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Eureka Math
Algebra II
Module 3

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Eureka Math: A Story of Functions Contributors
Mimi Alkire, Lead Writer / Editor, Algebra I
Michael Allwood, Curriculum Writer
Tiah Alphonso, Program Manager—Curriculum Production
Catriona Anderson, Program Manager—Implementation Support
Beau Bailey, Curriculum Writer
Scott Baldridge, Lead Mathematician and Lead Curriculum Writer
Christopher Bejar, Curriculum Writer
Andrew Bender, Curriculum Writer
Bonnie Bergstresser, Math Auditor
Chris Black, Mathematician and Lead Writer, Algebra II
Gail Burrill, Curriculum Writer
Carlos Carrera, Curriculum Writer
Beth Chance, Statistician, Assessment Advisor, Statistics
Andrew Chen, Advising Mathematician
Melvin Damaolao, Curriculum Writer
Wendy DenBesten, Curriculum Writer
Jill Diniz, Program Director
Lori Fanning, Math Auditor
Joe Ferrantelli, Curriculum Writer
Ellen Fort, Curriculum Writer
Kathy Fritz, Curriculum Writer
Thomas Gaffey, Curriculum Writer
Sheri Goings, Curriculum Writer
Pam Goodner, Lead Writer / Editor, Geometry and Precalculus
Stefanie Hassan, Curriculum Writer
Sherri Hernandez, Math Auditor
Bob Hollister, Math Auditor
Patrick Hopfensperger, Curriculum Writer
James Key, Curriculum Writer
Jeremy Kilpatrick, Mathematics Educator, Algebra II
Jenny Kim, Curriculum Writer
Brian Kotz, Curriculum Writer
Henry Kranendonk, Lead Writer / Editor, Statistics
Yvonne Lai, Mathematician, Geometry
Connie Laughlin, Math Auditor
Athena Leonardo, Curriculum Writer
Jennifer Loftin, Program Manager—Professional Development
James Madden, Mathematician, Lead Writer, Geometry
Nell McAnelly, Project Director
Ben McCarty, Mathematician, Lead Writer, Geometry
Stacie McClintock, Document Production Manager
Robert Michelin, Curriculum Writer
Chih Ming Huang, Curriculum Writer
Pia Mohsen, Lead Writer / Editor, Geometry
Jerry Moreno, Statistician
Chris Murcko, Curriculum Writer
Selena Oswalt, Lead Writer / Editor, Algebra I, Algebra II, and Precalculus
Roxy Peck, Mathematician, Lead Writer, Statistics
Noam Pillischer, Curriculum Writer
Terrie Poehl, Math Auditor
Rob Richardson, Curriculum Writer
Kristen Riedel, Math Audit Team Lead
Spencer Roby, Math Auditor
William Rorison, Curriculum Writer
Alex Sczesnak, Curriculum Writer
Michel Smith, Mathematician, Algebra II
Hester Sutton, Curriculum Writer
James Tanton, Advising Mathematician
Shannon Vinson, Lead Writer / Editor, Statistics
Eric Weber, Mathematics Educator, Algebra II
Allison Witcraft, Math Auditor
David Wright, Mathematician, Geometry
B oa rd of T ruste e s
Lynne Munson, President and Executive Director of Great Minds
Nell McAnelly, Chairman, Co- Director Emeritus of the Gordon A. Cain Center for STEM Literacy at Louisiana
State U niversity
William Kelly, Treasurer, Co- Founder and CEO at ReelDx
Jason Griffiths, Secretary, Director of Programs at the National Academy of Advanced Teacher Education
Pascal Forgione, Former Executive Director of the Center on K- 1 2 Assessment and Performance Management
at ETS
Lorraine Griffith, Title I Reading Specialist at West Buncombe Elementary School in Asheville, North Carolina
Bill Honig, President of the Consortium on Reading Excellence ( CORE)
Richard Kessler, Executive Dean of Mannes College the New School for Music
Chi Kim, Former Superintendent, Ross School District
Karen LeFever, Executive Vice President and Chief Development Officer at ChanceLight Behavioral Health and
Education
Maria Neira, Former Vice President, New Y ork State U nited Teachers
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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS

Mathematics Curriculum
ALGEBRA II • MODULE 3

Table of Contents1
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Module Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Topic A: Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1
Lesson 1 : Integer Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4
Lesson 2 : Base 1 0 and Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 0
1 1
Lesson 3 : Rational Exponents—What are 22 and 23 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3
Lesson 4 : Properties of Exponents and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Lesson 5 : Irrational Exponents—What are 2√2 and 2𝜋𝜋 ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Lesson 6: Euler’ s Number, 𝑒𝑒. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Topic B: Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 2
Lesson 7: Bacteria and Exponential Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 5
Lesson 8: The “ WhatPower” Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1 6
Lesson 9 : Logarithms—How Many Digits Do Y ou Need? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 8
Lesson 1 0 : Building Logarithmic Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 7
Lesson 1 1 : The Most Important Property of Logarithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 9
Lesson 1 2 : Properties of Logarithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 60
Lesson 1 3 : Changing the Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 75
Lesson 1 4 : Solving Logarithmic Eq uations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 9 3
Lesson 1 5 : Why Were Logarithms Developed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 7
Mid- Module Assessment and Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2 5
Topics A through B (assessment 1 day, return 1 day, remediation or further applications 4 days)
Topic C: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions and their Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 0
Lesson 1 6: Rational and Irrational Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5 3
Lesson 1 7: Graphing the Logarithm Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 66

