See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]
net/publication/313941281
Climate change : Impact, adaptation and mitigation: A review
Article in Agricultural Reviews · February 2017
DOI: 10.18805/ag.v0iOF.7309
CITATIONS READS
6 2,666
3 authors, including:
Mahesh Kumar Poonia Bheru Lal Kumhar
Agriculture University Jodhpur Agriculture University Jodhpur
46 PUBLICATIONS 355 CITATIONS 73 PUBLICATIONS 202 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Bheru Lal Kumhar on 01 June 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
Agricultural Reviews, 38 (1) 2017 : 67-71 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION CENTRE
Print ISSN:0253-1496 / Online ISSN:0976-0539 [Link]
Climate change : impact, adaptation and mitigation: A review
Mahendra Singh*, Mahesh Kumar Poonia and Bheru Lal Kumhar
Krishi Vighan Kendra,
Agriculture University, Borkhera, Kota, India.
Received: 14-09-2016 Accepted: 27-12-2016 DOI:10.18805/ag.v0iOF.7309
ABSTRACT
Climate and agriculture are intensely interrelated global processes and therefore a change in climate affects agricultural
production. One such change is global warming which is projected to have significant impacts on environment affecting
agriculture, including higher carbon dioxide emission, rise in atmospheric temperature, higher glacial run-off, changed
precipitation and the interaction of these elements. These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to
produce enough food for the human population and domesticated animals. The present paper might help to anticipate and
adapt farming to maximize agricultural production.
Key words: Adaption, Climate change, Impact, Mitigation.
Globally, climate change (CC) is the most serious Climatic changes and increasing climatic variability
environmental threat that adversely affects agricultural are likely to aggravate the problems of future food security
productivity. According to inter-governmental panel on by exerting pressure on agriculture. However, there are lot
climate change (IPCC) report, climate change refers to any of uncertainties about the assessment of impact, adaptation
change in climate over time, due to natural variability or as and mitigation of climate change in agriculture. It is mainly
a result of human activity. In developing countries like India, because the methodology followed for such assessments is
climate change is an additional burden because ecological not standardized and sometimes is inaccurate and imprecise.
and socioeconomic systems are already facing pressures from Climate change will also have an economic impact on
rapid increase in population, industrialization and economic agriculture, including changes in farm profitability, prices,
development. India’s climate could become warmer under supply, demand, trade and regional comparative advantages.
conditions of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide The two-way relationship of climate change and agriculture
(Longerman 1998). is of great significance in particular to developing countries
The effects of global climate change could be due to their large dependence on agricultural practice for
potentially serious over the next century include regional livelihoods and their lack of infrastructure for adaptation
increases in floods and droughts, inundation of coastal areas, when compared to developed countries. Agricultural
activities are affected by climate change affects due to their
high-temperature events, fires, outbreaks of pests and
direct dependence on climatic factors. In high latitude areas
diseases, significant damage to ecosystem, and threats to
with low temperature, increased temperature due to climate
agricultural production. Climate change will also pose a
change could allow for longer growing season. Agriculture
major risk to human health and safety, especially among
affects climate through emissions of greenhouse gases
poorer communities with high population densities in areas
(GHGs) such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
like river basins and low-lying coastal plains, which are
These emissions come directly from use of fossil fuels, tillage
vulnerable to estimate related natural hazards such as storms,
practices, fertilized agricultural soils and livestock manure
floods, and droughts. (IPCC 1998). in large proportion. Conversely, agriculture could be a solution
IPCC has projected that by the end of the 21 st for climate change by the widespread adoption of mitigation
century, rainfall over India will increase by 10-12 per cent and adaptation actions. This happens with the help of best
with more frequent and heavy rainfall days while the mean management practices such as organic farming, agroforestry
annual temperature will rise by 3-6°C (IPCC, 2014). These practice and manure management etc. This paper reviews
changes may culminate in adverse impacts on agriculture in various articles and documents on current knowledge
terms of productivity loss, pest and disease increases and about adaptation in agriculture from studies of climate
labor migration that will threaten food security and impacts, adaptation and vulnerability, and from research on
agricultural employment. the dynamics of agricultural production and economics.
