbers and part-whole connections
(Usiskin, 2017). I believe that introducing learners to fractions at
the early levels creates a solid foundation for their study of
algebra in high school.
Multiple representations of Fractions
A number of issues with the use of notation have been discovered
by researchers that may impede learner’s growth. These issues
stem from facilitators misconceptions that rational number
notation is transparent, despite evidence to the contrary,
particularly with regard to decimal fractions (Moss et al, 2019).
Working with fractions can be challenging since they can have
many different meanings. As a result, every given number, can be
concretely understood in a variety of ways, all of which have
applicability in daily life. For instance, a fraction can be
understood as a sub-area of a defined whole region. When 12 and
13-year-old learners were tested by Hart (2018), it was discovered
that 93% of them could accurately shade in sections of wholes.
Payne (2016) reported on the number line model investigating the
hierarchical development, confirmed that using the number line
model was significantly difficult for illustrating either the “area
part-whole” model or “subset of a discrete set,” but using a chart
become easier to understand.
Effective fractions intervention for students with Mathematics
learning difficulties.
When considered collectively, previous research indicates that,
despite their fundamental differences, whole numbers and
fractions develop in an integrated manner.
As research shows that students with limited whole-number
competence are at a severe disadvantage for learning fractions
(Namkung, Fuchs & Koziol, 2018; Resnick et al., 2016).
This has consequences on students with Mathematics learning
challenges who lack solid whole number foundations.
Second, comprehending number magnitudes is an essential part
of developing numerical skills.
Fractions and whole numbers are included in this.
This has led to a focus on understanding fractions as integers with
magnitudes in teaching of fraction. Additionally, it has been
discovered that placing such an emphasis enhances
Mathematics learners’ understanding of fractions. For instance,
Fazio et al (2016); Fuchs, Hendricks, Walsh, Fuchs, Gilbert, Tracy,
Patton, Davis, Kim, Elleman, and Peng (2013) point to learning
challenges.
Third, because preservice and in-service facilitators frequently
have gaps in their fraction knowledge, teaching fractions also
presents substantial obstacles, (Siegler, 2016). An alternate
strategy to help facilitators to effectively teach fraction concepts
to their students and advance both their own and their learner’s
fractional knowledge is to use a structured fractions intervention.
Causes of learners’ inability to perform addition of Fractions
According to studies Hallahan (2005); Anamuah et al (2007);
Appiahene et al (2014), there are a number of factors that
contribute to learners’ inability to add fractions with like and
unlike denominators. Anamuah et al (2007) cited learners’
misconceptions as the root of their failure to add fractions in their
report. According to Darnell (2019), the two main causes of
learner’s failure are lack of parental encouragement and a lack of
drive. For his part, Hallahan (2019) linked the causes to the
learners’ poor health and developmental flaws, such as poor
vision and hearing impairment.
According to a study by Appiahene et al (2014), other factors
contributing to learners’ struggles with fraction study includes,
lack of quality teaching and learning materials (TLRs), lack of
required textbooks, the use of abstract concepts in instruction,
poor teaching methods, facilitators and learner’s negative
attitude towards teaching and Mathematics, learners lack of
seriousness, and inadequate school administration oversight. This
issue was also attributed by Vosniadou et al (2014) to the
incorrect sequencing of fraction lectures.
According to studies by Siegler et al (2013), it was caused by
learners’ or students’ earlier false assumptions that properties of
whole numbers are properties of all numbers, as well as by
muddled relationships among fraction arithmetic operations.
Strategies used to improve learners’ performance in Mathematics
in schools.
Researchers have identified methods that teachers could employ
to raise students’ Mathematics performance (Higgins, 2017).
According to Suydam et al (2017), manipulating materials results
in better accomplishment than not using them. According to
Cockrost (2012), Mathematics instruction in schools should take
an eclectic approach. For his part, Bird (2015) stated that
Mathematics instruction should be activity-based, including the
students in all aspects of the session.
By incorporating problem solving and investigations into
Mathematics teaching and learning, according to Nabie et al
(2013), learners’ performance can be improved. Teachers should
pay close attention to the misunderstandings learners have when
learning how to add fractions; they should also address and clear
up any relevant learner’s misconceptions regarding fraction
arithmetic.
Impact of paper strips in improving learner’s performance in
Fractions
The use of paper strips and other representations help learners to
better understand the concept of fractions. It was advised by the
National Council for Teachers of Mathematics and Curriculum
Evaluation Standards in 1989. Area models such as fraction
circles, paper folding, and geoboards, linear models such as
fraction strips, Cuisenaire rods, and number lines, and discrete
models such as counters and sets are the three most frequently
used representations. Learners at Basic schools can learn about
fractions using paper strips, which are linear models. Paper strips
are a crucial resource for enhancing students’ engagement and
aiding in the retention of knowledge (NCTM, 2007).
According to studies Cramer et al (2009); Moat (2012), learners
who were taught fractions using fraction paper strips
outperformed those who were taught using the lecture technique.
Additionally, Moat (2012) discovered that learners who had
unfavorable views towards fractions saw a positive change in their
attitudes and gained confidence in using fraction paper strips to
solve problems rather than the typical lecture method.
Conclusion
The literature review focuses on how learners generally learns
Mathematics. It also examines the importance of learning
fractions, particularly the addition of fractions with different
denumerators and the opinions of other scholars on their
significance and teaching methods. Mathematics is crucial for
design, trade, communication, and sustainable development, and
has played a significant role in various fields such as astronomy,
navigation, engineering, construction, agricultural research, and
trade in Africa. The Common Core Programme (CCP) emphasizes
social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development.
The CCP aims at developing learners’ morally, learners who can
actively participate in addressing global problems. Mathematics
aids in the development of thought processes that improve
accuracy, logical and critical reasoning, and problem-solving
abilities. The curriculum emphasizes the development of these
skills, including understanding the world around us, appreciation
for its usefulness, patience, persistence, understanding language,
symbols, notation, mathematical curiosity, confidence in problem-
solving, knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and abstract, logical, and
critical thinking.
Fractions are useful for dividing up, figuring out rates and
proportions, and solving Mathematics problems involving fraction.
Teaching fractions, especially the addition of fractions, is crucial
as it allows learners to work through real-world issues like dividing
objects equally among themselves.
The idea of studying fractions in the early years came to light
when some group of mathematicians advocated for the removal
of fraction from primary school curriculum due to concerns with
curriculum and teaching resources. Some however, realized that
the removal would deny learners the chance to acquire
knowledge of whole numbers and part-whole Connection.