1 Each lesson is ONE day, and ONE day is considered a 4 5 - minute period.

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Lesson 1 8: Graphs of Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 84

Lesson 1 9 : The Inverse Relationship Between Logarithmic and Exponential Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9 8
Lesson 2 0 : Transformations of the Graphs of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 6
Lesson 2 1 : The Graph of the Natural Logarithm Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 9
Lesson 2 2 : Choosing a Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 4
Topic D: U sing Logarithms in Modeling Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 66
Lesson 2 3 : Bean Counting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 69
Lesson 2 4 : Solving Exponential Eq uations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 86
Lesson 2 5 : Geometric Seq uences and Exponential Growth and Decay.
Decay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 0 7
Lesson 2 6: Percent Rate of Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2 3
Lesson 2 7: Modeling with Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 1
Lesson 2 8: Newton’ s Law of Cooling, Revisited. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 62
Topic E: Geometric Series and Finance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 74
Lesson 2 9 : The Mathematics Behind a Structured Savings Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 76
Lesson 3 0 : Buying a Car . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 9 9
Lesson 3 1 : Credit Cards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1 3
Lesson 3 2 : Buying a House. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2 8
Lesson 3 3 : The Million Dollar Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 4 2
End- of- Module Assessment and Rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5 4
Topics C through E (assessment 1 day, return 1 day, remediation or further applications 4 days)

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS Module Overview M3
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Algebra II • Module 3
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

OV E R V I E W
In this module, students synthesize and generalize what they have learned about a variety of function
families. They extend the domain of exponential functions to the entire real line and then extend their work
with these functions to include solving exponential eq uations with logarithms. They use appropriate tools to
explore the effects of transformations on graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions. They notice that
the transformations of a graph of a logarithmic function relate to the logarithmic properties. Students
identify appropriate types of functions to model a situation. They adjust parameters to improve the model,
and they compare models by analyzing appropriateness of fit and making judgments about the domain over
which a model is a good fit. The description of modeling as “ the process of choosing and using mathematics
and statistics to analyze empirical situations, to understand them better, and to make decisions” is at the
heart of this module. In particular, through repeated opportunities in working through the modeling cycle,
students acq uire the insight that the same mathematical or statistical structure can sometimes model
seemingly different situations.
This module builds on the work in Algebra I, Modules 3 and 5 , where students first modeled situations using
exponential functions and considered which type of function would best model a given real- world situation.
The module also introduces students to inverse functions and composition of functions to further enhance
student understanding
nderstanding of logarithms.
Topic E is a culminating project spread out over several lessons where students consider applying their
knowledge to financial literacy. They plan a budget, consider borrowing money to buy a car and a home,
study paying off a credit card balance, and finally, decide how they could accumulate one million dollars.

Focus Standards
Extend the properties of exponents to rational exponents.
 Explain how the definition of the meaning of rational exponents follows from extending the
properties of integer exponents to those values, allowing for a notation for radicals in terms
1
of rational exponents. For example, we define 53 to be the cube root of 5 because we want
1 3 1 3 1 3
� �
�53 � =5 3 to hold, so �53 � must equal 5.

 Rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the properties of
exponents. 2

2 Including expressions where either base or exponent may contain variables

Module 3: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 3

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS Module Overview M3
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Reason quantitatively and use units to solve problems.

 Define appropriate q uantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling. ★ 3

Write expressions in equivalent forms to solve problems.

 Choose and produce an eq uivalent form of an expression to reveal and explain properties of
the q uantity represented by the expression. 4
★

 U se the properties of exponents to transform expressions for exponential functions. For

1 12𝑡𝑡
example the expression 1.15𝑡𝑡 can be rewritten as �1.1512 � ≈ 1.01212𝑡𝑡 to reveal the
approximate equivalent monthly interest rate if the annual rate is 15%.
 Derive the formula for the sum of a finite geometric series ( when the common ratio is not
1) , and use the formula to solve problems. For example, calculate mortgage payments. ★ 5

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships.

 Create eq uations and ineq ualities in one variable and use them to solve problems. Include
equations arising from linear and quadratic functions, and simple rational and exponential
functions. ★ 6

Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically.

 Explain why the 𝑥𝑥- coordinates of the points where the graphs of the eq uations 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)
and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) intersect are the solutions of the eq uation 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥); find the solutions
approximately, e. g. , using technology to graph the functions, make tables of values, or find
successive approximations. Include cases where 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) and/or 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) are linear, polynomial,
rational, absolute value, exponential, and logarithmic functions. ★

Understand the concept of a function and use function notation.

 Recognize that seq uences are functions, sometimes defined recursively, whose domain is a
subset of the integers. For example, the Fibonacci sequence is defined recursively by
𝑓𝑓(0) = 𝑓𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛 + 1) = 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛) + 𝑓𝑓(𝑛𝑛 − 1) for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 1.