*Corresponding author’s e-mail: mskvktonk@[Link]
68 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS
Impact of climatic changes on agriculture: There are While the average frequency of cyclonic storms
aspects of the relationship between climate change and over the period 1887–1987 appears to have been unchanging,
agriculture. First, climate change has a direct bearing on the there appears to be a slight increase in the frequency of severe
biology of plant growth. Secondly, any assessment of the cyclonic storms in recent decades.
impact of climate change on agriculture must consider the Surface water runoff patterns are likely to change,
interaction between the direct biological effects of climate with reduction of runoff in many river basins, although
change on the one hand, and other (often dynamic) aspects calculating the final runoff requires detailed modeling.
of the biosphere and geosphere for example soil conditions,
seed, water, fertiliser, pesticide technologies and plant Varying levels of water shortage are likely to appear
anatomy. Thirdly, we must consider the impact of climate across different basins. Perennial water shortages are
change on society and economy, and the ability of existing expected in the Mahi, Pennar, Sabarmati and Tapti basins.
social and economic institutions, particularly in rural areas, Seasonal water shortages and regular water-stressed
to deal with the challenges posed by global warming. Climate conditions are expected in the Ganga, Cauvery, Narmada
change is poised to have a sharply differentiated effect as and Krishna river basins. The Godavari, Mahanadi and
between agro-ecological regions, farming systems, and social Brahmani basins are likely to experience only moderate water
classes and groups other impacts are. shortage at a few locations.
Shift in climatic and agriculture zones Himalayan glaciers and snowfields are generally
Impact on Agriculture soil on the decline, though there is need for substantial further
Effect on soil organic matter and soil fertility scientific work to accurately establish the changes that are
Effect on biological health of soil taking place.
Soil erosion and sediment transport Groundwater supplies are likely to be affected by a
Reduced soil water availability number of factors, including higher runoff leading to lower
Impact on soil processes recharge, increase in flooding (which will affect the quality
Salinization and alkalization of alluvial aquifers) and saline intrusion into coastal aquifers.
Pest, diseases and weeds
The rise in sea level along India’s coastlines
Impact on plant growth
currently ranges between 0.4 and 2 mm per year, with the
Impact on crop production
highest increases being registered along the coast of the Gulf
NATCOM I from India was submitted to the of Kutch and West Bengal. Though substantial uncertainty
UNFCC in 2006 and it provided a preliminary basis for is involved in estimating the rise in sea level in the future
understanding the country level impact of climate change along specific stretches of the coastline, it is estimated that
on India. The following is a broad-brush summary of the a general rise of up to 1 mm may be expected by the end of
expected impact of climate change on India as provided by the century.
NATCOM I (Government of India, Ministry of Environment
The severity of droughts and intensity of floods are
and Forests (2004), NATCOM I).
likely to increase. Preliminary results suggest that peak
Temperature increases have already been observed discharge under climate change could be as high as twice
in the Indian subcontinent. Over the last 100 years, an the current peak discharge in some basins.
increase of 0.4°C in annual average surface air temperature Conventional climate impact scenarios usually
has been recorded. By the 2050s maximum temperatures focus on the changes in average (mean) temperature and
are expected to rise by 2°C–4°C over south India (i.e. south moisture. Some have also considered other climate
of latitude 25°N) and by more than 4°C over northern India characteristics such as the growing season length and the
(north of latitude 25°N). Minimum temperatures are expected timing of frosts, and climate-related factors such as pests
to rise by more than 4°C all over India over the same period. and diseases, invariably for an average year sometime in the
So far there has been no significant change in the future (Bryant et al. 2000; Brklacich et al. 2000 and Smit et
total rainfall delivered by the monsoon. Regional variations, al. 2000).
however, are observed, and range from increases of 10–12 According to Saini and Dadwal, (1986); Nagarajan
per cent over some regions to decreases of 6–8 per cent in et al., (2010) a simple approach to quantify the effect of
some others. Total rainfall from the monsoon is expected to temperature on a crop in the field is to sow the crop on
be relatively unchanged through to the 2050s. The spatial different dates, thereby testing across the large seasonal
variability of rainfall, on the other hand, is likely to increase. changes in temperature for different thermal regimes. This
A decrease in the number of rainy days is expected, with a method of creating different environments to study the impact
corresponding increase in rainfall intensity in terms of rainfall of climatic factors is widely used. Either a large number of
per day ranging from 1 mm/day to 4 mm/day. sowings are done in the same crop season at short intervals
Volume 38 Issue 1 (2017) 69
or four to six sowings are done in three or more consecutive population and domesticated animals. The overall effect of
years. climate change on agriculture will depend on the balance of
Krishnan and Rao, (2005) revealed that, soil system these effects.
