Number system and Units of Measurements

Gautama-Buddha on Number system

When Siddhartha, son of king Suddhodana was to marry Yasodhara, he was subjected to a svayamvara.
He was competing with 500 others and the contest included, among other things, testing of knowledge
of arithmetic. He was asked toexpress numbers beyond koti (107) in multiples of 100.

107, 109, 1011, ……………………………… 1051, 1053. (1053: Tallaksana)This is a part of one
53−7
counting system having 23 levels. ( )
2

General Formula for 𝑛𝑡ℎcounting system, last number can be found using relation

(107+46×𝑛 )(102 )23

𝑛 = 0, end term: 1053 (Tallakshna); (107, 109,..… 1051, 1053).

𝑛 = 1, end term: 1099 (Dhvajagravati); (1053, 1055, ..……. 1097, 1099).

𝑛 = 2, end term: 10145 and so on.

Existence of unique names to number of such high values, this shows mathematical prowess of ancient
Indians.

1. Number system in Indian-Historical evidence

The contribution of ancient Indians to the development of mathematical concepts is well known
and acknowledged.

Acknowledgement from west:

Pierre-Simon de Laplace: The ingenious method of expressing

every possible numberusing a set of ten symbols (each symbol
having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India.

23 March 1749- March 1827

France

Al-Biruni: Whilst we use letters for calculation according to their

numerical value,the Indians do not use letters at all for arithmetic.

1030 CE, Iran

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1.1. Historical Evidence for numerals

1. Bharukachcha (Broach), region in Gujrat [594 CE]: We have documentscontaining a number
written in the place-value system.

2. Gwalior [Vikram Samvat 933, 876 CE]: The number 50 and 270 were recorded with small
circle appearing at the appropriate positional place ofzero.

This proves, the practice we use today was there 1500 years back in our country.

1.1.2 Historical Evidence for units and measurements

2500-1700 BCE
Street width in Indus-Saraswati civilization were highly standardized. [Here standard dimension used is
1,2,3 and 4 Dhanus]

7.2 5.4 3.6 1.8

Bricks: The Excavations at Harappa (Punjab region), Mohenjo Daro(Sindhu region), Dholavira (Gujrat)
and Lothal (Gujrat) shows the constructions that were done using fired bricks were od standard dimensions
and fine geometrical and material quality.

1
4 2

Weight and linear measures follows a similar pattern. These all findings signals mature
mathematical thinking.
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1.2. Salient aspects of Indian numeral system: Zero and place value system.
The Indian numeral system has a long history. The origin and evolution of the numbers could be traced
from the time of Vedic period. As early as the Rigveda time, the use of numbers and unique names
prevailed. The Sanskrit language has unique names for numbers starting from one and going upto very
large number (ekam, dve, trini, catvari, pancha, sat, sapta, asta, nava, dasa, vimsati, trismat,
catvarimat, pancast, sasti, saptati, asiti, navati, sata.)
One can appreciate the importance of the Indian numeral system in scientific development if the
following contributions are understood.
 A legacy of using large numbers with unique number names for large numbers
 Developing a robust place value system for numerals
 The concept of zero and its use beyond being a placeholder
 A decimal system that opened vast possibilities for arithmetic operations

The concept of zero and its use beyond being placeholder: One of the most significant
contribution of ancient Indians is the concept of zero. The available evidence shows that the concept of
zero established during the period of 500-600 BCE and fully developed by 600 CE.

Pingala: An Indian Philosopher, mathematician and author of

the Chandahsastra, the word Sunya was used which obtained
the mathematical connotation of zero. So first time a certain
name attached to this number zero.

(2 BCE)

Brahmagupta: Indian mathematician and astronomer.

He developed a symbol for zero in 628 CE, with this
invention, zero could be used as an independent numeral
for computational purposes.

(598-668 CE, Bhinmal Rajasthan)

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Concept (absence of any quantity)
Zero
Symbol (0)

 As early as the Rigveda time, the use of number system with unique names prevailed. (ekam, dve,
trini, catvari, pancha, sat, sapta, asta, nava, dasa, vimsati,trismat, catvarimat, pancast, sasti, saptati,
asiti, navati, sata.)
 Ancient Indians used zero in computations ahead of others and thereby elevatedzero from place holder
to a numeral. This is considered one of the greatest breakthroughs in the history of mathematics.
 Place holder, e.g. 101, this is one hundred and one because that placeholder zero
in the middle holds the tens place value, without the place holder zero the numberwould be written as
11.

Bhaskara II: Indian mathematician and astronomer, in his

work Bija-ganita, heintroduced the properties of zero, with
mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, etc.

(1114-1185 CE, Maharashtra)

So by knowing how to handle zero from mathematical perspective, we are able todo Calculus, all those
complicated equations are able to solved.

1.2.2. Developing a robust place value system for the numerals.

 Place value of numerals is concept in which a numeral or a symbol used has a unique meaning
and value.
 With this arrangement, it will be possible to represent any conceivable number systematically.
 A number system with a complete definition and place value is at the foundation of mathematics.
 It enables easy arithmetic computations, facilitating scientific analysis.
 It promotes unambiguous and effective communication.
 Ancient Indians gift to mankind is a mature and complete place value-based numeral system,
without proper robust place value numeral system, handling large numbers and performing
arithmetic operations will end soon.

Importance of place value of numerals: Illustration with Roman system.

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Roman numerals system is based on addition (and sometime subtraction) of seven different values;
I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), M (1000). Consider three numbers.
397 928 107
CCCXCVII CMXXVIII CVII
Limitations:
 Varying number of digits (7, 7 and 3 respectively). This make comprehension of the numbers
extremely cumbersome.
 Finite limit to numbers representation by this system. To represent a number 432,000 using Roman
system we need to repeat M 432 times! This is an impractical idea (M: 1000).
 Restriction to carry simple mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction. Therefore, it
is not suitable for scientific purposes which often pose complex arithmetic operations.
Therefore, the idea of place value of numerals and its importance can be [Link] Indian
thought about it much earlier.

Illustration:

Human Being
Child

Son

Sankaracharya: For a number, Symbol is same but by change of position it takes different values and name.

Maharviracharya: Indian mathematician, author of Ganita

Sara Sangraha gives the result of an operation as “ekadi-sad-
antani kramena hinani” this means beginning with one and
going up to 6 and then decreasing by one.

12345654321 (𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏)𝟐

(800-875 CE, Mysore)

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1.2.3. Decimal System (Using 10 as base)

Use of zero as number and placevalue.

It is a logical extension of two basic ideas:

Place value system with numerals from 0 to 9
 The universal way of dealing with numbers today, is through the use of 10 as the base. The
Indian system of numerals employs the use of a decimal system very early.

 Decimal number system originated in India much before the 11𝑡ℎ − 12𝑡ℎ
century BCE.

Reference 1: History of Hindu mathematics: parts I and II, author Datta, B. andSingh, A.N. (1962). In in
this book 33 inscriptions and grant plates are present. These inscriptions range from 598 CE to 978 CE,
which contains numerals writtenin the decimal place value notations.
Reference 2: Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati Decimal system and place value: He is the celebrated
mathematician of the 12 century CE wrote Siddhanta-siromani at the age of 36. Lilavati is the first of the
four parts of this work that mainly deals with arithmetic, algebra and geometry.
The 12𝑡ℎ Verse in this chapter has description of number from 1 to 1017, each of these is identified with a
unique name. What is also interesting is that Bhaskaracharya observed in the verse that this place value
system was already in use by his ancestors. The numbers mentioned in the verse are given below.
Decimal number system of Numbers Mentioned in Lilavati.

Eka-1(100) Prayuta-106 (Million) Mahapadma-1012 (Trillion)

Dasa-101 Koti-107 Sankha-1013

Sata-102 Arbuda-108 Jaladhi-1014

Sahastra-103 Abja-109 (Billion) Antya-1015 (Zillion)

Ayuta-104 Kharva-1010 Madhya-1016

Laksa-105 Nikharva-1011 Parardha-1017

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1.2.4 Use of large Number History and Context
 In the Chandogya Upanisad, in a conversation between sage narada and Sanatkumara, it was
mentioned, “There is no joy in the finite. The infinite alone isjoy. That which indeed is the infinite is
immortal. On the other hand, that which isfinite is mortal”.
 In a passage in the Taittiriya-upnishad, there is a reference to the quantum of happiness of an evolved
individual who has transcended the realm of desires. In the description, the numbers are progressively
raised by multiples of 100 up to 10levels, suggesting a large number of 1020.
 To deal with the Astronomy, there is the need of large numbers on account of thatthere was developed
large number system.

 Ancient Indians developed a systematic approach to the number-names that theyused to

describe large numbers. Three categories of naming conventions were employed to
develop the number names in Sanskrit:
 All numbers in the unit digit from 0 to 9 had unique names.
0-Sunya, 1-ekam, 2-dve, 3-trini, 4-catvari, 5-pancha, 6-sat, 7-sapta, 8-asta,9-nava
 All numbers in the range of 11 to 99 had an
additive principle: Example: 8 + 10 = 18 (asta-dasa)
sbtracting principle: Example: 29 = 30 – 1 (ekona-trimsat)
 All numbers of higher powers of 10 starting from 102 were named using a multiplicative
principle using the unit digits as factors for multiplication:
Example: (i) 8000 = 8 ×1000 (asta-sahasram), (ii)70,000= 7 × 10,000 (Sapta-ayuta)

In this manner, it was possible to express any number unambiguously once thenumber names for the
successive powers of ten were established. These are thefundamental building blocks for modern scientific
progress.
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1.3 Unique approach to represent numbers
In oral tradition representing very large numbers requires some convenient andcompact mechanism. So
ancient Indian mathematicians seamlessly integrated mathematics with literature and poetry.
We find well-developed systems to address this requirement and two of them isdiscussed here.
1. Bhuta-Samkhya System
2. Katapayadi System

Bhuta-Samkhya System

Bhuta: Entities
Samkhya: Number
The entities can be things, beings, or concepts that are commonly known to the people. For example,
if we use the word ‘eye’ we can spontaneously associate thiswith the number ‘two’. Similarly
‘guna’ can be used for number ‘three’.
The followings are some of the categories from which we frequently find words being used:
a) Word name for the number itself – Sunya, eka, dvi, tri ….. nava.
b) Physical entities such as earth, moon, stars, mountain, fire, sky, direction, etc.
c) Parts of the body-eyes, lims, seven dhatus, etc.
d) Examples from the animal kingdom such as elephant, horse, snake, etc.
e) Names of Gods- Siva, Vishnu, Indra, Manu, Agni, ect.
f) Other concepts- such as seasons, month, days, five bhutas.

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Examples:

Katapayadi System
Katapayadi system employs certain rules to convert the numerals to alphabets:
 The vowels when standing alone indicate the number zero
 Each consonant is uniquely associated with a number from 0 to 9.
 More than one constant may be associated with each of the numerals.
 When more than one consonant is used in conjunction, only the terminal consonant preceding
vowel is to be considered for identification of corresponding numerals.
 If a constant is not conjoined with a vowel and stands alone, then it will not be considered for
identification of the numerals.