3 This is assessed in Algebra II by ensuring that some modeling tasks ( involving Algebra II content or securely held content from
previous grades and courses) req uire students to create a q uantity off interest in the situation being described ( i. e. , this is not
provided in the task) . For example, in a situation involving periodic phenomena, students might autonomously decide that amplitude
is a key variable in a situation and then choose to work with peak amplitude.
4 Tasks have a real- world context. here is an interplay between the m athematical structure of the expression and the structure of
the situation, such that choosing and producing an eq uivalent form of the expression reveals something about the situation. In
Algebra II, tasks include exponential expressions with rational or real exponents.
5 This includes using the summation notation symbol.
6Tasks have a real- world context. In Algebra II, tasks include exponential eq uations with rational or real exponents, rational functions,
and absolute value functions.

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS Module Overview M3
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Interpret functions that arise in applications in terms of the context.

 For a function that models a relationship between two q uantities, interpret key features of
graphs and tables in terms of the q uantities, and sketch graphs showing key features given a
verbal description of the relationship. Key features include: intercepts; intervals where the
function is increasing, decreasing, positive, or negative; relative maximums and minimums;
symmetries; end behavior; and periodicity. 7
★

 Relate the domain of a function to its graph and, where applicable, to the q uantitative
relationship it describes. For example, if the function ℎ(𝑛𝑛) gives the number of person-hours
it takes to assemble 𝑛𝑛 engines in a factory, then the positive integers would be an
appropriate domain for the function.
★

 Calculate and interpret the average rate of change of a function ( presented symbolically or
as a table) over a specified interval. Estimate the rate of change from a graph. ★ 7

Analyze functions using different representations.

 Graph functions expressed symbolically and show key features of the graph, by hand in
simple cases and using technology for more complicated cases. ★
 Graph exponential and logarithmic functions, showing intercepts and end behavior, and
trigonometric functions, showing period, midline, and amplitude.
 Write a function defined by an expression in different but eq uivalent forms to reveal and
explain different properties of the function. 8
 U se the properties of exponents to interpret expressions for exponential functions. For
example, identify percent rate of change in functions such as 𝑦𝑦 = (1.02)𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = (0.97)𝑡𝑡 ,
𝑡𝑡
𝑦𝑦 = (1.01)12𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = (1.2)10, and classify them as representing exponential growth or
decay.
 Compare properties of two functions each represented in a different way ( algebraically,
graphically, numerically in tables, or by verbal descriptions) . For example, given a graph of
one quadratic function and an algebraic expression for another, say which has the larger
maximum.9

Build a function that models a relationship between two quantities.

Write a function that describes a relationship between two q uantities.
★


 Determine an explicit expression, a recursive process, or steps for calculation from a

context. 1 0

7Tasks have a real- world context. In Algebra II, tasks may involve polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions.
𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡
8 Tasks include knowing and applying 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝑒𝑒 𝑟𝑟𝑡𝑡 and 𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃 �1 + � .
𝑛𝑛
9 In Algebra II, tasks may involve polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions.
1 0 Tasks have a real- world context. In Algebra II, tasks may involve linear functions, q uadratic functions, and exponential functions.

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 Combine standard function types using arithmetic operations. For example, build a
function that models the temperature of a cooling body by adding a constant function
to a decaying exponential, and relate these functions to the model. 11
 Write arithmetic and geometric seq uences both recursively and with an explicit formula, use
them to model situations, and translate between the two forms. ★

Build new functions from existing functions.

 Identify the effect on the graph of replacing 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) by 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑘𝑘, 𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥), 𝑓𝑓(𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥), and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥 + 𝑘𝑘)
for specific values of 𝑘𝑘 ( both positive and negative) ; find the value of 𝑘𝑘 given the graphs.
Experiment with cases and illustrate an explanation of the effects on the graph using
technology. Include recognizing even and odd functions from their graphs and algebraic
expressions for them.12
 Find inverse functions.
 Solve an eq uation of the form 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑐𝑐 for a simple function 𝑓𝑓 that has an inverse and
write an expression for the inverse. For example, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 3 or
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = (𝑥𝑥 + 1)/(𝑥𝑥 − 1) for 𝑥𝑥 ≠ 1.

Construct and compare linear, quadratic, and exponential models and solve problems.
 Construct linear and exponential functions, including arithmetic and geometric seq uences,
given a graph, a description of a relationship, or two input- output pairs ( include reading
these from a table) . ★ 13
 For exponential models, express as a logarithm the solution to 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐, and 𝑑𝑑
are numbers and the base 𝑏𝑏 is 2, 10, or 𝑒𝑒; evaluate the logarithm using technology. ★ 14

Interpret expressions for functions in terms of the situation they model.

 Interpret the parameters in a linear or exponential function in terms of a context. ★ 15

Foundational Standards
Use properties of rational and irrational numbers.
 Explain why the sum or product of two rational numbers is rational; that the sum of a
rational number and an irrational number is irrational; and that the product of a nonzero
rational number and an irrational number is irrational.

1 1 Combining functions also includes composition of functions.

1 2 In Algebra II, tasks may involve polynomial, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions. Tasks may involve recognizing
even and odd functions.
1 3 In Algebra II, tasks include solving multi- step problems by constructing linear and exponential functions.
1 4 Students learn terminology that logarithm without a base specified is base 1 0 and that natural logarithm always refers to base e.
1 5 Tasks have a real- world context. In Algebra II, tasks include exponential functions with domains not in the integers.

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Interpret the structure of expressions.