responds to short-term events such as rainfall and also Watson et al. (1998) revealed that, the climate
undergoes long-term changes such as physical and chemical change scenarios used were 0.1C increase in temperature
weathering due to climate change. The potential impacts on and 416 ppm CO2 (2010 scenario) and 0.4C temperature
soil health due to climate change would be in the organic and 755 CO2 (2070 scenario) as the optimistic scenario,
matter supply, temperature regimes, hydrology and salinity. whereas increase of 0.3C temperature and 397 ppm CO2
Soil carbon levels are expected to decrease due to decreased (2010 scenario) and 2.0C temperature and 605 ppm CO2
net primary production. Any gains by the increased plant (2070 scenario) as the pessimistic scenarios of climate
water-use efficiency, due to elevated CO2, are likely to be change.
outweighed by increased carbon mineralization after episodic Mitigation: On the other side, agricultural sector has large
rainfall and reduced annual and growing season rainfall. The potential to mitigate and adapt climate change. According
quality of soil organic matter may also shift where the more to IPCC, mitigation is an intervention to reduce the emissions
inert components of the carbon pool prevail. The increase sources or enhance the GHG sinks, whereas adaptation is
in soil temperature increases N mineralization but its the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to
availability may decrease due to increased gaseous losses actual or expected climatic change or their effects, to reduce
through processes such as volatilization and denitrification. harm or exploit beneficial opportunities. Sustainable and
Drake et al., (1997) found that increasing organic agricultural systems can help reduce agricultural
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and simultaneous GHG emissions through energy conservation, lower levels
rises in temperature are influencing the global climate, of carbon-based inputs, lower use of synthetic fertilizer and
henceforth affecting growth, development and functioning other features that minimize GHG emissions and sequester
of plants. The primary effects of increased concentration of carbon in the soil.
CO2 include higher photosynthetic rate, increased light-use Debnath et al. (1996) possible strategies for
efficiency, reduction in transpiration and stomatal mitigating methane emission from rice cultivation can be
conductance and improved water-use efficiency. made by altering water management, particularly promoting
Rawson et al,. (1995) revealed that increasing mid-season aeration by short-term drainage. Improving
temperatures and carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere organic matter management by promoting aerobic
along with the uncertainties in annual precipitations will have degradation through composting or incorporating into soil
adverse effects on the Indian agriculture. Biomass and yield during off-season drained period, is another promising
tend to decline with increasing temperature, as higher technique. Organic amendments to flooded soils increase
temperatures shorten crop duration, enhance respiration and methane production and emission. However, application of
reduce time for radiation interception. fermented manure, like biogas slurry, reduces the emission .
Sutherst, (1991) and Root et al., (2003) find that In addition, nitrification inhibitors have been shown to inhibit
climate change impacts on pests may include shifts in species methane emission. Another mitigation option may be
distributions with species shifting their ranges to higher selection of low CH4 emitting rice cultivars, as cultivars
latitudes and elevations, changes in phenology with life grown in similar conditions show pronounced variations in
cycles beginning earlier in spring and continuing later in methane emission (Mitra 2000). Screening of rice cultivars
autumn, increase in population growth rates and number of with few unproductive tillers, small root system, high root
generations, change in migratory behavior, alterations in crop oxidative activity and high harvest index are ideal for
pest synchrony and natural enemy-pest interaction, and mitigating methane emission from rice fields. Combined with
changes in interspecific interactions. a package of technologies, methane emission can best be
Fraser, (2008) revealed that, climate and agriculture reduced by (a) the practice of mid-season drainage instead
are intensely interrelated global processes and therefore of continuous flooding, (b) direct crop establishment like
a change in climate affects agricultural production dry seeded rice and (c) use of low C: N organic manure and
(IPCC, 2007). One such change is global warming which is biogas slurry.
projected to have significant impacts on environment Smit et al (2000), adaptation of crops to gradual
affecting agriculture, including higher carbon dioxide change in the climatic conditions needs to be included in the
emission, rise in atmospheric temperature, higher glacial run- existing crop growth models, as it is not well understood.
off, changed precipitation and the interaction of these Moreover, the suitable agronomic and resource management
elements. These conditions determine the carrying capacity options may nullify the ill effects of climate change on growth
of the biosphere to produce enough food for the human and yield of crops.