The vowels and consonants may be used to generate familiar and easy to remember words to represent
numbers. The origin of this system is traced back to the 5th century CE.

Madhvacharya’s approximation to 𝜋: Madhvacharya approximated the value of 𝜋 using bhuta-

sankhya system illustrated above.
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1.4 Units of Measurements (Length, Time and Weight)
 In the ancient Indian literature three fundamental physical measures forquantifying length, time and
weight are found.

 Chapter 19 and 20 of book two of Arthasastra provide the units of measurementfor space, time and
weight.

 Ayurvedic texts provide several measures for weight as these are used to measureingredients while
preparing a mixture of different substances
 In Lilavati, Bhaskaracharya begins by defining certain measures for length, volume and mass

Notion of Parmanu: In ancient Indian literature we find the definition for paramanu. At the smallest
level, there is a fundamental measure called paramanu. It is not possible to directlyrelate this term to the
modern-day sub-atomic particle.
 Paramanu (Time): The smallest measurable unit of time is Paramanu time.
[𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 1.31 × 10−5 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠]
 Paramanu (Length): The smallest measure of length.
[𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2.88 × 10−7𝑚𝑚]
 Paramanu (Weight): The smallest measure of weight.
[𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 5.79 × 10−5 𝑔]

Measurement of Length
Several measures have been in vogue to measure the length in ancient times inIndia.
 In the archaeological site at Lothal a
prominent Indus Valley city in the
modern Indian state of Gujarat, an
Ivory Scale was discovered. The total
length of this scale is 46mm. The
smallest division, approximately 1.70
mm, was marked on thisscale (close to
one-tenth of an angula of 1.674 cm). It
stands as the smallest division ever
recorded on a Bronze Age scale.

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 In his 1930-31 season at Mohenjo-Daro,
Ernest Mackay discovered a broken piece of
shell bearing 8 divisions of 6.7056mm (0.264
inches) each, with a dot andcircle five
graduations apart. It may be noted that the
interval of the 5 divisions, works out to
33.528mm (1.32 inches). This measure is
widely known as the Indus Inch.

Ancient Indian Measures of Length

Multiplier No. of Paramanus Length (in mm)

of preceding
units
Paramanu-raja 1 1 2.8778× 10−7
Renu 7 7 2.0145 × 10−6
Truti 7 49 104101× 10−5
Vatayana-raja 7 343 9.8709× 10−5
Sasa-raja 7 24,01 6.9096× 10−4
Edaka-raja 7 16,807 4.8367× 10−3
Go-raja 7 1,17,649 0.033857202
Liksa-raja 7 8,23,543 0.237000411
Sarsapa 7 57,64,801 1.65900288

Units Multiplier No. of Paramanus Length (in mm)

of preceding
units
Angula 1 1 0.016764
Dhanurmusti 8 8 0.134112
Prajapatya-hasta 3 24 0.402336
Dhanus 4 96 1.609344
Garhapatya-dhanus 1.125 108 1.810512
Goruta 2000 216,000 3621.024
Yojana 4 864,000 14484.096

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Measurement of Time
Time is very important aspect of ancient
Indians for several reasons.
 The ancient Indians were interested
in studying the origins of the
Universe, which is one of the five
defining characteristics of Purana.
The notion of time becomes very
relevant in this context and measures
of time becomes inevitable.
 Studies pertaining to Astrology and Astronomy also requires measures pertaining to time.

Ancient Indian Measures of Time

Units Multiplier of preceding units No. of Paramanus Time (Seconds)
Paramanu 1 1 1.3133 × 10−5
Anu 2 2 2.6266 × 10−5
Trasarenu 3 6 7.8797 × 10−5
Truti 3 18 2.3639 × 10−4
Vedha 100 1,800 2.3639 × 10−2
Lava 3 5,400 7.0917 × 10−2
Nimesa 3 16,200 0.212750617
Ksana 3 48,600 0.638251852
Kastha 5 2,43,000 3.191259259
Laghu 15 36,45,000 47.86888889
Nadika 15 5,46,75,000 718.0333333

Muhurta 2 10,93,50,000 1436.066667

Units Multiplier of preceding units No. of HumanYears

Masa 1 0.08333
Rtu 2 0.16667
Ayana 3 0.50000
Human Year 2 1
Human Life Span 100 100

Celestial Life Span 3600 36,000

Maha-Yuga 12000 43,20,00,000
Kalpa 1000 4,32,00,00,00,000

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Measurement of Weight
 Balances of Harappan period were made of copper and bronze pans andsuspended in a metallic beam
using cotton thread.
 Arthasastra has a vivid description of various measures for weight. Some lower denominations of
weight were perhaps used to measure precious metals such asgold and silver and gems.
 Verification once in 3 months to ensure the balances are calibrated.
 A detailed description of weights is an essential requirement for Ayurveda. Without proper
knowledge of weights and measures, it will be difficult to mix theingredients correctly while
formulations are prepared.

Ancient Indian Measures of Weight

Units Multiplier of No. of Paramanus Weight (in Grams)

preceding
units
Paramanu 1 1 5.787 × 10−5
Vamsi 30 30 1.736 × 10−3
Sarsapa 9 270 1.563× 10−2
Yava 8 2,160 0.125
Gunja 4 8,640 0.5
Masaka 6 51,840 3
Karsa 4 2,07,360 12
Pala 4 8,29,440 48
Tula 100 8,29,44,000 4800
Bhara 20 1,65,88,80,000 96000

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1.5 PINGALA AND THE BINARY SYSTEM
The basic building block of poetry is a syllable. A syllable is a vowel or a vowel with one or more
constants proceeding it. The are two types of syllables defined by Pingala in the Chandah-sastra.
a) Laghu (Short Syllable)- Any syllable with a short vowel
b) Guru (Long Syllable) can be of four varieties:
1. Any syllable with long vowel.
2. Any short syllable followed by conjunction of consonants.
3. Any short syllable followed by ‘m’ known as anusvara or visarga denoted by ‘:’.
4. The last syllable in the quarter of a meter (optionally).

Using the above rules for laghu and guru, below table has identified the syllables and the associated
classification. Laghu is labelled as ‘L’ and guru as ‘G’

Denote L by 1 and G by 0.
 Pingala first defined groups of three using the laghu and the guru as the basic building block for
the rules for various meters used in contemporary poetry.
 Since laghu and guru form part of a binary system, it amounts to finding out a unique set of
combinations of a binary words of length tree.
 There are eight unique binary words one can obtain and therefore, Pingala defined 8 categories
of these building blocks, called ‘ganas’.

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2. Mathematics
I. Contributions of Great Mathematicians in Ancient India
Ancient India was home to several great mathematicians who made significant contributions to the field
of mathematics. Their discoveries laid the foundation for many mathematical concepts that are still studied
and applied today. Here are some of the most notable mathematicians and their contributions:
1. Aryabhata (476-550 CE):
 Aryabhatta was a mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and physicist.
 Known for his work "Aryabhatiya," a comprehensive treatise on mathematics and astronomy.
 He introduced the concept of zero and decimal place value systems, which were fundamental for
the development of modern mathematics.
 Aryabhata's work included solutions to linear and quadratic equations and methods for finding
square and cube roots.
 He accurately estimated the value of π (pi) and the Earth's circumference and diameter.
2. Brahmagupta (598-668 CE):
 He was a brilliant astronomer and mathematician.
 Brahmagupta's most famous work, "Brahmasphutasiddhanta," provided significant contributions
to algebra and number theory.
 He introduced rules for arithmetic operations involving zero and negative numbers.
 Brahmagupta developed the formula for solving quadratic equations and provided methods for
solving linear indeterminate equations.
 He made advancements in geometry, including the areas of cyclic quadrilaterals and triangles.
3. Bhaskara I (600-680 CE):
 Bhaskara I is known for his works on arithmetic, algebra, and astronomy.
 Devised methods for finding square and cube roots and discussed solutions to quadratic equations
 Bhaskara I made contributions to the study of Pell's equation, a type of Diophantine equation.
 He developed methods for determining the positions of celestial bodies and their movements.
4. Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
 Bhaskara II, also known as Bhaskaracharya, was one of the most influential mathematicians of
medieval India.
 His work "Lilavati" covers various arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and calculus topics.
 Bhaskara II provided solutions for indeterminate equations, including problems involving integer
solutions.
 Explored trigonometry, introducing trigonometric ratios and their applications in astronomy.
5. Madhava of Sangamagrama (1350-1425 CE):
 Madhava is considered the founder of the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics.
 Developed infinite series expansions for trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, and arctangent.
 Madhava's work on infinite series laid the groundwork for the later development of calculus.
6. Nilakantha Somayaji (1444-1544 CE):
 Nilakantha Somayaji expanded upon Madhava's work and further refined the series expansions
for trigonometric functions.
 He developed the Gregory-Leibniz series for calculating π (pi).
 Nilakantha's contributions to calculus-like methods were significant, even though he lived well
before the formal development of calculus in Europe.
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There were many scholars who have contributed to the field of mathematics, some of them are listed
below:

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Source: Indian Knowledge System by B Mahadevan

The most notable as well as other mathematicians, made profound contributions to various branches of
mathematics, including arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and astronomy. Their work not only advanced
mathematical knowledge but also had a lasting impact on the development of mathematics in other parts
of the world. The concepts they introduced continue to be studied and applied by present mathematicians
and scientists as well. Some major contributions in the field of arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy is
discussed below:

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A. The contributions of Great Mathematicians in Ancient India to Arithmetic
Arithmetic is the branch of mathematics dealing with computation using numbers. Arithmetic is part of
the daily life of any society. The great mathematicians of ancient India made significant contributions to
the field of arithmetic, which deals with the study of numbers, basic operations. Commercial operations
and trade require handling numbers and basic mathematical operators such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
1. Aryabhata (476-550 CE):
 Aryabhata introduced the concept of zero and the decimal place value system. This revolutionary
concept laid the foundation for efficient numerical calculations and the development of modern
mathematics.
 He developed algorithms for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, including methods
for working with positive and negative numbers.
2. Brahmagupta (598-668 CE):
 Brahmagupta's work included detailed explanations of arithmetic operations involving zero and
negative numbers. He provided rules for the arithmetic of zero, such as the multiplication and
division of zero by different numbers.
 He formulated methods for solving linear and quadratic equations, contributing to the
development of algebraic techniques in arithmetic.
3. Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
 Bhaskara II's "Lilavati" covered various aspects of arithmetic, including techniques for solving
linear and quadratic equations.
 He introduced innovative methods for calculating interest rates and related financial calculations,
which have practical applications in commerce and economics.
4. Positional Notation System:
 The Indian numeral system, developed by ancient mathematicians, introduced the concept of place
value and the use of zero as a placeholder. This system revolutionized arithmetic, making
calculations much more efficient and intuitive.
5. Mental Arithmetic Techniques:
 Ancient Indian mathematicians developed mental arithmetic techniques that allowed for rapid
calculations without the use of written instruments.
 Methods for multiplication, division, and other operations were devised, enabling skilled
mathematicians to perform calculations swiftly and accurately.
6. Practical Applications:
 The contributions of these mathematicians weren't limited to theoretical mathematics. Their work
had practical applications in various fields, including astronomy, trade, and finance.
 Their arithmetic techniques were used in trade transactions, architectural measurements, and
calculations related to planetary positions and celestial events.
7. Spread of Knowledge:
 Indian mathematical ideas, including arithmetic concepts, spread to other parts of the world
through trade routes and cultural exchanges. Arab scholars, in particular, played a crucial role in
transmitting these ideas to the West, influencing the development of European mathematics.
The contributions of these mathematicians transformed arithmetic from basic counting to a structured and
systematic field with rules and methods for solving a variety of numerical problems. Their work not only

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advanced mathematical knowledge within India but also had a lasting impact on the development of
mathematics in other parts of the world. The foundational concepts introduced by ancient Indian
mathematicians laid the groundwork for the development of arithmetic into a sophisticated discipline that
continues to be a fundamental aspect of mathematics today.