 U se the structure of an expression to identify ways to rewrite it. For example, see 𝑥𝑥 4 − 𝑦𝑦 4
as (𝑥𝑥 2 )2 − (𝑦𝑦 2 )2, thus recognizing it as a difference of squares that can be factored as
(𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑦 2 )(𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 ).

Create equations that describe numbers or relationships.

 Create eq uations in two or more variables to represent relationships between q uantities;
graph eq uations on coordinate axes with labels and scales. ★
 Rearrange formulas to highlight a q uantity of interest, using the same reasoning as in solving
eq uations. For example, rearrange Ohm’s law 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 to highlight resistance 𝐼𝐼. ★

Represent and solve equations and inequalities graphically.

 U nderstand that the graph of an eq uation in two variables is the set of all its solutions
plotted in the coordinate plane, often forming a curve ( which could be a line) .

Understand the concept of a function and use function notation.

 U nderstand that a function from one set ( called the domain) to another set ( called the
range) assigns to each element of the domain exactly one element of the range. If 𝑓𝑓 is a
function and 𝑥𝑥 is an element of its domain, then 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) denotes the output of 𝑓𝑓
corresponding to the input 𝑥𝑥. The graph of 𝑓𝑓 is the graph of the eq uation 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
 U se function notation, evaluate functions for inputs in their domains, and interpret
statements that use function notation in terms of a context.

Construct and compare linear, quadratic, and exponential models and solve problems.
 Distinguish between situations that can be modeled with linear functions and with
exponential functions. ★
 Recognize situations in which one q uantity changes at a constant rate per unit interval
relative to another.
 Recognize situations in which a q uantity grows or decays by a constant percent rate per
unit interval relative to another.
 Observe using graphs and tables that a q uantity increasing exponentially eventually exceeds
a q uantity increasing linearly, q uadratically, or ( more generally) as a polynomial function. ★

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Focus Standards for Mathematical Practice

 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them. Students make sense of rational
and real number exponents and in doing so are able to apply exponential functions to solve
problems involving exponential growth and decay for continuous domains such as time.
They explore logarithms numerically and graphically to understand their meaning and how
they can be used to solve exponential eq uations. Students have multiple opportunities to
make connections between information presented graphically, numerically, and
algebraically and search for similarities between these representations to further
understand the underlying mathematical properties of exponents and logarithms. When
presented with a wide variety of information related to financial planning, students make
sense of the given information and use appropriate formulas to effectively plan for a long-
term budget and savings plan.
 Reason abstractly and quantitatively. Students consider appropriate units when exploring
the properties of exponents for very large and very small numbers. They reason about
q uantities when solving a wide variety of problems that can be modeled using logarithms or
exponential functions. Students relate the parameters in exponential expressions to the
situations they model. They write and solve eq uations and then interpret their solutions
within the context of a problem.
 Model with mathematics. Students use exponential functions to model situations involving
exponential growth and decay. They model the number of digits needed to assign
identifiers using logarithms. They model exponential growth using a simulation with
collected data. The application of exponential functions and logarithms as a means to solve
an exponential eq uation is a focus of several lessons that deal with financial literacy and
planning a budget. Here, students must make sense of several different q uantities and their
relationships as they plan and prioritize for their future financial solvency.
 Look for and make use of structure. Students extend the laws of exponents for integer
exponents to rational and real number exponents. They connect how these laws are related
to the properties of logarithms and understand how to rearrange an exponential eq uation
into logarithmic form. Students analyze the structure of exponential and logarithmic
functions to understand how to sketch graphs and see how the properties relate to
transformations of these types of functions. They analyze the structure of expressions to
reveal properties such as recognizing when a function models exponential growth versus
decay. Students use the structure of eq uations to understand how to identify an
appropriate solution method.
 Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning. Students discover the properties of
logarithms and the meaning of a logarithm by investigating numeric examples. They
develop formulas that involve exponentials and logarithms by extending patterns and
examining tables and graphs. Students generalize transformations of graphs of logarithmic
functions by examining several different cases.

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Terminology
New or Recently Introduced Terms
 𝒆𝒆 ( Euler’ s number, 𝑒𝑒, is an irrational number that is approximately eq ual to 2.7182818284590. )
 𝚺𝚺 ( The Greek letter sigma, Σ , is used to represent the sum. There is no rigid way to use Σ to
represent a summation, but all notations generally follow the same rules. The most common way it
is used is discussed. Given the seq uence 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , 𝑎𝑎4 , … , we can write the sum of the first 𝑛𝑛 terms
of the seq uence using the expression: 𝑛𝑛

