CHAPTER3

WATER RESOURCES
Hydrological Cycle

Evaporation takes place due to heat. Water from oceans, seas, and water surfaces on land such
as lakes is changed from water droplets to water vapors in the atmosphere. Water is also lost
from trees and plants, mainly from their leaves. This is transpiration. It is difficult to separate
the amounts lost between water and vegetation-covered surfaces, Therefore, the term
evapotranspiration is used to cover all water losses from land surfaces. Air temperatures
decrease with height. As water vapors are carried upwards by air currents, it is cooled leading
to condensation. This is the process by which the water vapors are turned back into a liquid or
solid particles of ice. Further cooling leads to precipitation, which is all the moisture that
reaches the surface is irrespective of type. Rain is the most common type, but now and hail are
included as well.

Importance of Rivers to Pakistan

• Help to generate hydroelectricity in mountainous areas
• Increase fertility of the land by carrying alluvium and organic matter
• Provide water for domestic and industrial purposes
• Supply water for irrigation by the canals leading out from dams and barrages
 • Provides water to the areas where rainfall is extremely low (rain shadow areas)
• Add to the scenic beauty of the area.

The Indus System

Indus is the largest river in Pakistan. It is watered by the glaciers of the Karakorum and Hindu
Kush. After crossing the Himalayas, it turns southwest and enters Pakistan. After leaving the
mountainous region of Kalabagh the river enters the plains of Punjab and Sindh. Finally, the
Indus flows into the Arabian Sea. The Indus basin covers an area of about one million square
kilometers. The system irrigates about 60 % of cultivatable land. The source of the river Indus is
at the lake Mansrowar in Tibet China. The river Indus forms a delta at its mouth. The total
journey of the Indus from source to mouth is about2900 km. On its way from source to mouth
Indus is joined by some Eastern and Western tributaries. Eastern tributaries are Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Rising in the Himalayas and passing through Kashmir, the rivers
enter the plains. The river Beas joins the river Sutlej before entering Pakistan. All the Eastern
tributaries join at Panjnad and then flow for about a unified stream and join the Indus at
Mithankot after a distance of 72 km. The river Indus has the highest mean monthly discharge in
June and July. The western rivers are Swat, Kabul, Kurram, Tochi, Gomal, Zhob. These are
smaller in length and width and have less water than the eastern tributaries

Balochistan River System

Quetta being a high altitude region has the central position in the drainage pattern of Baluchistan. Rivers
like Zhob, Khandar, and the Kalachi drain into river Indus because they flow eastwards. The rivers
Loralai. Chakar, Bolan, and Mula are absorbed into Kalachi Sibi Plain. The rivers Hab, Porali, Hingol,
and Mashkel drain into the Arabian Sea. Many small rivers flow westward and drain into shallow
depressions called Hamuns. This unique pattern of drainage is called Inland Drainage. Braided river
channels are the depressions that are flooded only when there is heavy rainfall and otherwise remain
dry.
 Methods of Irrigation
Conventional Methods
Shaduf In the shadows, system water is drawn
from a shallow well river organized by a
bucket which is attached to a wooden
pole on one side and weight heavy rocks
on the other side a small area can be
irrigated by this method in some of the
places also use of a pulley to take water
out from a well.

Charsa In Charsa irrigation, animal power is used

to pull out water from the well. In this
the small area irrigates and lots of time is
wasted in this system of irrigation.

Persian This is a system of continuous supply of

water and irrigated a comparatively
Wheel larger area. in this method blindfolded
Bullock is used to move a horizontal
wooden wheel. This wheel is geared to a
field is a vertical wheel at the distant end
of the shaft. This carries the vertical
metal attached to a chain of the bucket.
The bucket raises water from the well
and is spills its contents into the channel
landing on the irrigation field.

Karez and Karez water system is made up of a

horizontal series of vertically dug wells
inundation that are then linked by underground
canals water canals to collect water from the
water surface runoff from the base of
hills or mountable beneath a
mountain/hill slope. The canals channel
the water to the surface, taking
advantage of the gravity. The canals are
mostly underground to reduce water
evaporation. Vertical wells are dug at
various points to tap into the
groundwater flowing down sloping land
from the source. These vertical wells are
also used for maintenance of Karez
Modern Methods
Perennial These canals run throughout the year
and are linked to dams and barrages for
Canals continuous supply. They irrigate large
pieces of land.

Tube wells These are electrical or diesel-powered

machines which are used full water from
the depth of 92 meters or more to
irrigate large lands. These also help in
lowering the water table thereby
protecting the land from waterlogging
and salinity.