Some Significant aspects of arithmetic:

Indian arithmetic was quite sophisticated by the time of Aryabhata in the 5th century CE. This is primarily
because of a fully developed decimal place value system employing 0 to 9. In the 7th century, Brahmagupta
established the use of 0 as a number and gave rules for multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction
of zero. Indian decimal place value system was well known by the middle of 7 th century as evident from
the following observation of the Syriac bishop Severus Sebokht, "Indians possess a method of calculation
that no word can praise enough. Their rational system of mathematics, or their method of calculation. I
mean the system using nine symbols. The following section highlights the contribution of Indian
mathematicians for some of the significant aspects of arithmetic.
1. Square of a Number
Aryabhata identifies the geometric aspect and the mathematical operation of the square in his definition.
As per his definition varga is a square and is also a geometric object whose sides are equal. Bhaskara-1
(629 CE) in his commentary on Aryabhaṭīya provides an algorithm for finding the square of any number.
The verse that explains the algorithm is given below:

अन्त्यपदस्यवर्ग कृत्वाद्विर्ुणंतदे वचान्त्यपदम् ।

शेषपदै राहन्यात् उत्सार्योत्सार्यग वर्गद्ववधौ।।
antyapadasya vargam kṛtvā dviguṇam tadeva cantyapadam
seṣapadairahanyāt utsäryotsārya vargavidhau ||

 An algorithm for computation of cube root was given for the first time by Aryabhata.
 Brahma-sphuta-Siddhanta, gives a good description of calculations with positive and negative
numbers, Zero, fractions and surds.
The steps of the algorithm as provided by the above verse can be enumerated as follows:
Step 1: Antyapadasya vargam krtva.
Square the last digit (most significant digit) first. Place it in a new row (two places to the right of digits in
the previous row).
Step 2: Dvigunam tadeva cantyapadam
Multiply the last digit with two and each of the remaining digits to the right and place t to the right in the
same row.
Step 3: Sesopadairahanyat utsaryotsūrya.
Remove the current most significant digit
If there are no more digits to operate go to step 5.
Step 4: The next digit becomes the last digit now. Go to step 1.
Step 5: Perform the final addition to get the square of the number.

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It may be noted that this ancient rule for squaring, uses n(n-1)/2 multiplication for squaring an n – digit
number.
2. Square Root
Aryabhata presents an algorithm for determining the square root of a number. The methodology of finding
the square root revolves around the concept of splitting the digits into pairs, starting from the least
significant digit, the odd place being designated as varga (V), and the even place avarga (A). For example,
if we take two numbers 55225 and 205209 the split will look as follows:
V A V A V A V A V A V
5 5 2 2 5 2 0 5 2 0 9

Aryabhata then provides a simple recursive algorithm that starts from the most significant varga place
and progressively introduces one digit at a time until all digits are exhausted. The algorithm for square
root is provided in the following verse:

1. Designate the varga and avarga digits starting from right to left (least significant to most significant).
2. Take the first varga sthana at the leftmost (most significant) along with an avarga digit at its left (if
any).
3. Remove (subtract) the maximum possible square from this number, and the square root of the square
that we can remove will be added to the square root line (this is a place where we are accumulating the
answer as we perform the operation).
4. Along with the remainder of the previous operation, bring the next digit down. The next digit is avarga
digit (as we have just completed the varga digit related operation).
Whenever we operate at avarga digit, we need to divide the number by two times the current value of
the square root that we have stored in the square root line. The quotient obtained in this division will
be added to the square root line.
5. Along with the remainder of the previous operation, we will bring the next digit down. The next digit
is varga digit (as we have just completed the avarga digit related operation).
Whenever we operate at a varga digit, we need to remove the square of the quotient obtained in the
previous step.
6. If some more digits are remaining go to step 4, else go to step 7.
7. The final result in the square root line is the answer.
As evident from the above algorithm, this procedure runs in a recursive fashion bringing down one digit
at a time. When the procedure stops after exhausting all the digits the final value accumulated in the square
root line is the answer. If the number is not a perfect square this procedure aborts mid-way or leaves a
remainder at the end of the operation.

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3. Cube Root
Aryabhata was the first to establish a procedure to calculate the cube root (Ghana-múla) of a number.
Aryabhata provided an algorithm for determining the cube root of a number that is strikingly similar to
that of the algorithm for square root. If a number has 'n' digits, the number of digits of the cube of that
number will be ≥3n – 2 and ≤ 3n. With this in mind, Aryabhata designates the digits in a number using
three different nomenclatures. Aryabhata then provides a simple recursive algorithm that starts from the
most significant place and progressively introduces one digit at a time until all digits are exhausted. An
illustration of this is available in Shukla and Sarma's critical edition of Aryabhatiya.
4. Series and Progressions
A sense of the knowledge of progressions of ancient Indians is evident in the Vedic text. For example, in
the Camaka-praśna (Taittiriya-samhita 4.5.11) there is a mention of an arithmetic progression of odd
numbers starting from one to 33 followed by another arithmetic progression of even numbers starting
from four to 48 in steps of four. In the Vajasaneyi-samhita we have the yugma (even) and ayugma (odd)
series: 4, 8, 12, 16, 48 and 1, 3, 5, 7..... Similarly, there is a geometric series (12, 24, 48, 96, 196608, ..,
393216) mentioned in the Pañcavimsa-brahman This indicates an appreciation of odd and even numbers
as distinct entities in the Vedic period and also the formation of different types of series. Aryabhata I (499
CE), and Brahmagupta (628 CE) considered the cases of the sums of the sums, the squares and the cubes
of the natural numbers. Mahavira (850 CE) gave a rule for the summation of an interesting geometric
series Narayana (1356 CE) provided a more generalized method for repeated summation of partial series.
We shall see some of them in this section".
The term upaciti or citi is used to indicate a series in general. For example, the series 1+2+3++n, which
starts with '1' and has a common difference of '1' is called (ekottarádi-upaciti). Let us consider the case of
the following series of natural numbers up to n terms: 1, (1 + 2), (1+2+3), ...., (1+2+3. + n). The term
citighana is used to denote the sum of this series. Aryabhata gives the formula for computing the sum in
the following verse:
Of the series (upaciti) which begins with the term '1' and has a common difference '1’ (ekottarddi), take
three terms in continuation, of which the first is equal to the given number of terms, and find their
continued product of terms, and find their continued product (gacchadyakottara-trisomvargah). That
(product) divided by 6 gives the citighana. Alternatively (va), it can be obtained by the number of terms
plus one subtracted from the cube of that, divided by 6. This can be expressed in the following notation.
1 + (1+2) + (1+2+3) + … + (1+2+3+…+n)
= n(n+1) (n+2) / 6 OR (n+1) – (n+1) / 6
The use of the term citighana is indeed interesting. It literally means the contents of a pile (of say balls)
in the shape of a pyramid on a triangular base. The equivalent physical interpretation of the above series
is that the pyramid is so constructed that there is 1 ball in the topmost layer, 1+2 balls in the next lower
layer, 1+2+3 balls in the further next lower layer, and so on.
a. Sum of the Series of Squares and Cubes
The product of the three quantities (trisamvargitasya), viz., the number of terms (n) the number of terms
plus one (n+1), and the same increased by the number of terms (n +1 + n), (saika-sagaccha-padänām
kramat), when divided by 6 (sasthom'sah) gives the sum of the series of squares of natural numbers (varga-
citighanaḥ sa bhavet). The square of the sum of the series of natural numbers (citivargo ghana) gives the
sum of the series of cubes of natural numbers (ghana-citighanaśca).
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b. Repeated Summation of Series (Várasankalita)
In the previous case we saw the sankalita (sum of a series) for the first n natural numbers. A more general
case of the repeated summation of such series was provided by Narayana. Vära means repeated (or again).
Therefore, this method of repeated summation of a series can be designated as varasankalita.

B. The contributions of Great Mathematicians in Ancient India to geometry

The great mathematicians of ancient India made significant contributions to the field of geometry, which
deals with the study of shapes, sizes, properties, and spatial relationships. These mathematicians
developed geometric theories, proofs, and techniques that laid the foundation for the understanding of
geometrical concepts. Here are some of the key contributions of ancient Indian mathematicians to
geometry:
1. Baudhayana (circa 800 BCE):
 Baudhayana is known for his geometric work in the "Baudhayana Sulbasutra," which are part of
the ancient Indian texts called Sulba Sutras.
 These texts contain rules for constructing various types of altars used in Vedic rituals.
Baudhayana's work involves geometric principles used to create square and rectangular altars.
2. Apastamba (circa 600 BCE):
 Apastamba's Sulbasutra contains geometric constructions for altars and sacrificial fire pits. His
work demonstrates the use of geometric techniques for practical applications in ancient religious
rituals.
3. Aryabhata (476-550 CE):
 Aryabhata extended geometric concepts into astronomy and cosmology. He calculated the Earth's
circumference and diameter and explained the concept of the rotation of the Earth on its axis.
 His astronomical work "Aryabhatiya" includes discussions of planetary positions, eclipses, and
the geometry of celestial bodies.
4. Brahmagupta (598-668 CE):
 Brahmagupta's work "Brahmasphutasiddhanta" contains geometrical theorems and solutions to
geometric problems. He provided detailed explanations of geometric principles in the context of
astronomy and mathematics.
 He formulated rules for calculating areas of various shapes, including triangles, quadrilaterals, and
circles.
5. Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
 Bhaskara II made contributions to both algebra and geometry. His work "Lilavati" included
geometric problems and solutions.
 He discussed geometric constructions, such as drawing perpendicular lines and bisecting angles,
using a straightedge and compass.
6. Indian Architecture:
 Ancient Indian mathematicians contributed to architectural geometry, as evidenced by the intricate
and mathematically precise construction of temples and buildings. The use of geometry in
architecture is reflected in the layouts, proportions, and ornamentation of structures.
7. Art and Sculpture:
 Geometry played a vital role in the creation of sculptures and artworks in ancient India. Statues
and sculptures were often crafted with careful attention to geometric proportions and symmetry.
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While these mathematicians often integrated geometry into other fields like astronomy and
architecture, their contributions laid the groundwork for a deeper understanding of geometric concepts.
The geometric principles they developed were both practical and theoretical, influencing diverse areas of
ancient Indian society, from religious practices to scientific understanding.

