Unit 7 – Radiation

This lesson will provide an introduction to radiation. We will begin by reviewing the different types of
radiation, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, sources of radiation in the environment and in the workplace
and the health effects of radiation. We will learn how to recognize, measure, evaluate and control
workplace exposures to radiation.

By the end of this unit students will be able to:

• Identify the different types and sources of radiation

• Understand the biological effects of exposure to radiation
• Recognize and evaluate the risks of radiation
• Understand the regulations related to radiation safety and ALARA Protection Measures in Radiation
• Recommend and implement protection measures in the workplace to prevent exposure to radiation

What is Radiation?

Radiation is energy travelling through space in the form of waves (electromagnetic) or particles. Visible light
that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a radio station are two types of
electromagnetic radiation.

Sunshine is one of the most familiar forms of radiation (Ultraviolet light). It delivers light, heat and suntans.
While enjoying the sun, we must control our exposure to it. Furthermore, many people owe their lives and
health to such radiation produced artificially. Medical and dental X-rays discern hidden problems. Other
kinds of ionizing radiation are used to diagnose ailments, and some people are treated with radiation to
cure disease. The figure below illustrates types of radiation and some common sources of exposure.
Ionizing vs non-ionizing radiation

Non-ionizing radiation

Non-ionizing radiation is a form of radiation with less energy than ionizing radiation. This form of radiation
does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. Microwave ovens, global positioning systems,
cellular telephones, television stations, FM and AM radio, baby monitors, cordless phones, garage-door
openers and harm radios all use non-ionizing radiation. Other forms include the earth’s magnetic field and
magnetic field exposure from proximity to transmission lines, household wiring and electrical appliances.
These are defined as extremely low frequency (ELF) waves.

Ionizing Radiation

Ionizing radiation is a form of energy that acts by removing electrons from atoms and molecules of
materials that include air, water, and living tissue. Ionizing radiation has enough energy (high enough in
frequency) to break atomic bonds by removing one or more electrons and creating a charged atomic
particle. The higher the frequency the shorter that wavelength and the greater the energy and ionization. At
high levels, ionizing radiation can cause damage to matter, particularly living tissue, so it is necessary to
control exposure.
Radioactive Particles

Different types of radioactive particles have differing abilities to pass through different types of materials. A
very thin barrier, such as a sheet or two of paper, or the top of skin cells, is usually enough to stop large
alpha particles. Because of this, alpha particle sources are usually not dangerous if outside the body, but
are quite hazardous if ingested or inhaled (e.g. radon exposure). Beta particles will pass through a hand, or
a thin layer of material like paper or wood, but are stopped by a thin layer of metal. Gamma radiation is very
penetrating and can pass through a thick layer of most materials. Some high-energy radiation is able to
pass through a few feet of concrete. Certain dense, high atomic number elements (such as lead) can
effectively attenuate the gamma radiation with thinner material and are used for shielding. X-rays are a
form of radiation similar to gamma radiation, but they are produced mainly by artificial means rather than
from radioactive substances. The ability of various kinds of emissions to cause ionization varies greatly,
and some particles have almost no tendency to produce ionization. Alpha particles have about twice the
ionizing power of fast-moving neutrons, about 10 min times that of β particles, and about 20 times that of
gamma rays and X-rays.
Units of Measure

Different units of measure are used depending on what aspect of radiation is being measured. The amount
of radiation being given off, or emitted by a radioactive material is measured using the conventional unit
curie (Ci), named for the scientist Marie Curie, or the System Internationale (SI) unit becquerel (Bq).

The radiation dose absorbed by a person (that is the amount of energy deposited in human tissue by
radiation) is measured using the conventional unit rad or the SI unit gray (Gy). The biological risk of
exposure to radiation is measured using the conventional unit rem or the SI unit sievert (Sv)

Half-life of Radioactive Materials

Radiation intensity from a radioactive source of radioactive atoms (radionuclides) emit energy to become
stable atoms. Radioactive decay is the decline in radiation intensity. Half-life is the time diminishes with
time as more and more after which the radiation intensity is reduced by half. This happens because half of
the radioactive atoms will have decayed in one half life period. For example, a 50 becquerel radioactive
source will become a 25Bq radioactive source. After on half-life. Half lives differ widely from one
radioactive material to another and range from a fraction of a second to millions of years.