70 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS
Aggarwal and Kalra (1994) adopted wheat growth (iii) Farm production practices, and
simulator (WTGROWS), developed at IARI, New Delhi, (iv) Farm financial management.
has been extensively tested for different agro-environments. In addition to these ‘direct adaptations’, there are
In past, it has been successfully used for the resource options, particularly information provision, that may
management, forecasting of wheat yields and climate stimulate adaptation initiatives. The results reveal that most
variability related studies. Using WTGROWS, a strong linear adaptation options are modifications to on-going farm
decline in wheat yield was noticed with the increase in practices and public policy decision making processes with
January temperature. respect to a suite of changing climatic (including variability
Aggarwal and Kalra (1994), by using WTGROWS, and extremes) and non-climatic conditions (political,
demonstrated the shift of iso-yield lines of wheat in India economic and social). For progress on implementing
with 425 ppm of CO2 concentration and 2C rise in adaptations to climate change in agriculture there is a need
temperature. The rise in carbon dioxide concentration of the to better understand the relationship between potential
atmosphere effectively influences the productivity of crop adaptation options and existing farm-level and government
plants. decision-making processes and risk management
Das and Kalra (1995) evaluated the fertilizer and frameworks.
resource management for enhancing crop productivity under Conservation tillage is a generic term that includes
inter-annual variations in weather conditions. The results a wide range of tillage practices, including chisel plough,
revealed sensitivity of crop yields to climatic variability and ridge till, strip till, mulch till and no till (CTIC, 1998).
the need of inputs management in relation to climatic Adoption of conservation tillage has numerous ancillary
variability. Simulation models for judging the soil nutrient benefits. Important among these benefits are the control of
availability and subsequently relating to growth and yield of water and wind erosion, water conservation, increased water-
crops are available, but needs to be refined and thoroughly holding capacity, reduced compaction, increased soil
tested for the climate change event. resilience to chemical inputs, increased soil and air quality,
enhanced soil biodiversity, reduced energy use, improved
Bryant et al (2000), adaptation of agriculture to
water quality, reduced siltation of reservoirs and waterways,
moderate climate change can be facilitated by improving
and possible double-cropping.
irrigation, developing less water-demanding and more heat-
resistant crop varieties, using minimum tillage and other What Are Our Research and Development Needs
practices to improve nutrient and moisture retention in soil, 1. Development of drought-resistant crops that have been
and changing timing of planting/ harvesting and other tested for strong yields when subjected to periods of
management activities. extended water shortage.
2. Improvements in plant nitrogen and water use efficiency
Bhatti and Khan (2012) revealed that, various soil
and development of cost-efficient nitrogen uptake delivery
management practices viz., integrated plant nutrient
systems and low-cost, high efficiency irrigation techniques.
management, variable rate fertilizer technology (precision
3. Development of global testing sites and data collection
agriculture), use of N inhibitors, restoration of crop
and dissemination efforts, using standard data protocols,
productivity of marginal lands, crop residue management,
to assess the performance of existing and new genetic
and moisture conservation measures increase crop
material and management systems in today’s range of
production per unit area through increasing fertilizer and
agroclimatic conditions.
water use efficiency This will ultimately mitigate the
4. Continuous field testing to track climate change, breeding
emission of GHGs into the air and improve the sequestration
for resistance to new diseases and pests and to address
of CO2.
changes in pollinator distribution have been identified as
According to National Initiative on Climate avenues to confront adaptation of crops in the face of
Resilient Agriculture Resilient Agriculture Project (2012) 4 climate change.
components are strategic research, technology demonstration, 5. Development of assessment tools that incorporate the
sponsored or competitive research and capacity building biophysical constraints that affect agricultural productivity
programme to sustain crop production in India and addressed and include climate and socioeconomic scenarios,
yet to be identified problem arising at farmer field and including improved characterization of policy and program
prepare the contingency planning to reduce the adverse effect environments and options.
of climate. CONCLUSION
Adaptation: A synthesis of research on adaptation options The findings of this paper related to thresholds in
in Indian agriculture identifies four main categories: climate effects on crop yields need careful consideration by
(i) Technological developments, researchers and policy makers. On the policy side, it may be
(ii) Government programs and insurance, important to invest in new seed varieties that can better adjust
Volume 38 Issue 1 (2017) 71
to rainfall and temperature thresholds. There is also need studies can be further improved by including additional
for further research to explore the implications of adaptation factors such as the milk production, egg production, animal
responses such as adjustments in the sowing season. Such rearing and diversified agriculture.