� 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 .)
𝑘𝑘=1

 Arithmetic Series ( An arithmetic series is a series whose terms form an arithmetic seq uence. )
 Geometric Series ( A geometric series is a series whose terms form a geometric seq uence. )
 Invertible Function ( Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function whose domain is the set 𝑋𝑋 and whose image is the set 𝑌𝑌.
Then 𝑓𝑓 is invertible if there exists a function 𝑔𝑔 with domain 𝑌𝑌 and image 𝑋𝑋 such that 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 satisfy
the property:
For all 𝑥𝑥 ∈ 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑦𝑦 ∈ 𝑌𝑌, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 if and only if 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥.
The function 𝑔𝑔 is called the inverse of 𝑓𝑓 and is denoted 𝑓𝑓 −1.
The way to interpret the property is to look at all pairs (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) ∈ 𝑋𝑋 × 𝑌𝑌: If the pair (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) makes
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 a true eq uation, then 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 is a true eq uation. If it makes 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑦𝑦 a false eq uation,
then 𝑔𝑔(𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 is false. If that happens for each pair in 𝑋𝑋 × 𝑌𝑌, then 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 are invertible and are
inverses of each other. )
 Logarithm ( If three numbers, 𝐿𝐿, 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑥𝑥 are related by 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 , then 𝐿𝐿 is the logarithm base 𝑏𝑏 of 𝑥𝑥,
and we write 𝐿𝐿 = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥). That is, the value of the expression log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) is the power of 𝑏𝑏 needed to
be eq uivalent to 𝑥𝑥.
Valid values of 𝑏𝑏 as a base for a logarithm are 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1 and 𝑏𝑏 > 1. )
 Series ( Let 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑎3 , 𝑎𝑎4 , … be a seq uence of numbers. A sum of the form
𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛
for some positive integer 𝑛𝑛 is called a series, or finite series, and is denoted 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 . The 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 ’ s are called
the terms of the series. The number that the series adds to is called the sum of the series.
Sometimes 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛 is called the 𝑛𝑛th partial sum. )

Familiar Terms and Symbols 16

 Compound Interest
 Exponential Decay
 Exponential Expression
 Exponential Growth
 Scientific Notation

1 6
These are terms and symbols students have seen previously.

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Suggested Tools and Representations

 Graphing calculator or Desmos online calculator simulation
 Wolfram Alpha Software
 GeoGebra or Geometer’ s Sketchpad Software
 Excel or other spreadsheet software, such as Calc ( part of the LibreOffice suite)

Assessment Summary
Assessment Type Administered Format

Mid- Module
After Topic B Constructed response with rubric
Assessment Task

End- of- Module

After Topic E Constructed response with rubric
Assessment Task

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS

Mathematics Curriculum
A L G E B R A I I • MODULE 3

Topic A
Real Numbers

Focus Standards:  Explain how the definition of the meaning of rational exponents follows from extending
the properties of integer exponents to those values, allowing for a notation for radicals
1
in terms of rational exponents. For example, we define 53 to be the cube root of 5
3
1 3 1
� � 1 3
because we want �53 � =5 3 to hold, so �53 � must equal 5.

 Rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the properties of
exponents.

Define appropriate q uantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling.

★


 Calculate and interpret the average rate of change of a function ( presented symbolically
or as a table) over a specified interval. Estimate the rate of change from a graph.
★

Write a function that describes a relationship between two q uantities.

★


Determine an explicit expression, a recursive process, or steps for calculation from a

context
 Construct linear and exponential functions, including arithmetic and geometric
seq uences, given a graph, a description of a relationship, or two input- output pairs
( include reading these from a table) .
★

Instructional Days: 6
L e sson 1 : Integer Exponents ( E) 1

L e sson 2 : Base 10 and Scientific Notation ( P)

1 1
L e sson 3 : Rational Exponents—What are 22 and 23 ? ( S)
L e sson 4 : Properties of Exponents and Radicals ( P)
L e sson 5 : √ and 2𝜋𝜋 ? ( S)
Irrational Exponents—What are 2√2
L e sson 6 : Euler’ s Number, e ( P)

1 Lesson Structure Key: P - Problem Set Lesson, M- Modeling Cycle Lesson, E - Exploration Lesson, S - Socratic Lesson

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In Topic A, students prepare to generalize what they know about various function families by examining the
behavior off exponential functions. One goal of the module is to show that the domain off the exponential
function, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)= 𝑏𝑏 , where 𝑏𝑏 is a positive number not eq ual to 1, is all real numbers. In Lesson 1 ,
students review and practice applying the laws of exponents to expressions in which the exponents are
integers. Students first tackle a challenge problem on paper folding that is related to exponential growth and
then apply and practice applying the laws of exponents to rewriting algebraic expressions. They experiment,
create a table of values, observe patterns, and then generalize a formula to represent different
measurements in the folded stack of paper. They also use the laws of exponents to work with very large and
very small numbers.
Lesson 2 sets the stage for the introduction of base- 10 logarithms in Topic B of the module by reviewing
how to express numbers using scientific notation, how to compute using scientific notation, and how to use
the laws of exponents to simplify those computations. Students should gain a sense of the change in
magnitude when different powers of 10 are compared. The activities in these lessons prepare students for
working with q uantities that increase in magnitude by powers of 10 and by showing them the usefulness of
exponent properties when performing arithmetic operations. Similar work is done in later lessons relating
to logarithms. Exercises on distances between planets in the solar system and on comparing magnitudes in
other real- world contexts provide additional practice with arithmetic operations on numbers written using
scientific notation.