Watch Radioactivity – Half Life

Biological Effects of Radiation

Biological effects due to radiation exposure are divided into two categories, direct and indirect action. DNA
molecules can receive energy directly from the secondary electrons produced by the incident radiation,
resulting in their ionization, and are damaged by they breakage of their chemical bonds. This directs action
of radiation accounts for approximately 1/3 of all biological effects caused by ion irradiation. DNA
molecules can also be damaged by an active group of molecules (free radicals) produced by ionization of
the surrounding water molecules. This is an indirect action of radiation and accounts for the remaining 2/3
of biological effects. The indirect action mainly consists of the free-radical mediated chemical reactions of
water molecules with the body tissues.

Watch Biological Effects of Radiation

Deterministic Effects – Observable damage (e.g. cell death)

Stochastic Effects – Radiation induced genetic damage or development of cancer

Radiosensitivity of Organs and Tissues

Radiation can harm either the whole body (somatic damage) or eggs and sperm (genetic damage). Its
effects are more pronounced in cells that reproduce rapidly, such as the stomach lining, hair follicles, bone
marrow, and embryos. This is why patients undergoing radiation therapy often feel nauseous or sick to their
stomach, lose hair, have bone aches, and why particular care must be taken when undergoing radiation
therapy during pregnancy.

Pathways of exposure

There are two ways or pathways that people can be exposed to radiation:

1. Internal exposure occurs when radioactive dust or gases get inside the body and irradiate it from
within. Radioactive particles can be inhaled, ingested or absorbed through the skin.
2. External exposure occurs when a person has been physically close to a source of radiation. The
penetrating radiation emitted by the source travels through the air and irradiates the person.
 Knowing the pathway by which a
person is exposed is important for
determining the radiation dose received and appropriate monitoring is available for each of these
pathways.

Sources of Radiation

All of us are exposed to radiation every day, from natural sources such as minerals in the ground, and
manmade sources such as medical X-rays. According to the National Council on radiation protection and
measurements (NCRP), the average annual radiation dose per person in the U.S. is 6.2 millisieverts (620
millirems). The pie chart below show the sources of this average dose.

Background Radiation

Background radiation is that ionizing radiation which is naturally and inevitably present in our environment.
Levels of this can vary greatly. People living in granite areas or on mineralized sands receive more terrestrial
radiation than others, while people living or working at high altitudes receive more cosmic radiation. The
majority of background radiation occurs naturally and only a small fraction comes from man-made
elements.

Sources:

• The radioactive gases radon and thoron, which are created when other naturally occurring
elements undergo radioactive decay
• Space (cosmic radiation)
• Naturally occurring radioactive minerals
o Internal (in your body)
o Terrestrial (in the ground)

The amount of natural background radiation you receive each year in Canada in between 2 and 4 mSv

Radon

For many people, one of the largest sources of exposure to radiation is from radon gas (Rn-222). Radon-222
is an α emitter with a half-life of 3.82 days and is found in trace amounts in soil and rocks. The radon gas
that is produced slowly escapes from the ground and gradually seeps into homes and other structures
above ground. Since it is about eight times denser than air, radon gas accumulates in basements and lower
floors and then slowly diffuses throughout buildings.
Man-made Sources of Radiation

Medical Sources

Radiation has many uses in medicine. The most well-known use is in X-ray machines, which use radiation
to find broken bones and diagnose disease. X-ray machines are regulated by Health Canada, The Ministry
of Labour and provincial authorities. Another example is nuclear medicine, which uses radioactive
isotopes to diagnose and treat diseases such as cancer. These applications of nuclear medicine, as well as
the related equipment, are regulated by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). The CNSC also
licenses those reactors and particle accelerators that produce isotopes destined for medical and industrial
applications. This image shows examples of medical sources of radiation including and X-ray, CT scan,
nuclear medicine, and a particle accelerator that produces isotopes.