Sprinkler Sprinklers our devising attached to the

public water supply or tube wells. They
are centrally located in the field of
irrigating/ water the plant mainly in
Orchard and Gardens it is an efficient
method of irrigation as water is not
wasted but is very expensive. This is
rarely used to irrigate crops.
DAMS Pakistan has two large dams (Tarbela
and Mangla), while all other dams are
Tarbela either small or medium-sized. Tarbela
Dam and Mangla are multipurpose dams that
(on Indus store water not only for irrigation but
River at also for generating power. These dams
have reservoirs because the dam wall
Bara) holds up the water. Spillways are gates
Mangla through which the water is allowed to go
Dam downstream due to either deficiency of
(on River water downstream or flooding
upstream. A dam may break if it is filled
Jhelum, one beyond its capacity. Both Tarbela and
of longest Mangla store water during the main
earth-filled rainy season (monsoons), which
accompanies the melting of snow and
dams) ice (due to high temperatures in
summers) in the Northern Mountains.
The rainwater and melted snow drains
into the rivers and ultimately end at the
reservoir.
 Barrages Barrages are long structures similar to a
1.Marala dam. They divert water that is in the
river into the canals. They have many
Barrage (River
dozens of gates, which either can be
Chenab)
closed to create a lake with the
2.Rasul embankments of a river serving as a
Barrage (River container wall. Or the gates of a barrage
Jhelum) can be opened and allow water to
3. Chashma continue its course in the river. Barrages
Barrage (River have been built to transfer water
Indus) between rivers via link canals, like the
4. Qadirabad RasulQadirabad Link canal. Sukkur
Barrage(River Barrage has 60 gates with a total length
Chenab) of 4000 feet

Uses of Water
Domestic Uses • Drinking
• Cooking
• Washing
• Sanitation
Industrial Uses • Tanning Industry (washing and dying)
• Food Processing Industry (juices and syrups)
• Chemical Industry (Acids and solutions)
• Textile Industry (Bleaching, Printing)
• Mineral Water Industry
• Thermal Power Stations
Irrigation • By canal irrigation millions of gallons of water are utilized that would
flow into the Arabian Sea.
• Canal system irrigates a vast area. Even the deserts have been made
productive.
• Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by the
construction of dams and barrages.
• Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting of snow
can be stored in reservoirs during the summer season.
• Cheap labor and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal
construction
Siltation In Reservoirs
Causes Effects Control
1. Abundance of silt eroded 1. Blockage of canals because 1. Large-scale afforestation
from the Karakoram, silt accumulates. especially on the foothills of the
Hindukush, and Himalayan 2. Weakens the foundation of Himalayas.
mountains. dams. 2. Cemented embankment of
3. Choking of irrigation canals. canals to make cleaning easier.
2. Deforestation
4. Reduced capacity of the 3. Installation of silt trap before
3. Rivers from the narrow
reservoir and less flow of water the water flows to the dams.
and deep valleys in the affects the generation of Raising the height of the dam to
mountainous areas. Most of Hydroelectric power. it also increase the capacity of the
the eroded material is results in the availability of less reservoir.
washed down into the plains water for irrigation purposes. 4. Raising the height of the dam
and piles in reservoirs of the 5. The flow of floodwater is to increase the capacity of the
dams hampered which may cause reservoir
heavy damage to the dam
because of mounds of silt that
block the flow of water

Waterlogging and Salinity

The rise of the water table to the surface level is called waterlogging and the appearance of
salty patches is called salinity. It is mainly the outcome of canal irrigation in Pakistan. with the
introduction of perennial canal water was available throughout the year, resulting in the rise of
the water table. Salt in the soil also rises to the surface with the water table. (water evaporate
and salt deposited on the surface) It affect 3.5 million hectares of agricultural land .

Solution
1) lining canal to control seepage of water
2) Canal closure on a temporary basis so water can be used in the time of need only

3) Installing tube wells to lower water tables

4) Planting Eucalyptus trees whose roots absorb more water go deep down
Sprinkling gypsim
Installing surface drains

SCARP programme
Waterlogging can be controlled by the launching of the scarp (salinity control and reclamation project)
It was framed in 1959 in which the Indus basin was divided into 28 zones. WAPDA was given the
responsibility to carry out the project. Tube wells and surface drains were used to lower the water table
and flush out salt from the soil

Questions and Answers

Q Describe the main features of Karez.

Ans: In the Karez an underground tunnel is dug to reach the water table on the side of the hill.
Water is brought out the surface of land through the tunnel. It is like a man-made spring of
water. Karez gives the continuous (nonstop) flow of water. The vertical shafts are for the
purpose of cleaning and repair of the Karez. Karez are found in Quetta, Pishin and Mastung
valley.