Lesson 3 begins with students examining the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 2 and estimating values as a means of extending
1
their understanding of integer exponents to rational exponents. The examples are generalized to 2𝑛𝑛 before
generalizing further to 2 𝑛𝑛 . As the domain of the identities involving exponents is expanded, it is important to
maintain consistency with the properties already developed. Students work specifically to make sense that
1 1 1
3
√ and 23 = √
22 = √2 √2 to develop the more general concept that 2𝑛𝑛 = √2 √ . The lesson demonstrates how
people develop mathematics ( 1 ) to be consistent with what is already known and ( 2 ) to make additional
progress. Additionally, students practice as they extend the rules
for integer exponents to rules for rational exponents

Lesson 4 continues the discussion of properties of exponents and radicals, and students
extend their understanding of exponents to all rational numbers and for all
positive real bases. Students rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the
1
properties of exponents . The notation 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 specifically indicate s th e princip al root
o of 𝑥𝑥: the positive root
ot
when 𝑛𝑛 is even and the real- valued root when 𝑛𝑛 iss odd. To avoid inconsistencies ees in the later w ork with
logarithms, 𝑥𝑥 is req uired to be positive.

Lesson 5 revisits the work of Lesson 3 and extends student understanding of the domain of the exponential
function 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑏𝑏 , where 𝑏𝑏 is a positive real number, from the rational
aal numbers to all real numbers
through the process of considering what it means to raise a number to an irrational exponent ( such as 2√2) .
In many ways, this lesson parallels the work students did in Lesson 3 to make a solid case for why the laws of
exponents hold for all rational number exponents.
This lesson is important both because it helps to portray mathematics as a coherent body of
knowledge that makes sense and because it is necessary to make sure that students understand that
logarithms can be irrational numbers. Essentially, it is necessary to guarantee that

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exponential and logarithmic functions are continuous functions. Students take away from these lessons an
understanding that the domain of exponents in the laws of exponents does indeed extend to all real numbers
rather than just to the integers, as defined previously in Grade 8.
Lesson 6 is a modeling lesson in which students find an exponential function to model the amount of water in a
tank after 𝑡𝑡 seconds when the height of the water is constantly doubling or tripling and explore the average
rate of change of the height of the water over smaller and smaller intervals. If the height of the water in the
tank at time 𝑡𝑡 seconds is denoted by (𝑡𝑡 ) = 𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 , then the average rate off change of the height of the
( )− (𝑡𝑡)
water on an interval [ , + ] is approximated by ≈ 𝑐𝑐 ( ). Students calculate that if the
height of the water is doubling each second, then 𝑐𝑐 ≈ 0.69, and if the height of the water is tripling each
second, then 𝑐𝑐 ≈ 1.1. Students discover Euler’ s number, 𝑒𝑒, by applying repeated reasoning and numerically
approximating the base 𝑏𝑏 for which the constant 𝑐𝑐 is eq ual to 1. Euler’ s number isused extensively in the
future and occurs in many different applications.

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L e sson 1 : I nte g e r E x p one nts

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students review and practice applying the properties of exponents for integer exponents.
 Students model a real- world scenario involving exponential growth and decay.

L e sson N ote s
To fully understand exponential functions and their use in modeling real- world situations, students must be able to
extend the properties of integer exponents to rational and real numbers. In previous grades, students established the
properties of exponents for integer exponents and worked with radical expressions and irrational numbers such as √2 √ .
In this module, the properties of exponents are used to show that for any positive real number 𝑏𝑏, the domain of the
exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 is all real numbers. In Algebra I, students primarily worked with exponential functions
where the domain was limited to a set of integers. In the latter part of this module, students are introduced to
logarithms, which allow them to find real number solutions to exponential eq uations. Students come to understand how
logarithms simplify computation, particularly with different measuring scales.
Much of the work in this module relies on the ability to reason q uantitatively and abstractly, to make use of
structure, and to model with mathematics. Lesson 1 begins with a challenge problem where students are
asked to fold a piece of paper in half 1 0 times and construct exponential functions based on their experience.
It is physically impossible to fold a sheet of notebook paper in half more than seven or eight times; the difficulty lies in
the thickness of the paper compared to the resulting area when the paper is folded. To fold a piece of paper in half
more than seven or eight times req uires either a larger piece of paper, a very thin piece of paper, or a different folding
scheme, such as accordion folding. In 2 0 0 1 , a high school student, Britney Gallivan, successfully folded a very large piece
of paper in half 1 2 times and derived a mathematical formula to determine how large a piece of paper would be
req uired to successfully accomplish this task ( http : // org/ ) . Others have tried the problem
as well, including the hosts of the television show “ MythBusters” ( https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v= kRAEBbotuIE)
and students at St. Mark’ s High School in Massachusetts ( https: //www. newscientist. com/blogs/nstv/2 0 1 2 /0 1 /paper-
folding- limits- pushed. html) . Consider sharing one of these resources with the class at the close of the lesson or after
they have completed the Exploratory Challenge. After this challenge, which reintroduces students to exponential growth
and decay, students review the properties of exponents for integer exponents and apply them to the rewriting of
algebraic expressions. The lesson concludes with fluency practice where students apply properties of exponents to
rewrite expressions in a specified form.
Consider having the following materials on hand in case students want to explore this problem in more detail: access to
the Internet, chart paper, cash register tape, a roll of toilet paper, origami paper, tissue paper or facial tissues, and
rulers.

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Cl a ssw ork
Students begin this lesson by predicting whether they can fold a piece of paper in half 10 times, how tall the folded
paper will be, and whether or not the area of paper showing on top is smaller or larger than a postage stamp. They
explore the validity of their predictions in the Exploratory Challenge that follows.