Industrial sources

Radiation has a variety of industrial uses that ranges from nuclear gauges used to build roads to density
gauges that measure the flow of material through pipes in factories. It is also used in smoke detectors and
some glow-in the-dark exit signs, and to estimate reserves in oil fields. Radiation is also used for
sterilization in which large, heavily shielded irradiators are used. All of these uses are licensed by the
CNSC. This image shows examples of industrial sources of radiation including nuclear gauges, a smoke
detector, and glow in the dark exit sign.
Nuclear radiation

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use uranium to drive a chain reaction that produces steam, which is turn
drives turbines to produce electricity. As part of their normal activities, NPPs release regulated levels of
radioactive material which can expose people to low doses of radiation. Similarly, uranium mines, fuel
fabrication plants and radioactive waste facilities release some radioactivity that contributes to the dose of
the public. This image shows examples of the nuclear fuel cycle including uranium mining, yellowcake, fuel
rods and a nuclear power plant.

Occupational Exposure

An estimated 40000 people work in Canada’s nuclear industry. A great many more people work in jobs
where they are exposed to radiation on a daily basis. There are two ways in which Canada’s workers are
exposed to radiation. They either work with sources of artificial (nuclear industry, health care, research
institutions or manufacturing) or they are exposed to elevated levels of natural radiation (mining, aircrews,
construction).

There are approximately 800000 nuclear industry workers worldwide, and more than two million workers in
health care who are exposed to radiation. Some occupations also require protection from natural sources
of radiation. Radon exposure poses a risk for miners and for people who work in facilities where radon
levels are high. Cosmic rays are a concern for people in the airline industry who spend much of their time
flying in planes.
When ionizing radiation penetrates the human body or an object, it deposits energy. The energy absorbed
from exposure to radiation is called a dose quantities are described in three ways: absorbed, equivalent,
and effective.

Dose quantities, absorbed dose, energy deposited in a kilogram of a substance by radiation. Equivalent
dose, absorbed dose weighted for the degree of the effect of different radiations (radiation weighting
factor). Effective dose, equivalent dose weighted for susceptibility to effect of different tissues (tissue
weighting factor).

Absorbed dose

The amount of energy deposited in a substance (e.g. human tissue), is called the absorbed dose. The
absorbed dose is measured in a unit called the gray (Gy). A dose of one gray is equivalent to a unit of energy
(joule) deposited in a kilogram of a substance.

Equivalent dose

When radiation is absorbed in living matter, a biological effect may be observed. However, equal absorbed
doses will not necessarily produce equal biological effects. The effect depends on the type of radiation
(e.g. alpha, beta, gamma, etc) and the tissue or organ receiving the radiation. For example, 1 Gy of alpha
radiation is more harmful to tissue than 1 Gy of beta radiation.
A radiation weighting factor is used to equate different types of radiation with different biological effects.
This weighted absorbed quantity is called the equivalent dose and is expressed in a measure called the
sievert (Sv). This means that 1 Sv of alpha radiation will have the same biological effect as 1 Sv of beta
radiation.

Because doses to workers and the public are so low, most reporting and dose measurements use the
terms millisievert (mSv) and microsievert (µSv) which are 1/1000 and 1/1000000 of a sievert respectively.
These smaller units of the sievert are more convenient to use in occupational and public settings.

To obtain the equivalent dose, the absorbed dose is multiplied by a specified radiation weighting factor. The
equivalent dose provides a single unit that accounts for the degree of harm of different types of radiation.

Occupational Exposure Limits

The maximum amount of radiation people are allowed to receive in the workplace is regulated. The
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission sets a limit of 50 mSv in a single year and 100 mSv over 5 years (a 20
mSv per year average) for people who work with radioactive material, deemed Nuclear Energy Workers
(NEWs). The limit for a pregnant worker, once pregnancy has been declared, is 4 mSv for the remainder of
the pregnancy. Provinces also have workplace radiation protection regulations, which vary from province to
province. Radiation exposure limits are also set under the Canada Labour Code. Any workplace where
there is a reasonable probability that the effective annual dose to a nuclear energy worker will exceed 5
millisieverts (mSv) the employer (licensee) must use a licensed dosimetry service to measure doses.