Some Significant aspects of geometry:

Yajñas formed a very important part of Vedic life. The performance of Vedic rituals involved constructing
various Vedic altars (yajña-vedis) as per certain specifications. The Brahmana portion of the Yajurveda
contains details about the arrangement of the sacrificial ground and the construction of the altars. For this
purpose, one first fixes cardinal directions and then goes on to construct altars of different shapes and
dimensions using prefabricated bricks. Sulba-sütras gives exact methods for the construction of such
altars. On account of these, the birth of Indian geometry can clearly be traced to the Vedic times.
Sulba-sütras are a part of the Vedänga. These sûtras give information on the methods of the layout of the
vedi, citi, and the mandapa. Sulba means a thread and with the help of a thread and a pin (or a pole),
construction methods for various shapes have been described in the Sulba-sutras. The four sulba-sutras
attributed to Bodhayana, Manu, Apastambha, and Katyana are the predominant ones. We also have śulba-
sutras due to Maitrayana, Varäha, and Vadhula. The oldest of the śulba-sutras attributed to Bodhayana is
estimated to have been written prior to 800 BCE. Sulba-sutras are manuals for the construction of Vedic
altars. Therefore, Sulba sutras also discuss the manufacturing of bricks, thereby indicating a good
knowledge of the materials and manufacturing processes which seems to have prevailed in those times.
1. Property of Right-angled Triangle in Sulba-sütras

In current mathematical texts, we are taught an

important theorem being attributed to Pythagoras
(570-495 BCE). However, the first general
statements of this so-called Pythagoras theorem is
actually found in the Sulba-sutras. In the
Baudhayana-sulba-sūtra (prior to 800 BCE), the
theorem is stated in the following form (this result
is known by name Bhuja-koti- karna-nyaya): The
sum of the areas of the squares formed by the
length and breadth of a rectangle equals the area
produced by the diagonal of the rectangle". Let us
consider a rectangle of length a and breadth b. Let
the diagonal of the rectangle be c. According to the
Figure - Baudhayana Formula
Baudhayana formula, a2+b2=c2. This is graphically
for Right – angled Triangle
illustrated in this Figure.

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2. The Value of π
Right from the Vedic period, Indians understood that the ratio of the area of a circle to its perimeter was
a constant and that this value can only be approximated. What is interesting is that there has been a
continuous evolution of the approximation of π from the Vedic period till the early 20 th century. Early
Indian works took the value of π as 3. Sulba-sütras estimated π as close to 3.088. Some Jaina works
approximated x as the square root of 10. In early 20th century Srinivasa Ramanujan discovered an infinite
series which was later used during the 1980s to approximate π to 17.5 million places. Aryabhatiyam
discusses π in the following verse. (Ganitapada, 2.10):

The following table summarize the different approximations to value of π that were discovered in the
Indian tradition right from the Vedic terms to the time of Ramanujan.
History of Approximation to π by Indian Mathematicians.

Source: Indian Knowledge System by B Mahadevan.

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C. The contributions of Great Mathematicians in Ancient India to trigonometry
The great mathematicians of ancient India made significant contributions to the field of trigonometry,
which deals with the study of the relationships between the angles and sides of triangles. Their work laid
the foundation for many trigonometric concepts and methods that are still used today.
1. Aryabhata (476-550 CE):
 Aryabhata's work "Aryabhatiya" includes discussions of trigonometry, particularly the calculation
of trigonometric values.
 He provided trigonometric tables and calculations for sine values, which were crucial for
astronomy and other mathematical applications.
 Aryabhata introduced the concept of "jya," which is half the chord of an angle, and used it to
calculate sine values.
2. Brahmagupta (598-668 CE):
 Brahmagupta's work "Brahmasphutasiddhanta" also included trigonometric concepts.
 He provided methods for calculating the areas of triangles and cyclic quadrilaterals using
trigonometric principles.
 Brahmagupta's contributions furthered the understanding of angles and their relationships in
geometry.
3. Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
 Bhaskara II's work "Lilavati" included in-depth discussions of trigonometry.
 He introduced the concept of versine (haversine) and covered the calculations of trigonometric
values and their applications in various scenarios.
 Bhaskara II developed methods for solving trigonometric equations and solving triangles using
trigonometric principles.
4. Madhava of Sangamagrama (1350-1425 CE):
 Madhava is known for developing infinite series expansions for trigonometric functions like sine,
cosine, and arctangent.
 His work laid the groundwork for later developments in calculus, and he is often credited with
early insights into the concept of limits.
These mathematicians contributed for accurate calculations of distances, angles, and celestial positions.
The trigonometric techniques developed in ancient India were transmitted to other cultures and
civilizations, influencing the further development of mathematics and science around the world.

Some Significant aspects of trigonometry:

Ancient Indians used to call yotpatti to current Trigonometry that is the science of computation of chords
in Indian mathematics Consider a circle of radius R as shown in below given figure. DA = RO, is an arc.
AB = R sin , is called the jya corresponding to the arc, R. Earlier it was called jyärdha or half a bow-
string, but 21600 later it was just called 'jya. R is taken to be 21600 / 2 π = 3438, where the circumference
of the circle is 21,600 units (number of 'minutes' in a radian). OB = R cos  is called the kotijya or kojya
or cojya. Jīvā was another name for jyà.

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When this was transmitted to Arab countries,

jiva became jiba, which was read as 'jayb' in
Arabic. In common parlance, Jayb' was 'pocket
or 'fold in Arabic. When many mathematical
texts in Arabic were translated into Latin, jayb
got translated as 'Sinus, which means 'pocket'
or 'fold' in Latin. This eventually became 'sine’.
Since the complement of jya is known as kojyä,
the complement of sine became 'cosine' in
Figure - The Jya and Cojyà in Indian
Europe.
Mathematics

1. Computation of the 'R sines'

R sine values are required if we need to compute any quantity which involves the sine and cosine
functions. Let us consider the first quadrant in a circle, since the values of the R sines and R cosines in
other quadrants can be related in a simple manner to the values in the first quadrant. One way to obtain
these values is to divide the quadrant into certain parts and determine R sine values for these.

Once these values are available, one can

compute the other values of the angles by
interpolation. Let us consider one quadrant of a
circle as shown in this Figure. Let this quadrant
be divided into 24 parts (P0, P1, P2, … P24). Each
arc measures 90 / 24 = 3 degree 45 minutes. In
the figure, we are interested in the chord
lengths Pi Ni, which is R sin i. If we see the
triangle P2,N02,0 the chord length P2N2, is the
sine of the right-angle triangle of angle 6. For
any chord in between these 24 chords, 1st order
or 2nd order interpolation is used to get the
Figure: Arcs of Quadrant of a Circle intermediate values.

Aryabhata has provided two methods to derive the sine tables. A geometric method, and an analytical
method which resembles the discrete version of the harmonic equation as we know today.
Nilakantha (1500 CE) provided a much accurate estimate of R sine differences by providing a correction
to the Aryabhata’s formula. According to him, “the first R sine divided by itself and then diminished by
the quotient gives the second R sine difference.

V. Introduction to Vedic Mathematics

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Vedic Mathematics is a system of mathematics that originated in ancient India and is based on the Vedas,
a collection of ancient Hindu scriptures. It's a holistic and simplified approach to mathematics that
provides techniques for performing complex calculations quickly and efficiently. The term "Vedic
Mathematics" was coined in the early 20th century by Swami Bharati Krishna Tirtha, who compiled and
systematized the mathematical techniques found in the Vedas.
Vedic Mathematics comprises a set of sixteen sutras (aphorisms) and thirteen sub-sutras that provide
various methods and shortcuts for arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and calculus. These sutras are concise
statements that offer general principles or strategies for solving mathematical problems.
Some key aspects of Vedic Mathematics:
1. Simplicity and Coherence: Vedic Mathematics emphasizes simplicity and coherence in mathematical
operations. It provides techniques that reduce complex calculations to simpler steps, making it easier for
students to understand and apply mathematical concepts.
Example: Multiplying by 11: Traditional multiplication by 11 can be complex for larger numbers.
In Vedic Mathematics, a simple method called "Nikhilam Sutra" makes it easier. For instance,
multiply 23 by 11.
Explanation: Write the number to be multiplied (23) with a space in between: 2 _ 3. Add the two
digits together: 2 + 3 = 5. Place the result in the middle: 2 5 3. That's the answer, 253.
2. Sixteen Sutras: The sixteen main sutras cover a wide range of mathematical operations, including
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, factorization, and more. Each sutra is a mnemonic phrase
that encapsulates a specific technique or approach.
Example: Multiplication of Numbers Near a Base: Use the "Ekadhikena Purvena" sutra to
multiply numbers near a base, such as 97 × 96.
Explanation: The base here is 100. Find the difference of each number from the base: 97 - 100 =
-3 and 96 - 100 = -4. Multiply these differences: -3 × -4 = 12. Add it to the original numbers'
product: 97 × 96 = 9312.
3. Flexibility: One of the strengths of Vedic Mathematics is its flexibility. The techniques can be applied
in various ways, allowing individuals to choose the method that suits their understanding and the nature
of the problem.
Example: Division by 9: Traditional long division can be cumbersome. In Vedic Mathematics,
use the "Nikhilam Sutra" to simplify. Divide 567 by 9.
Explanation: Write down the quotient's digits as if you're performing long division: 0 _ _. Add
the digits of the dividend: 5 + 6 + 7 = 18. Place this sum in the blank: 0 1 8. The quotient is 63.
4. Mental Calculation: Vedic Mathematics places a strong emphasis on mental calculation, enabling
individuals to perform calculations mentally without the need for pen and paper. This skill is particularly
useful for rapid calculations.
Example: Squaring Numbers Ending in 5: To square 25 mentally, use the "Antyayor Dasake"
sutra.
Explanation: The number ends in 5, so the answer must end in 25. Multiply the digit before 5 (2)
by the next consecutive digit (3): 2 × 3 = 6. Place 6 before 25: 625.

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5. Universality: The techniques of Vedic Mathematics are not limited to specific types of problems. They
can be applied across various mathematical domains, from basic arithmetic to more advanced algebraic
and geometric problems.
Example: Finding Cube Roots: The "Yavadunam Tavadunikritya Vargancha Yojayet" sutra helps
find cube roots. Find the cube root of 13824.
Explanation: The cube root of 13824 involves breaking it down into parts: 13 and 824. Find the
cube root of 13: 2. Add it to the quotient and square it: 2 + 2^2 = 6. The cube root of 13824 is 24.
6. Applications: Vedic Mathematics has applications in a wide range of fields, including education,
competitive exams, professional fields requiring quick calculations, and even recreational mathematics.
Example: Calculations in Competitive Exams: Vedic Mathematics can simplify calculations in
exams. For instance, finding squares and cubes, which are common questions in many tests.
7. Criticism and Debate: While Vedic Mathematics has gained popularity and proponents, it has also
faced criticism and skepticism from the mainstream mathematical community. Some mathematicians
argue that some Vedic techniques are not more efficient than standard methods and that the historical
accuracy of the techniques attributed to the Vedas is questionable.
Example: Critics argue that some Vedic techniques might not always be more efficient than
traditional methods for everyone. For instance, using the "Urdhva-Tiryagbhyam" sutra for
multiplication can be faster for some people but not necessarily for all.
8. Modern Interpretations: In recent times, Vedic Mathematics has been integrated into modern
education systems and is taught in various schools and institutions. Some educators have incorporated
Vedic techniques as alternative methods for solving mathematical problems.
Example: Educational Integration: Vedic Mathematics is incorporated into school curricula as an
alternative approach to traditional methods, helping students explore different ways of solving
problems.
Vedic Mathematics is a system of mathematical techniques that draws inspiration from ancient Hindu
scriptures. It offers a unique approach to solving mathematical problems through concise and mnemonic
sutras, emphasizing simplicity, flexibility, and mental calculation. While its historical origins and
effectiveness are subjects of debate, Vedic Mathematics continues to influence the way mathematics is
taught and learned in various contexts.