O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 3 m inute s)

Give students a short amount of time to think about and write individual responses. Lead S caffolding:
a short discussion with the entire class to poll students on their responses. Record  Demonstrate folding the
solutions on the board or chart paper for later reference. At this point, most students will paper once or twice during
probably say that they can fold the paper in half 10 times. The sample responses shown the discussion to illustrate
below are not correct and represent possible initial student responses. Some students what the q uestions are
may be familiar with this challenge, having seen it discussed on a television program or on asking and what is meant
the Internet and, conseq uently, say that a piece of notebook paper cannot be folded in by how thick the folded
half 10 times. Accept all responses, and avoid excessive explanation or justification of paper will be.
answers at this point.
 Ask advanced learners to
provide justification for
O p e ning E x e rc ise
their claims about the
Ca n y ou f ol d a p ie c e of note book p a p e r in h a l f tim e s? thickness of the folded
An sw ers w il l v ary. Al thoug h in c orrec t, m an y stud en ts m ay in itial l y an sw er “ Y es. ” paper.

H ow th ic k w il l th e f ol d e d p a p e r be ?

An sw ers w il l v ary. T he fol l ow in g is a typ ic al stud en t g uess: I t w il l b e ab out .

W il l th e a re a of th e p a p e r on th e top of th e f ol d e d sta c k be l a rg e r or sm a l l e r th a n a p osta g e sta m p ?

I t w il l b e sm al l er b ec ause I w il l b e d iv id in g the rec tan g l e in hal f tim es, an d sin c e a p iec e of p ap er is ab out . .b y
., it w il l b e v ery sm al l w hen d iv id ed in hal f that m an y tim es.

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Students should brainstorm ideas for further exploring these q uestions to come up with a more precise answer to these
q uestions. At this point, some students are likely folding a piece of notebook paper. On chart paper, record ideas for
additional information needed to answer the original q uestions more precisely.
 How can you be sure of your answers?
W e could actually fold a piece of paper and
measure the height and area on top of the
stack. W e could determine the thickness of a
sheet of notebook paper and then multiply it
by the number of folds. W e could find the
area of the original paper and divide it by 2
successively for each fold.

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 What additional information is needed to solve this problem?

W e need to know the thickness of the paper, the dimensions of the original piece of paper, and a
consistent way to fold the paper.
W e need to know the size of a postage stamp.
 How will you organize your work?
W e can make a table.

E x p l ora tory Ch a l l e ng e ( 2 0 m inute s)

Students should work on this challenge problem in small groups. Groups can use the suggested scaffolding q uestions on
the student pages, or simply give each group a piece of chart paper and access to appropriate tools such as a ruler,
different types of paper, a computer for researching the thickness of a sheet of paper, etc. , and start them on the task.
Have them report their results on their chart paper. Student solutions will vary from group to group. Sample responses
have been provided below for a standard 8.5 in. by 11 in. piece of paper that has been folded in half as shown below.
The size of a small postage stamp is in. by 1 in.

E x p l ora tory Ch a l l e ng e

a . W h a t a re th e d im e nsions of y our p a p e r?

T he d im en sion s are . .b y .

b. H ow th ic k is one sh e e t of p a p e r? E x p l a in h ow y ou d e c id e d on y our a nsw e r.

A ream of p ap er is sheets. I t is ab out . hig h. D iv id in g b y w oul d g iv e a thic kn ess of a p iec e of

p ap er to b e ap p rox im atel y . .

c . D e sc ribe h ow y ou f ol d e d th e p a p e r.

F irst, w e fol d ed the p ap er in hal f so that it w as . .b y . .; then , w e rotated the p ap er an d fol d ed it

ag ain so that it w as . .b y . .; then , w e rotated the p ap er an d fol d ed it ag ain , an d so on .

d . R e c ord d a ta in th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e ba se d on th e siz e a nd th ic k ne ss of y our p a p e r.

N um be r of F ol d s
T h ic k ne ss of th e S ta c k ( in. ) . . . . .
A re a of th e T op of th e S ta c k ( sq . in. ) . . . . .

N um be r of F ol d s
T h ic k ne ss of th e S ta c k ( in. ) . . . . . .
A re a of th e T op of th e S ta c k ( sq . in. ) . . . . . .

An sw ers are roun d ed to three d ec im al p l ac es after the fifth fol d .

e . W e re y ou a bl e to f ol d a p ie c e of note book p a p e r in h a l f tim e s? W h y or w h y not?

N o. I t g ot too sm al l an d too thic k for us to c on tin ue fol d in g it.

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Debrief after part ( e) by having groups present their solutions so far. At this point,
students should realize that it is impossible to fold a sheet of notebook paper in half S caffolding:
10 times. If groups wish to try folding a larger piece of paper, such as a piece of chart
If students are struggling to
paper, or a different thickness of paper, such as a facial tissue, or using a different folding
develop the formulas in their
techniq ue, such as an accordion fold, then allow them to alter their exploration. Consider
groups, complete the rest of
having tissue paper, facial tissues, a roll of toilet paper, chart paper, or cash register tape
this challenge as a whole class.
on hand for student groups to use in their experiments.
Students have many
After students have made adjustments to their models and tested them, have them write opportunities to model using
formulas to predict the height and area after 10 folds and explain how these answers exponential functions later in
compare to their original predictions. Students worked with exponential functions and this module. Write the height
geometric seq uences in Algebra I. Since this situation involves doubling or halving, most and thickness as products of
groups should be able to write a formula. When debriefing this next section with the repeated twos to help students
entire class, help students to write a well- defined formula. Did they specify the meaning see the pattern. For example,
of their variables? Did they specify a domain if they used function notation? They may after three folds, the height
not have used the same variables shown in the solutions below and should be using would be 2 2 2, where
specific values for the thickness and area of the paper based on their assumptions during is the thickness of the paper.
modeling. Students are likely surprised by these results.
 How thick would the stack be if you could fold it 10 times?
 Is the area of the top of the stack smaller or larger than a postage stamp?
 How do these answers compare to your prediction?