Q What the are advantages and disadvantages of Karez? N 2010

Ans: Advantages: Karez provides a continuous (nonstop) water supply, stops evaporation, and
makes good use of water from the mountain.
Disadvantages: Irrigate limited area; repair of Karez is difficult due to lack of skilled labor,
sources of Karez are drying up. There is a lack of government investment. Many Karez became
useless because groundwater levels have lowered due to the use of tubewellsl in areas where
Karez is located.
Q Describe the working of three traditional methods of irrigation.

Ans: (1) Persian Wheel: is an old method of irrigation. A number of buckets are attached to an
endless chain (belt) and lowered in the wells. As the wheel turns round by animal power, Water
is brought up (fetch) by buckets. The water is led in the field through water channels.
(2) Charsa: is a method where animal power is used to pull out the bucket which is hanging by a
rope on a pulley fixed over the well, charsa is not common nowadays.
(3) Shaduf : A bucket hanging with rope on one end of a pole and a weight on the other end.
The pole is used as liver placed near the river bank. The bucket is dipped (lowered) into the
water by manual labor and the weight at the other end helps in lifting the bucket. Only irrigate
small area is out of date now.

Q What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Persian wheel?

Ans: Advantages: Persian wheel is a cheap way of irrigation; it can provide water when needed
for crops. Persian wheel is useful in mountainous (hilly) areas due to close water level; it is
suitable for small-scale farming.

Disadvantages: Persian wheel can irrigate small areas, a lot of effort is needed and it is time
taking.
Q What athe re advantages and disadvantages of tube well? J 2010
Ans: Advantages: (1) Tube well reduces dependence on rain.
(2) Tube well speed can be controlled.

(3) It provides water in large quantities.

(4) Tube well reduces waterlogging and salinity. (
5) Double cropping in a year is possible.
(6) Increases yield.

(7) Fulfill the need for high-yielding varieties.

Disadvantages:
(1) Tube well is costly.
(2) It requires a lot of electricity and fuel.

(3) There is a shortage of electricity in Pakistan.

(4) Reduces groundwater available.
(5) Lack of mechanics for repair
Q To what extent is it possible to increase the water supply in Pakistan?
Possibilities: Cleaning of canals and desalination of dams is necessary. Loss of water should be
reduced. More storage facilities should be set up like dams and barrages. Leakage should be
checked by the lining of the canals. Ration usage means water should be divided between
provinces and users. Control misuse of water by education. Water sources should be protected
from pollution.

Q What can be done to stop the amount of water in the reservoir from reducing further?
Ans: Silt traps in dams, afforestation, and terracing in hilly slopes can reduce soil erosion,
remove silt from dams, reduce wastage of water.
Q Name two conflicting users of water supplies in Punjab. Explain briefly why each user
thinks that they should have more water.
Ans: conflicting users of water: are farmer, industrialist, home-owner, power industry.
Farmers: Reasons for demanding more water because farmers want more water for more crop
production. More food for the growing population is needed, farmers wanted to earn more
income. A large amount of water is needed in crops like rice and sugarcane.
Industrialist: wants water to increase industrial output. More production would increase trade,
exports, industrialist wanted to increase income, for example of high usage, e.g. drinks,
chemicals, steel industry.

Domestic users: Homeowners more water for domestic use – better hygiene, food preparation,
healthy living, an example of high usage, e.g. washing, drinking. [5]
Q Explain some causes of water pollution and why it is problem? J 2011
Ans: Causes: Dumping of chemical waste by industry in rivers. Due to a lack of sanitation
facilities, human waste is drained in rivers without treatment. Pesticides and fertilizers are also
sometimes drained off in water sources through rainfall. Oil spills through oil tankers due to
accidents also contaminate seawater.
Problems: Drinking water is polluted by poisonous chemicals and human waste causes diseases
like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, diarrhea, etc. Water pollution increases the cost of treatment
from drinking water, reduces fish production, and can’t be used in the food processing industry.
There is the risk of smell and malaria from still water. Plastic bags in water damage crops.
Q Consider the feasibility (possibility) of improving water supply to farmers in Punjab and
Sindh. [6]

Ans: In favor: Rainfall in monsoon season can be stored. Snow melt brings water to the Indus
river system. Government can make more storage like dams and barrages can build more
canals and can use groundwater and can setup more tube wells
Against: The cost of setting up new dams, barrages, canals, and tube wells is high. There is a
Lack of dams and barrages in Pakistan. Indus Treaty has a limited supply of water in rivers.
There is a dispute with India over water supply. The lower water table restricts the use of
groundwater in arid areas. Waterlogging and salinity problems are created due to canal systems
in Punjab and Sindh. There is a lack of electricity and the cost of power supplies for pumps is
high. Other problems are e.g. lack of awareness, wastage of water, a conflict between
provinces.

IWT

Sutlej headwork was in ferozpur

Ravi Madhupur