3. Astronomy
I. Astronomy
It is a branch of science, that studies celestial objects, space and physical universe as a whole using
concepts from mathematics.
II. Indians to the development of Astronomy
 Ancient Indians have contributed to the study of astronomy in very significant ways and laid the
foundations for its growth in the days to come. Indians have developed an intense sense of enquiry
and a natural curiosity about heavenly body and celestial objects.

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 Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the
cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their
overall evolution.

 Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, galaxies, meteoroids, asteroids, and
comets. Relevant phenomena include supernova explosions, gamma ray bursts, quasars, blazars,
pulsars, and cosmic microwave background radiation.

 More generally, astronomy studies everything that originates beyond Earth's atmosphere.
Cosmology is a branch of astronomy that studies the universe as a whole.

 Astronomy is one of the oldest natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history made
methodical observations of the night sky.

 These include the Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Chinese, Maya, and many ancient
indigenous peoples of the Americas. In the past, astronomy included disciplines as diverse as
astrometry, celestial navigation, observational astronomy, and the making of calendars.

Sr. No. Details of the work Period location Salient contribution

1 Author not known- Prior to 6th century This is very popular now among the
Surya Siddhanta CE traditional scholars and calendar makers.
2 Varahamihira- Pancha 6th century CE Presents an updated summary of five ancient
Siddhantika siddhantas.
3 Aryabhata- 476 CE A section on mathematics, foundations of
Aryabhatiya trigonometry, calculation of the sine
function, rotation of the earth, accurate
algorithms for the position of the sun, the
moon and planets.
4 Bhaskara I- 7th Century Commentary on Aryabhatiya explaining its
Aryabhatiya mathematics and astronomy in details.

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5 Bramhagupta 7th Century A detailed system of calculations pertaining
to the sun, the moon and plannets.
6 Lalla- 8th -9th century A textbook which expounds on the
Aryabhatan system, with new algorithms.
7 Manjulacarya 10th Century An exsplicit expression for the second
correction to the longitude of Moon.
8. Sripati 11th Century An important text quoted by the later
astronomers.
9. Bhaskarcarya II 11th Century Most of standard calculations and algorithms
in Indian astronomy.
10. Raja Sawai Jai Singh 16th Century Built famous observatories in several parts of
North India.

III. Astrology
 Astrology is the study of the positions and movements of the planets, sun, moon, and stars, and
their supposed influence on human events and character. It's not considered an exact science.

 Astrology has roots in ancient philosophies, and many cultural astrology systems use different
methods than those in the West. For example, Hindu astrology, also known as Vedic astrology,
and Chinese astrology have influenced the world's cultural history.

 Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky. Early evidence for humans
making conscious attempts to measure, record, and predict seasonal changes by reference to
astronomical cycles, appears as markings on bones and cave walls, which show that lunar
cycles were being noted as early as 25,000 years ago. This was a first step towards recording the
Moon's influence upon tides and rivers, and towards organizing a communal calendar. Farmers
addressed agricultural needs with increasing knowledge of the constellations that appear in the
different seasons—and used the rising of particular star-groups to herald annual floods or seasonal
activities. Astronomy and Astrology both are different.

 The difference between Astronomy and Astrology is given as follows:

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Astronomy Astrology
1. Astronomy is the branch of science that Astrology is a nonscientific practice in which a
studies everything outside of Earth’s person uses the position of celestial objects (such
atmosphere. as stars and planets) to make conclusions about
people or future events.
2. This includes things in our solar system, It is a common belief in astrology that a person’s
such as the sun, the moon, and the other personality traits align with the zodiacal
planets. constellation that was in the sky when they were
born.
3. It also includes things located very far As well, astrologers believe that a horoscope (a
away in outer space, such as other map of the position of the stars and planets) can
galaxies, distant stars, and black holes. be used to predict a person’s future.
4. Astronomers (people who study Astrologers (people who study astrology) believe
astronomy) may also research subatomic that celestial objects are linked to human
particles and theoretical things that may behavior.
be out in space, such as dark matter.
Astronomy often involves the use of
scientific equipment, such as telescopes
and satellites.
5. Astronomy relies on the proper use of Astrology, on the other hand, makes predictions
the scientific method and scientific or conclusions that can’t be proved or disproved
research to make verifiable conclusions and uses logic that is often based on cultural
that can be tested with repeatable traditions rather than scientific research or a
experiments. scientific understanding of the universe.

IV The Celestial Co-ordinate System

 Celestial coordinates are a system of numbers that specify the location of objects in the sky. They
are based on a reference frame that uses physical reference points to locate objects.
 A celestial coordinate system is a mechanism for specifying positions of planets, stars and other
celestial objects relative to physical reference points available to an observer situated on the earth.
 It helps to locate a celestial luminary using a three dimensional or a spherical plane.
 The celestial pole is an imaginary large sphere concentric to the earth.

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 All the objects in the sky can be projected on the celestial sphere. The celestial north pole and
celestial south pole are equator is concentric to the earth’s equator.
 Equatorial coordinate system: The most common system for astronomical observations. It uses
right ascension (RA) and declination (DEC) to identify an object's position on the celestial sphere.
RA is similar to longitude and is measured in hours, minutes, and seconds. DEC is similar to
latitude and is measured in degrees, arcminutes, and arcseconds.
 Horizontal coordinate system: Uses the observer's horizon as a reference. It measures an object's
altitude (height above the horizon) and azimuth (angular distance from due north). The position
of an object depends on the observer's location and the time of observation.
 Galactic coordinates: Measured relative to Earth's orbital plane.
 Ecliptic system: Measured relative to Earth's orbital plane.

 The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere with an infinite radius centered on Earth. The sky
appears different depending on the observer's location on Earth.

V. Indian Calendar
 A calendar is a method for counting systematically and continuously the successive days by cyclic
periods such as year and months.
 Calendaring is done based on two luminaries in the sky, namely the Sun and the Moon.
 One of the critical uses of astronomy is to calendar the time and identify seasons, which are related
to the relative movement of the Sun with respect to the Earth.
 The Indians system of astronomy has dealt with this elaborately as evidenced in the Vedic text.
 In the Vedic text we merely find the description of these elements, the computation details of these
are found in Vedanga Jyotisa, through approximate and simple.
 Mathematicians introduced formal methods for mathematical computations of the calendar.
 The elements of indian calendar are given as follows:
a. Solar year
b. Lunar Year and
c. Savana Year

Solar Year Savana Year Lunar Year

Year 12 solar Months (366 days) 12 savana months (360 days) 12 Lunar Months (354 days)
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Month 30.5 days 30 days 29.5 days
Yuga 60 solar months 61 savana months 62 Lunar Months
Remarks Known as Samvatsara Known as Idavatsara Known as Anuvastara

VI. Pancanga
A Panchanga, is a traditional calendar that includes five components, each representing different aspects
of time and cosmic influences.

Tithi (Lunar Day): Tithi refers to the lunar day and is based on the phases of the moon. It represents the
distance between the Sun and Moon, and each Tithi is associated with a specific angle between the Sun
and Moon. There are 30 Tithis in a lunar month, and they are crucial for determining auspicious and
inauspicious times for various activities, especially religious ceremonies.
Vara (Weekday): Vara represents the weekday and is based on a seven-day week. Each day of the week
is associated with a specific planet or deity, and the significance of each day may vary across different
regions and traditions. For example, Sunday is associated with the Sun (Surya) and is considered
auspicious for worshiping deities associated with solar energy.
Nakshatra (Lunar Mansion): Nakshatra refers to the lunar mansion and represents the position of the
Moon in the sky relative to the fixed stars. There are 27 Nakshatras, each spanning 13°20' of the ecliptic.
Nakshatras play a crucial role in astrology and are used for determining auspicious timings for various
activities, such as marriages and travel.
Yoga (Conjunction): Yoga represents the union or conjunction between the Sun and the Moon and is
based on specific combinations of their longitudes. There are 27 Yogas, each associated with different
qualities and effects. Yogas are used in astrology for determining auspicious and inauspicious times for
various activities and events.
Karana (Half-day): Karana refers to the half-day and is based on specific combinations of Tithis. There
are 11 Karanas, each lasting for a varying duration. Karanas are used in Hindu astrology for determining
auspicious timings for various activities, such as starting a journey or initiating a business venture.

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VII. The efforts of Raja Sawai Jai Singh
 The efforts of Raja Sawai Jai Singh (1686-1743 CE) of Jaipur towards the fostering of scientific
observational practices with the combined use of Indian, Arabic, and European advances in
astronomy mark a significant milestone in the history of Indian astronomy.
 Jai Singh was an astronomer himself, being trained in his early years on the subject. He collected
texts of all three traditions and studied them himself. Although he was trained in Indian astronomy
he was not satisfied with the use of old data on astronomical constants.
 Therefore he prepared metallic instruments after making some improvements but found that the
accuracy of his instruments was still not satisfactory
 Jai Singh also believed that European instruments were not large and suffered from errors.
 Jai Singh created a versatile astronomical observatory by setting up a group of essential
instruments in one place. These observatories known as Jantar mantar were built in five places:
Delhi, Jaipur, Varanasi, Ujjain, and Mathura during his regime.
 Sawai Jai Singh imagined that European astronomers had employed telescopes to track the motion
of stars and planets at the start of the seventeenth century.
 The Jantar Mantar is a collection of 19 astronomical instruments built by the Rajput king Sawai
Jai Singh, the founder of Jaipur, Rajasthan. The monument was completed in 1734.
 It is near City Palace and Hawa Mahal. The instruments allow the observation of astronomical
positions with the naked eye. The observatory is an example of the Ptolemaic positional astronomy
which was shared by many civilizations.
 The observatory consists of nineteen instruments for measuring time, predicting eclipses, tracking
location of major stars as the Earth orbits around the Sun, ascertaining the declinations of planets,
and determining the celestial altitudes and related ephemerides.
 Nineteenth astronomical instruments are enlisted as:
1) Chakra Yantra 2) Dakshin Bhitti Yantra 3) Digamsha Yantra
4) Disha Yantra 5) Dhruva Darshak Pattika 6) Jai Prakash Yantra
7) Kapali Yantra 8) Kanali Yantra 9) Kranti Vritta Yantra
10) Laghu Samrat Yantra 11) Nadi Valaya Yantra 12) Palbha Yantra
13) Rama Yantra 14) Rashi Valaya Yantra 15) Shastansh Yantra
16) Unnatamsa Yantra 17) Misra Yantra 18) Vrihat Samrat Yantra
19) Yantra Raj Yantra

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4. Metallurgy
This is a gold coin of the Gupta king Samudragupta (330-376 CE) kept at the British
Museum Samudragupta, with halo, standing facing left wearing cap, decorated coat and
trousers and earrings, holding a spear in left hand and making an offering with right
hand over altar. In left field is a Garuda standard with ribbons and crescent above.
Stamping such coins with intricate details requires knowledge of mining, extraction of
Gold and further metal forming techniques such as die casting.
Source: [Link] Jpg

Wootz Steel: The rise and Fall of a great Technology

Wootz steel is a unique Indian process of making steel, which was widely sought for manufacturing of
swords in the eastern Mediterranean region as such a quality of steel was simply not available elsewhere. Wootz
steel was produced as early as 700 BCE in several places in India and exported to and traded throughout ancient
Europe and the Arab world. It became particularly famous in the Middle east for manufacture of Damascus swords.
This sword is known for its edge sharpness, flexibility, strength and the typical surface structure on the sword's
surface. The word 'wootz' might have originally been wook; the Tamil language root word for the alloy is urukku.
Other Dravidian languages have similar-sounding words for steel. Ukku, is the word for steel in Kannada and Telugu
languages.