Measuring External Radiation

People who work with nuclear substances are also required to use protective equipment and to wear
protective clothing as well as dosimeters to measure exposure, to ensure that they do not exceed dose
limits. This image shows examples of protective equipment used to protect against exposure to ionizing
radiation and different types of monitoring devices, including passive radiation badges and dosimeters.

In addition to passive badges, several different devices are used to detect and measure radiation, including
Geiger counters, scintillation counters (scintillators) and radiation dosimeters (see image below). The best-
known radiation instrument, the Geiger counter (also called the Geiger-Muller counter) detects and
measures radiation. Radiation causes the ionization of the gas in a Geiger-Muller tube. The rate of
ionization is proportional to the amount of radiation. A scintillation counter contains a scintillator, a
material that emits light (luminesces) when excited by ionizing radiation and a sensor that converts the light
into an electric signal. R

Radiation dosimeters also measure ionizing radiation and are often used to determine personal radiation
exposure.

Geiger counter Scintillation Counter Radiation Dosimeters

Measuring Internal Radiation

In-vivo bioassay measures gamma radiation using a detector positioned near the person. The most
common types of detectors used in this manner are thyroid counters, urine/feces analysis, whole-body
counters, and lung counters.

Thyroid counters are used in workplaces where radioactive iodine presents an internal hazard. When taken
into the body, radioactive iodine deposits principally in the thyroid gland. Thyroid counters are used by
many CNSC licensees, most of which are medical and academic institutions.

Urine/feces analysis is used to determine the presence of nuclear substances or to estimate their amount
in urine, feces or other biological materials removed from the body. Shorter-range radiations, namely alpha
(α) and beta (β), are generally less penetrating than photon radiation (gamma radiation and X-rays), and
therefore cannot be detected from outside the body. They can be detected, however, in material excreted
from the body. The purpose of in-vitro bioassay is to determine the quantity of nuclear substances excreted
from the body, in order to estimate the quantity present within the body.

A whole-body counter is a device used to measure radioactivity within the human body. This instrument is
intended to detect the presence of nuclear substances in a person’s body and identify the type and amount
of nuclear substances detected. Whole-body counters are used at every Canadian nuclear power plant
(NPP). A lung counter is a device used to monitor the inhalation of airborne contaminants, such as uranium
oxides or insoluble transuranics like plutonium.

Protective measures

Strict standards and regulations exist to ensure safety systems are in place to protect people inside
facilities that use nuclear substances and devices. The guiding principle of radiation safety is ALARA.
ALARA stands for “as low as reasonably achievable”. This principle means that even if it is a small dose, if
receiving that dose has no direct benefit, you should try to avoid it.

In Canada, we must follow the Radiation Protection Regulations when implementing a radiation protection
program. The Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC) requires that the amount of exposure to radon
progeny and the effective dose and equivalent dose received by and committed to persons is as low as
reasonable achievable (ALARA), social and economic factors being taken into account, through the
implementation of:

a) Management control over work practices

b) Personnel qualification and training
c) Control of occupational and public exposure to radiation, and
 d) Planning for unusual situations

Time, Distance and Shielding are fundamental principles of ALARA

Time – simply refers to the amount of time you spend near a radioactive source. Minimize your time near a
radioactive source to only what it takes to get the job done. If you are in an area where radiation levels are
elevated, complete your work as quickly as possible, and then leave the area.

Distance – refers to how close you are to a radioactive source. Maximize your distance from a radioactive
source as much as you can. This is an easy way to protect yourself because distance and dose are
inversely related. If you increase your distance, you decrease your dose.

Shield yourself from a radiation source, you need to put something between you and the radiation source.
The most effective shielding will depend on what kind of radiation the source is emitting. Some
radionuclides emit more than one kind of radiation.

Watch Time, Distance and Shielding

Additional controls, including interlocking doors/access to areas where radiation may be present, warning
signage, workplace awareness and training programs and workplace health monitoring and lastly, personal
protective equipment.

Watch Radiation Safety