REFERENCES
Aggarwal PK and Kalra N (1994) Analysing constraints limiting crop productivity; New opportunities using crop growth
modeling. In: Natural Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture and Environment, [Deb DL (ed)]. Angkor
Publishers (P) Ltd., New Delhi, pp 315–332.
Bhatti AU and Khan MM (2012) Soil management in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change a Review. Soil
Environ. 31: 1-10.
Brklacich M, Bryant C, Veenhof B and Beauchesne A (2000) Agricultural adaptation to climatic change: A comparative
assessment of two types of farming in central Canada In Agricultural and Environmental Sustainability in the New
Countryside, Winnipeg, [H. Millward, K. Beesley, B. Ilbery and L. Harrington (eds.)], Hignell Printing Limited, pp. 40–51.
Bryant CR, Smit B, Brklacich M, Johnston T, Smithers J, Chiotti Q and Singh B (2000) Adaptation in Canadian agriculture
to climatic variability and change. Clim Change 45: 181– 201.
CTIC (1998) Crop residue management executive summary. Conservation Technology Information Center, West Lafayette,
Indiana.
Das DK and Kalra N (1995) Adjustments to weather variation through cropping systems and fertilizer use. Fertilizer News
40:11–21.
Debnath G, Jain MC, Kumar S, Sarkar K and Sinha SK (1996) Methane emissions from rice fields amended with biogas
slurry and farm yard manure. Clim Change 33:97–109.
Drake B, Gonzalez-Meler M and Long S (1997) More efficient plants: A consequence of rising atmospheric CO2 Annu.
Rev. Plant Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., 48: 609-639.
Fraser EDG (2008) Crop-Climate Impact Models: Where are the Farmers?” Invited Research Seminar at French Research
Institute, Cemegref. 30 July, Montpellier, France.
Government of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2004), India’s Initial National Communication to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (NATCOM I), New Delhi, available at [Link]
/[Link], viewed on October 25, 2010
IPCC (1998) The IPCC sets up the Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (TFI) to oversee the National
Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme. Since 1999 the Task Force has been supported by the Government of
Japan.
IPCC (2007) The IPCC publishes its Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) (Working Group I – Climate Change 2007: The
Physical Science Basis; Working Group II – Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Working
Group III – Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change; Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report).
IPCC (2014) The IPCC approves Climate Change 2014: Impacts Adaptation and Vulnerability and Climate Change 2014:
Mitigation of Climate Change, the Working Group II and Working Group III contributions to AR5. The Fifth
Assessment Report was completed in November 2014 with the Synthesis Report.
Krishnan P and Rao SAV (2005) Effects of genotype and environment on seed yield and quality of rice. J. Agric. Sci.
Cambridge, 143: 283-292.
Longerman S, (1998). World Bank Technical paper number 402.
Mitra AP (2000) Issues and perspectives of the South Asian region, Global Change Report No. 18, National Physical
Laboratory, New Delhi.
Nagarajan S, Jagadish SVK, Hariprasad AS, Tomar AK, Anand A, Madan Pal and Aggarwal PK (2010) Effect of night
temperature and radiation on growth, yield and grain quality of aromatic and non-aromatic rice. Agri. Ecosys.
Environ. 138: 274-281.
Rawson HM, Gifford RM and Condon BN (1995) Temperature gradient chambers for research on global environment
change. I. Portable chambers for research on short-stature vegetation. Plant Cell Environ., 18: 1048-1054.
Root T. L., Jeff T. P., Kimberly R. H., Stephen H. S., Cynthia R. and Alan P. J. (2003) Nature 421, pp 57-60.
Saini AD and Dadwal VK (1986) Heat unit requirement during the period of grain growth in wheat and its application for
adjusting sowing dates in different regions. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 56: 447-452.
Smit B, Burton I, Klein RJT and Wandel J (2000) An anatomy of adaptation to climate change and variability. Clim.
Change 45: 223–251.
Sutherst RW (1991) Pest risk analysis and the greenhouse effect. Rev. Agric. Entomol., 79: 1177-1187.
Watson RT, Zinyowera MC, Moss RH (eds.) (1998) The Regional Impacts of Climate Change: An Assessment of
Vulnerability. IPCC II Report, Cambridge University Press, p 517.
View publication stats