In the 12th century CE, the Arab Edrisi mentioned that the Hindus excelled in the manufacture of iron and
that it was impossible to find anything to surpass the edge of Indian steel. Arabs took ingots of wootz steel to
Damascus following which a thriving industry developed there for making weapons and armour. By the end of the
17th century CE, shipments running into tens of thousands of wootz ingots were traded from the Coromandel coast
to Persia. This indicates that the production of wootz steel This almost on an industrial scale predating the Industrial
Revolution in Europe. In India till the 19th century CE, swords and daggers of wootz steel were made at centres
including Lahore, Amritsar, Agra, Jaipur, Gwalior, Tanjavur, Mysore, and Golconda. Unfortunately, none of these
centres survive today.

Because of the oral tradition followed in India, not too many records were available documenting the
process of wootz production. It is mainly the European travelers such as Buchanan in 1807, Benjmain Heyne in
1818, H W Voysey in 1832, and Josiah Marshall Heath in 1840 who left detailed accounts. However, Wootz steel
caught the attention of scientists in England, France, Russia, and Sweden.

As England had colonized India, there was considerable interest in studying wootz steel. Michael Faraday,
the inventor of electricity was fascinated by wootz steel and enthusiastically studied it. Along with the cutler
Stodart, Faraday attempted to study how to make Damascus steel - and they incorrectly concluded that aluminium
oxide and silica additions contributed to the properties of the steel and published their results in 1820. Though
Faraday could not replicate the wootz steel, he is hailed as the father of alloy steel. After careful studies, the
Scientists in the West discovered the composition and microstructure of the steel and their relation to mechanical
properties. This laid the foundations of modern materials science and the investigations on wootz steel continue to
inspire researchers to this day.

Recent investigations on the properties of the ultra-high carbon wootz steel such as super- plasticity justify
it being called an advanced material 5 of the ancient world with not merely a past but also 5 perhaps a future.
Unfortunately, on the other hand, the British Raj I introduced production taxes and mining bans. This must have
been partly responsible for the disruption of mining and steel manufacture. Eventually, it may have contributed to
the loss of know-how in India in the last 150 years.
Source: Based on Ranganathan, S. and Srinivasan, S. (2006). "A Tale of Wootz steel" Resonance (June 2006), pp. 67-77 and Prakash, B. (1977).
"Metals and Metallurgy", Chapter 3 [3.2] in History of Technology in India Vol. I, A.K Bag (Ed.), Indian National Science Academy, New Delhi, pp.
80-174, and other published material.
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Science, Engineering, and Technology (S & T) are the buzzwords of the last two centuries. Everything
we learn in our educational system today on S & T has its origin in the West. Furthermore, the
technological innovations that we benefit from and the products that we use are also of Western origin.
Of late, there have been more activities in the Indian S & T sector, and we seem to be catching up with
the cutting-edge technology of the world with great difficulty. The pace and spread of current
technological developments have overshadowed our history and make us believe that the ancestral
societies other than the West have very little to contribute to the S & T ecosystem. We also tend to believe
that all that we have in the last 250-500 years are the only living example of S & T. On account of these,
an average well-educated Indian believes that Science and Technology are of Western origin and India
has very little to contribute. If we go by this logic, then the medieval society ought to have had a very
simple and primitive living in which S & T played practically no role. In this chapter and a few that follow,
we focus on this aspect.

THE INDIAN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY HERITAGE:

Indian civilisation has a rich heritage spanning over the recorded history of the last two millennia.
Several archaeological and literary resources point the existence of a vibrant community in antiquity.
Several artifacts, relics, and physical structure dot the length and breadth of the country that bears
testimony to this. In the earlier chapters of the book, we discussed in some detail the scientific heritage of
ancient Indians and their contributions. We were able to see how with a well-developed body of
knowledge in Mathematics, Astronomy, and other fields several theoretical foundations were laid for the
benefit of the scientific community. However, we are not aware if Engineering and Technology were part
of ancient Indian society. Did our ancestors have any knowledge of S & T? If so, how did they employ
the knowledge and how did they benefit from it?
We can approach this question by exploring if there is any evidence of the use of S & T in ancient times.
The evidence could be from any of the following three:
(a) The archaeological evidence that shows how S & T ought to have been deployed in ancient times
(b) Living examples of physical entities that point to the use of good S & T practices
(c) Literary resources pointing to the use of S & T in ancient times
Archaeological excavations in the last 150 years in India have fetched a rich collection of artefacts
that reveal several clues to the Engineering and Technology heritage of ancient Indians. Amongst other
things, the excavations of Kalibangan in Rajasthan and Lothal in Gujarat have revealed functional town-
planning, dwelling houses built of different sizes of burnt bricks but of a standard proportion of
dimensions, tiled flooring, well-developed drainage systems, and pottery which are both utilitarian as well
as decorated. Furthermore, it also points to agricultural operations, shipbuilding, metalworking, especially
iron and steel, copper, and zinc, and a host of other skilled crafts such as intricate bead-making, and
jewellery among the people. Excavations show that Lothal had a man-made dock for berthing boats (or
smaller size ships)-a trapezoid basin measuring about 214 m x 36 m. What appears to be the largest
maritime structure of the times, had facilities for loading and unloading. There are studies on town
planning and architectural developments, skill, and developments. Archaeological and literary evidence
suggests that using the technology they were making military equipment, agricultural implements,
ornamental pieces (see Figure 10.1 for an example from 1st century BCE), idols, coins, and a host of other
items for medical applications. They were also adept at extracting Mercury and using it in alchemy.

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Several travellers' accounts (such as that of Herodotus, Ktesias, Hiuen Tsang, and Pliny) reveal how
famous the Indian metalsmiths were for their quality and workmanship.

MINING & ORE EXTRACTION:

In technology, ancient Indian's contributions to metalworking, metallurgy, and material science are
noteworthy. Indian metalsmiths had notable achievements, particularly developing unique skills in mining
and working with iron and steel, copper and its alloys, and zinc. Archaeological examination of the
vicinity of the major mining centres of modern India viz., Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba, Rampura-Agucha,
Khetri, Chamba, Deri-Ambaji, Singhbhum, Chitradurga, and Cudappah presents an interesting picture.
These locations have extensive ancient mine workings and debris, and heaps of slags and retorts.
Furthermore, a study of the ruins of temples and townships in
various places in India corroborates the degree to which
mining, and metalworking have developed in ancient India.
From an analysis of the archaeological specimens obtained
one can infer the skill and technical superiority exhibited by
our ancestors in metallurgical works, which we seem to be
largely unaware of.
In April 1980, the Hindustan Zinc Limited (HZL)
sponsored a three-year research project on the recovery of
zinc from the ancient slags which was successfully conducted
at the Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur. In 1982, HZL
collaborated with the British Museum Research Laboratory
and the Department of Archaeology, M.S. University of
Baroda on archaeological investigations which led to the
discovery of the zinc distillation outfit, including furnaces
and retorts showing the production strategy. Extensive archaeological and archaeo-material Investigations
followed. These investigations suggest that the tradition of underground mining in India goes back to the
thirteenth century BCE. For example, excavations in the South Lode (100 m depth) of Rajpura-Dariba
mine (80 km north-east of Udaipur) have been C-14 dated as 1260 BCE, 1130 BCE, and 1050 BCE. In
Zawar, about 30 km south-west from Udaipur, the ancient mines (earliest C-14 date obtained is 430 BCE)
are found, both opencast and underground confirming widespread underground mining of lead-zinc ores
in the southers Rajasthan during the 5th-4th centuries BCE onwards. The art of smelting zinc ore and
recovery of zinc metal by distillation must have been discovered before the 4th century BCE. This is
supported by the discovery of a brass vase containing 34.34% zinc in Takşaśilā.
The excavation of an early historic iron smelting site near Dhatwa in the Tapti valley in Surat
District of Gujarat led to an investigation into the metallurgical technology of the site This revealed
evidence of an iron-smelting industry in the form of iron objects, heaps of iron metallurgical tap slag, and
pieces of iron ore in layers 3, 2, 1, and on the surface of the mound. Large amounts of iron objects and
slag were recovered from layers 1 and 2 suggesting that the industry must have developed over time.
Radiocarbon dating of mine timber and charcoal shows that large-scale mining took place between
Chalcolithic (early Iron Age in India) and 1800 years ago. Hindustan Zinc Limited has given information
on the history of mining and smelting at Zawar, Rajpura-Dariba, and Rampura-Agucha. Several remains
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of the mining process are available to date in the Zawar mines. Samples have been taken from here for
carbon dating. Radiocarbon dating of the remains of wooden stairways, haulage scaffolds, and other
artefacts retrieved from the ancient mines indicate that lead-zinc mining existed as far back as 500 BCE.
Similarly, radiocarbon of pieces of mine timber, rope, and bamboo basket from the ancient workings
indicated that these mines were in production approximately 3000 years ago. Furthermore, a piece of lead
metal recovered from the slag dump was found to contain 97.5% lead and 150 ppm silver indicating
thereby that the smelting technology was advanced.
The ancient mining and ore extraction process across metals followed a somewhat similar
methodology. This involved fire-setting and quenching with water to create cracks in the rock followed
by extraction of ore with hammering, chiselling, and scrapping tools. The mining operations left a series
of open cut at the top and the excavations were supported by timber. Earthen pitchers were used for
carrying water and wooden trolleys for transportation of the ore.
Ancient Indians developed skills to explore ore deposits and mine portions that are remunerative.
There are studies providing intricate details on how the ancient Indians were performing the copper
mining in the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. Using an initial process of firing and quenching to crack the ore,
they knew how to extract the ore using hammers and chisels. They also developed some methods for
further processing of the ore to obtain the molten metal. Underground excavations up to nearly 500 feet
are visible in several areas in these hill regions. There are several tunnels of dimension 5 ft x 4 ft and these
have some provisions for improving the atmospheric conditions at that level. The mining process involved
a few steps. First, the ore was dislodged by setting the fire. Further, it was quenched in water, and using
a chisel and hammer it was extracted. These extracted ores were carried out of the mines by the labourers
in their heads for further processing.
To crack the ore, large quantities (about 6-7 tonnes) are stacked and set fire. The workers
immediately leave the mines only to return after three days. The studies on the mining process suggest
that each worker proceeded into the mine with a chisel, lamp, and a small basket. The lamp placed on his
head provided not only illumination but also helped him identify the glittering particles of ore. While at
work the miner seated upon his heels with the lamp upon his head, the hammer in his right hand and the
chisel in his left hand, and the small basket upon his knee in which he received all the fragments of ore
that were struck off by the chisel. The basket was passed through a chain of workers, and in this manner,
the ore was cascaded to the surface eventually.
Once the ore is brought to the surface, they were finely powdered using heavy hammers, so that
they are conducive for the roasting process. The powdered ore was mixed with cow- dung and made into
rolls about four inches long which were dried first in the Sun and then roasted in the open air in a fire of
cow-dung cake. The ore was then ready for smelting. There is enough evidence to show the smelting of
the ore using locally built furnaces, cemented with clay having nozzles and bellows. Using a pair of sticks,
the bellow valve was built and they were opened when the bag was raised for blowing the air. Through a
hole made at the bottom of the furnace, the molten metal was stirred and drawn out. After lighting the
furnace, the ore was gradually introduced alternatively with charcoal and flux (refuse from the old iron
furnaces).

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METALS AND METALWORKING TECHNOLOGY:
In modern times metals and alloys play an important role in our lives. Several engineering gadgets
and equipment make use of a variety of metals and their alloys. Ancient Indians have made use of base
metals and alloys in multiple ways. This includes the making of military aids, ornaments, vessels, tools,
artefacts, statues, and coins to name a few. In particular, Indians were known to be quite advanced in iron
and steel, and zinc. The archaeological findings of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro as well as in burial sites
in South India have artefacts in Gold, Silver, Copper, and Bronze. The bronze statue of a dancing girl
found at Mohenjo-Daro bears testimony to the technological skills of the ancient craftsmen. The statue is
evidence of the skills of the craftsmen in drilling fine holes and casting the statue using the lost wax
process (known in modern times as the cire-perdue process). In the Vedic texts, we find ample references
to Gold, Silver, iron, copper, and their alloys. Therefore, it is not surprising to find that mining, ore
processing, extraction of metals, methods for metalworking, and alloying were known to them. In this
section, we will see in more detail the above aspects of Indian metalworking and metallurgical principles".
A detailed study of the archaeological remains and the repository of literary works from 5th century
CE to 12th century CE, in addition to numerous references in the Vedic texts, clearly point to certain
unique aspects of metalworking and metallurgy in India during ancient and medieval times. Some of them
include the following:
 The smelters and metalsmiths had gained a high degree of knowledge regarding furnace design,
combustion of fuel, refractories, and skill in operating the furnaces at the desired temperature.
They were also aware of the temperature specifications and other conditions required to carry out
the process.
 The knowledge of the Indian metal smiths on Iron-Carbon alloy was clearly superior and ahead of
the times. This is evident from their ability to produce the famous wootz steel, which was in
demand in the West.
 Indians were the first to introduce Zinc to human civilisation and also to develop Cu- Zn alloys.
 The Indian metal smiths were also adept in alloy technology as they could produce alloys of
controlled composition.
 Indians developed good skills in designing and casting a variety of artefacts and deployed good
moulding and diecasting methods. The available evidence suggests that they were casting small
as well as large objects in the country.

GOLD EXTRACTION PROCESS:

The process for the extraction of Gold in ancient times has been analysed and documented by
Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. According to the available information, mercury was added to a mixture of black
sand and gold ore and mixture was rubbed with little common salt. After some time, the gold and mercury
would form an amalgam. The amalgam is separated by adding water to the mixture and agitating the
mixture The amalgam was rolled in a damp rag and the mercury. The squeezed off. Finally, it was burnt
in the fire to extraes the gold. If the gold was found alloyed with silver or other base metals, it was
hammered into a thin sheet between two stones. The plate was burnt in a two-layered cow-dung. The cow
dung absorbed the base metals, and the pure gold was separated. This shows that the technique of Hg

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(Mercury) amalgamation and gilding were apparently known to the Indian craftsmen from the very early
times.
However, the most common process of separation of native gold from the sand and quartz rock
employs a simple gravity separation or panning. In this process, the quartz is first crushed to a fine size
to extract the gold particle and then separate it by suspending the mixture in water. When the pan
containing the suspension is agitated under water gold particles settle at the bottom of the pan and the
sand and soil are washed away. In the case of a larger scale of operation, big pans were suspended in the
river water through a sling so that the mixture could be easily agitated.
The main purpose of the extraction of gold was to make ornaments and coins. It was also used to prepare
'Suvarņa Bhasma' in Ayurvedic preparations. Ancient craftsmen could subject the purified gold metal bar
to metalworking techniques such as forging, punching, embossing etc. so that ornaments of intricate
designs could be produced. It appears that ancient craftsmen could also use other metal forming
techniques such as rolling and wire drawing. Gold coins were either made by die casting in clay moulds
or by the technique of punch marking.

ZINC PRODUCTION:
Of all the base metals, zinc was perhaps the last to be discovered and used during the pre-Christian era.
A study by Hegde, Craddock, and Sonawala in 1984 concluded that India was this metal to the rest of the
world between 600 to 200 BEC. Geographically Rajasthan stands out as a major mining province dating
back to about 1000 BCE. Studies based on the debris and slag dump in the Zawar region of Rajasthan it
is estimated that about 15000 tonnes of Zinc ought to have been mined and processed. Zinc was exported
to other countries even before the 11th century CE. Studies on the Zawar zinc mines provide rich insights
into dies mining in ancient India. According to some other estimate bout 250000 tonnes of zinc
concentrates ought to have been extracted from about 2.5 million tonnes of ore in the mined area, before
modern mining operations commenced.
Extensive archaeological excavations conducted in several parts of Rajasthan clearly show that
the earliest artefact containing an appreciable amount of zinc anywhere in the world is from India. A
pioneering contribution of the Indian subcontinent in terms of the history of science and technology was
the mastery of the metallurgy of zinc production. In the Aravalli ranges of northwestern India, amongst
rich polymetallic mineral deposits one can see several mining galleries, slag heaps, and retorts which bear
testimony to the early extraction of lead and silver at Dariba and Agucha and, most uniquely of zinc, at
Zawar. The Zawar area near Udaipur has yielded unique evidence suggesting that the extraction of
metallic zinc flourished on an almost semi-industrial scale by the mid-14th century CE as indicated by
some carbon dates from the analysis of archaeo-metallurgical debris. Surveys and excavations revealed
the extensive presence of furnaces or koşthis, intended for an ingenious process of zinc extraction by
downward distillation.
Zinc smelting was done during the 9th century CE, which was upgraded to an industrial scale
around the 13th century CE. Several clay retorts, presumably used for zinc smelting are found scattered in
the ruins of Zawar. At Zawar elements of transport systems are evident, with zig-zag paths on slopes with
stone or wooden steps or ladders. The size of the passage on the main routes indicates that it would have
been possible to carry loads in baskets on the head. Since India had plenty of iron from the early days, the
tools used for extraction of the ore such as chisels, hammers, and scrappers were made of iron. For
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lighting, oil lamps were used, and the available evidence indicates that the lamps were placed at fixed
positions in the mining areas.
Ancient Indians adopted a novel technique of downward drift reduction distillation process for
Zinc production, which is a precursor to the modern processes
adopted all over the world. The Zinc has a melting point of 410°C
and a boiling point of 930°C. Moreover, in the open air at about
550°C Zinc gets oxidized to ZnO (Zinc Oxide). Therefore, the only
viable method to extract Zinc is to rapidly cool the Zinc vapour to
around 500°C to produce the liquid metal thereby preventing its
reoxidation. The ingenuity of the ancient Indians was making this
possible using the downward drift reduction distillation process.
Some studies suggest that in India the process of distillation of
water, wine, and probably mercury seat known even in the Vedic
period (Yajurveda). The distillation apparatus found near the ancient
Takşaśilā (Needham) was unique and much advanced. This system
uses a separate condenser tube fitted to the mouth of the distill to
carry the vapours to the condenser vessel which was water-cooled.
A similar apparatus called Damru-yantra was used for the
preparation of Ayurvedic formulations.
The principle of the downward drift distillation process can be explained in simple terms using
the description of a yantra available in Rasa-Ratna-Samuccaya (RRS) for extraction of Zinc, Mercury,
etc. Imagine having a pair of pots placed one over the other with their mouths aligned. What it means is
that the lower pot is in the normal position and the upper pot is placed upside down over the lower pot.
The upper inverted pot has a solid charge and is sealed with clay. It has a reed stick at the centre for the
escape of gases. During the processing, the upper pot is heated by building a firing platform around it.
Once it reaches 600°C, the reed is charred and burnt off, paving way for the reduced metal vapour to flow
downwards. The lower pot acts as a condenser and it has mechanisms for rapid cooling so that it can
convert the vapour into liquid metal. Figure 10.2 is a simple illustration of the yantra for the downward
distillation process.
A similar but advanced method was used by the Zawar smelters. The process used by them
consisted of the following steps. Zinc is extracted by smelting Zinc Sulphide ore. After sizing, the ore
was mixed with charcoal dust and fired into a heap to convert it into oxide by controlled roasting in an
oxidizing atmosphere. During this process, ZnS (Zinc Sulphide), PbS (Lead-II Sulphide), and other
sulphide minerals got converted to their respective oxide but no reduction of these oxides by carbon was
permitted. The roasted ore was mixed with more charcoal powder, salt, and borax as flux and thoroughly
mixed with cow dung and water, and then made into balls of 5 to 10 mm dia. by hand rolling. These
pellets were dried in Sun and then filled into the brinjal-shaped retorts. Many retorts have been found at
Zawar. They are of two principal sizes with a capacity of 750 c.c. and 2000 c.c. As described in RRS, the
main retort or crucible is in the shape of a brinjal. It was made from a clay mixture consisting of locally
available refractory clay, rice husk, and sometimes mixed with iron ore dust. Many such compositions
have been mentioned in ancient Indian literature.

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Copper Mining and Extraction Process:
India abounds in ancient specimens of copper. Utensils made of copper, owing to the peculiar
sanctity attached to it by ancient Indians, have been used in India from ancient times in the of religious
ceremonies. Wires made of performance copper and brass have from early times of stringed musical
instruments for which India has been famous A long and nourishing tradition of the copper Industry in
ancient India can be inferred from been used in the construction the following archaeological specimens.

• As many as 424 copper implements and weapons and 102 pieces of thin silver plates were discovered
in one place measuring about three feet in length, three feet in breadth, and four feet in depth in the
village of Gungeria in the Nagpur Division of the erstwhile Central Provinces in 1870 CE. The copper
implements were mostly celts, shovels, axe-blades, spades, manufactured for warlike, domestic, and
agricultural purposes. These have been kept in the Archaeological Department of the Indian Museum,
Kolkata. Figure 10.3 is a sample of copper swords belonging to pre-historic times.
• A big solid copper bolt was found in the Rampurwa Ashoka pillar near the frontiers FIGURE of the
Kingdom of Nepal. The bolt is barrel shaped in appearance, slightly tapering at the two ends. It is 242
inches long, with a circumference of 14 inches at the centre. The two ends of the bolt have a
circumference of about 12 inches. This bolt ought to have been fabricated as early as the third century
BCE, metallurgical skill of ancient Indians. thereby testifying to the high metallurgical skills of
Ancient Indians
• A colossal copper statue of Buddha was discovered at Sultanganj in the district of Bhagalpur in the
ruins of an old Buddhist monastery (see Figure 10.4).
• It was 7 feet 6 inches high and weighed nearly 1 ton. Based on the mode of its construction and
discovery of a coin belonging to the time of Candragupta II in the vicinity of the monastery, its date
is estimated to be 5th century CE. Lumps of copper ore were also found suggesting that the smelting
and casting operations were done on the spot. It has been taken away and preserved in the Birmingham
Museum.
• Another statue, 80 feet high was reportedly witnessed by the Chinese traveler Hieun Tsang near
Nalanda in a Vihara of brass constructed by King Siläditya (also known as King Harşavardhan who
ruled from 606-647 CE). According to Hiuen-Tsang "A pavilion of six stages is required to cover this

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gigantic copper: It was the work of Räjä Pürņavarman, the last descendant of King Ašoka, a king of
7th century CE.
• The principal use of copper was to mint coins by the kings. The punch-marked copper coins of many
kings of Northern India (1st century BCE), copper coins of the Kanishka 1st century CE), and the Gupta
kings have been found in many places. In Central and Southern India copper coins of the Andhra and
Khatrapa dynasties are amongst the earliest. Brass coins of kings of several other dynasties living at
that time have also been collected.
• One of the earliest copper plates was discovered in the village of Sohgaura, Gorakhpur district, with
inscriptions of Maurya Brahmi characters (320-230 BCE). The Sue Vihar inscriptions of Kaniska and
the Takşašilă plates are also amongst the earliest copper plates discovered in Northern India.
• One remarkable ancient copper ghoți or loța, was found by Major Hay in 1857 in the village of Kundla
in the Kangra district, Punjab. The vessel has an inscribed scene running around it which represents
Prince Siddhartha (later to become Buddha) going in a royal procession in a chariot drawn by four
horses. From the mode of the inscription use of copper in the utensil, making is dated anywhere
between 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE.

Extraction of Copper for Ayurvedic Purposes:

RRS gives a vivid account of the processes of extraction of copper and its use in the preparation
of various Ayurvedic formulations. According to RRS, there are two varieties of copper: pure (red) copper
from Nepal and the other impure or black copper (Mleccha). The Nepal copper was of high purity
(99.5%), brick red, and very ductile whereas the impure copper contained copper oxides and other
impurities like Pb, Sn, As, Zn, etc. which made it hard and brittle. RRS has mentioned many processes
for obtaining pure copper from chalcopyrite by smelting small charges in crucibles. In Ayurveda, copper
in the powder form (bhasma) is used for therapeutic formulations. Therefore, certain methods are
specified for the extraction of copper using lemon juice as a reductant. In this process, after purification
of chalcopyrite, the ore mineral is roasted at 750-900°C adding lemon juice at the rate of 100 cc per 100
g of the ore during the process. During the roasting process, Cu (Copper) and Fe (Iron) get converted to
citrates. The roasted ore is mixed with 25% Borax (flux) and more lemon juice, and the mixture is pressed
into 20-30 mm balls. After drying these balls in Sunlight, they are melted at 1250°C using a 4-stage
process. At the end of the process sulphide free copper is extracted.
Another process mentioned in the RRS is based on the precipitation of Cu from blue, vitriol
solution (CuSO4) by the process of cementation. In this process, concentrated CuSO, solution was kept
in an iron bowl, where on the surface a copper layer was formed following the reaction given below:
CuSO4 + Fe = FeSO4 + Cu
After some time, a thick layer of pure copper particles gets deposited on the iron surface. After removing
the solution, the copper is extracted by scraping it away from the iron surface. This pure copper is finally
washed with water free from Sulphur oxide and used for the preparation of copper bhasma.

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Copper Alloys:
Brass articles of the 1st century BCE to 1st century CE have been found on the excavation of some ancient
stupas at Māņikyālaya in 1830. Another inscribed brass urn of the same date as the former has been
discovered in a tope about 30 miles west of Kabul in Wardak district. This urn, which in shape and size
approaches closely the ordinary water vessels in use in India to this day, was originally thickly gilt and
its surface has, in consequence, remained well- preserved. Lothal (2200-1500 BCE) showed one highly
oxidized antiquity, another Harappan site of Ross (also in Gujarat), has yielded a few samples of the
chisel, cell, rod, and bangle, made of brass and assaying up to 1.54% zinc. The Chinese traveller Hiuen
Tsang has written that Indians knew the method of preparing brass from a mixture of copper and
Calamine. Hiuen Tsang has described a brass 'vihar' (unfinished convent) at Nalanda during the period of
Śilāditya (Harşavardhana) whose walls, doors, and windowsill all were covered with brass. On the other
hand, huge brass guns and cannons of the Moghul period bear testimony to the skills of the medieval
metalworkers. Table 10.1 has a list of brass objects discovered during various archaeological excavations
in different parts of the country.

Summary
Ancient Indian’s understanding of mining and metallurgy

India has been historically rich in mineral resources, and ancient Indians developed effective mining
techniques to exploit these resources.
 Evidence of Early Mining: Archaeological discoveries suggest that mining activities in India
date back to the Indus Valley Civilization (around 2500 BCE). Excavations at sites like Mohenjo-
Daro and Harappa reveal the use of copper, lead, and other metals, which implies that mining was
carried out on a considerable scale.

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 Innovative Techniques: Ancient Indians developed specialized methods to extract metals from
deep underground. For example, the Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka were operational over 2000
years ago, where extensive gold mining was conducted. Texts from ancient India describe
techniques to identify mineral-rich areas, dig shafts, and use mechanical means to lift ores from
deep mines.
 Support from Ancient Texts: Works like Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century BCE) provide
details about state control over mines, suggesting that mining was an organized, economically
significant activity. The text outlines the roles of miners and metallurgists, showing a systematic
approach to managing these resources

It can be understood from the following points:

 For over 7000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skills.
 The two important sources for the history of Indian metallurgy are archaeological excavations and
literary evidences.
 The first evidence of metal in Indian subcontinent comes from Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, where a
small copper bead was dated to about 6000 B.C.E. It is, however, thought to be native copper,
which has not been extracted from ore.
 Archaeological excavations have shown that Harappan metalsmiths obtained copper ore from
Aravalli Hills, Baluchistan or beyond.
 Many bronze figurines of humans and animals have been unearthed from Harappan sites.
 Systematic excavations at Mohenjodaro in Sindh and Harappa in Punjab show that during the
mature Harappan period, the metal workers perfected the metallurgical skill.
 Harrapans used metals like tin, arsenic, lead, antimony, etc., for alloying. They had also perfected
the wax technique of metal casting in as early as the third millennium B.C.E.
 They melted and forged a variety of objects from metals such as lead, silver, gold and copper.
They improved the hardness of copper for making artefacts by using tin and arsenic.

Gold mining and extraction process

 The process for the extraction of gold in ancient times has been analysed and documented by
Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. According to the available information, mercury was added to a mixture
of black sand and gold ore, and the mixture was rubbed with a little common salt. After some time,
the gold and mercury would form an amalgam. The amalgam is separated by adding water to the
mixture and agitating the mixture.
 The amalgam was rolled in a damp rag and the mercury was squeezed off. Finally, it was burnt in
the fire to extract the Gold.
 If the gold was found alloyed with silver or other base metals, it was hammered into a thin sheet
between two stones. The plate was burnt in a two-layered cow-dung. The cow dung absorbed the
base metals, and the pure gold was separated. This shows that the technique of Hg (Mercury)
amalgamation and gilding were apparently known to the Indian craftsmen from the very early
times.
 However, the most common process of separation of native gold from the sand and quartz rock
employs a simple gravity separation or panning. In this process, the quartz is first crushed to a fine
size to extract the gold particle and then separate it by suspending the mixture in water.
 When the pan containing the suspension is agitated under water gold particles settle at the bottom
of the pan and the sand and soil are washed away. In the case of a larger scale of operation, big
pans were suspended in the river water through a sling so that the mixture could be easily agitated.

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 The main purpose of the extraction of gold was to make ornaments and coins. It was also used to
prepare 'Suvarna Bhasma' in Ayurvedic preparations.
 Ancient craftsmen could subject the purified gold metal bar to metalworking techniques such as
forging, punching, embossing, etc. so that ornaments of intricate designs could be produced. It
appears that ancient craftsmen could also use other metal forming techniques such as rolling and
wire drawing.
 Gold coins were either made by die casting in clay moulds or by the technique of punch marking.

Zinc mining and extraction process:

 There is archaeological evidence of zinc production in Rajasthan at Zawar around the sixth or fifth
B.C.E.
 Due to low boiling point, zinc tends to vaporise while its ore is smelted. As a result, its vapours
present in the furnace are reoxidised and the metal is lost.
 Therefore, zinc is produced by distillation technique. India was the first country to master zinc
distillation. The technique used for distillation in Zawar was designed for downward distillation
in which vapours were condensed in a lower container.
 The distillation of the pallets of roasted ore mixed with charcoal powder, salt, etc., and borax as
flux was carried out in brinjal shaped retorts. In excavation at Zawar, these retorts have been found.
 Each distillation unit had two chambers. Lower chamber was separated from the upper chamber
by perforated bricks. Charged retorts were fixed in the perforations with their mouth projecting
out in the lower chamber. The mouth of the retort was sealed and fixed in the collecting earthen
pots.
 Earthen pots were kept in the lower chamber of the distillation unit. Earthen pots were dipped in
a water trough for cooling the vapours of zinc coming out of the retort. Upper part of the retort
was heated by making fire in the upper chamber.
 Zinc vapours coming in the earthen pot cooled inside it due to cold water surrounding the earthen
pot. This technique was also applied to mercury.
 Indian metallurgists were masters in this technique. This has been described in the Sanskrit texts
of fourteenth century.

Copper extraction
There was a tradition that dates back over 2,000 years. Here's some information about copper extraction
in ancient India:
 Evidence: The earliest evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent is a small copper bead found
in Mehrgarh in Baluchistan, which dates back to around 6000 B.C.E.
 Mining: Copper ore was mined from the Aravalli Hills and Baluchistan. There is also evidence
of copper ore mining in the Khetri region of Rajasthan.
 Extraction: Copper ore was pounded into balls, mixed with cow dung, roasted, and then smelted
in a closed furnace. The copper was then refined in an open charcoal fire.
 Use: Copper was used to make various implements, and many bronze sculptures have been
found in museums.
 Alloying: Metals like tin, arsenic, lead, and antimony were used to alloy copper to make it
harder.
 Metallurgical skills: The Harappan metalsmiths were skilled in metallurgy and perfected the
wax technique of metal casting as early as the third millennium B.C.E.

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