f. Cre a te a f orm ul a th a t a p p rox im a te s th e h e ig h t of th e sta c k a f te r f ol d s.

O ur form ul a is ( ) = , w here is the thic kn ess of the p ap er an d ( ) is the heig ht after fol d s.
I n this c ase, = . .

g . Cre a te a f orm ul a th a t w il l g iv e y ou th e a p p rox im a te a re a of th e top a f te r f ol d s.

O ur form ul a is ( ) = � � , w here is the area of the orig in al p iec e of p ap er an d ( ) is the area of the
top after fol d s. I n this c ase, = . . .

h . A nsw e r th e orig ina l q ue stions f rom th e O p e ning E x e rc ise . H ow d o th e a c tua l a nsw e rs c om p a re to y our
orig ina l p re d ic tions?

I t w as im p ossib l e to fol d the p ap er m ore than tim es. U sin g our m od el , if w e c oul d fol d the p ap er tim es,
it w oul d b e j ust ov er . thic k an d l ess than . . , w hic h is m uc h sm al l er than the area of a p ostag e
stam p . O ur p red ic tion s w ere in ac c urate b ec ause w e d id n ot c on sid er how d rastic al l y the siz es c han g e w hen
suc c essiv el y d oub l in g or hal v in g m easurem en ts.

Student groups should present their solutions again. If it did not come up earlier, ask students to consider how they
might increase the likelihood that they could fold a piece of paper in half more than seven or eight times.
 What are some ways to increase the likelihood that you could successfully fold a piece of paper in half more
than seven or eight times?
Y ou could use a thinner piece of paper. Y ou could use a larger piece of paper. Y ou could try different
ways of folding the paper.

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Brittney Gallivan, the high school student who solved this problem in 2 0 0 1 , first folded a very thin sheet of gold foil in
half over seven times and then successfully folded an extremely large piece of paper in half 12 times at a local shopping
mall. In 2 0 1 1 , students at St. Mark’ s High School in Massachusetts folded miles of taped- together toilet paper in half
13 times.

E x a m p l e 1 ( 5 m inute s) : U sing th e P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts to R e w rite E x p re ssions

In this example, show students how to represent their expressions using powers of 2.
S caffolding:
Model this using the folding of a 10 in. by 10 in. sq uare sheet of gold foil. The thickness
of gold foil is 0.28 millionth of a meter. The information in this problem is based on the U se a vocabulary notebook or
first task Britney accomplished: folding a sheet of gold foil in half twelve times. Of an anchor chart posted on the
course, her teacher then modified the task and req uired her to actually use paper wall to remind students of
( http: //www. abc. net. au/science/articles/2 0 0 5 /1 2 /2 1 /1 5 2 3 4 9 7. htm) . The goal of this vocabulary words associated
example is to remind students of the meaning of integer exponents. with exponents.

Many students likely see the area seq uence as successive divisions by two.
For students who are struggling to make sense of the meaning of a negative exponent,
model rewriting the expressions in the last column as follows:

100 1 1 1
= 100 � � = 100 � � = 100 2−1 ;
2 2 2
100 1 1 2
= 100 � � = 100 � � = 100 2−2 ;
4 4 2
100 1 1 3
= 100 � � = 100 � � = 100 2−3 .
8 8 2

E x a m p l e 1 : U sing th e P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts to R e w rite E x p re ssions

T h e ta bl e be l ow d isp l a y s th e th ic k ne ss a nd a re a of a f ol d e d sq ua re sh e e t of g ol d f oil . I n 2 0 0 1 , B ritne y G a l l iv a n, a

Ca l if ornia h ig h sc h ool j unior, suc c e ssf ul l y f ol d e d a - sq ua re - inc h sh e e t of g ol d f oil in h a l f tim e s to e a rn e x tra c re d it
in h e r m a th e m a tic s c l a ss.

R e w rite e a c h of th e ta bl e e ntrie s a s a m ul tip l e of a p ow e r of .

N um be r T h ic k ne ss of th e S ta c k T h ic k ne ss A re a of th e T op A re a
of F ol d s ( m il l ionth s of a m e te r) U sing a P ow e r of ( sq ua re inc h e s) U sing a P ow e r of
. .
−
. .
−
. .
−
. . .
−
. . .
−
. . .
−
. . .

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While modeling this example with students, take the opportunity to discuss the fact that exponentiation with positive
integers can be thought of as repeated multiplication by the base, whereas exponentiation with negative integers can be
thought of as repeated division by the base. For example,
1
424 = 4 4 4 ⋯ 4 and 4−24 = .
24
4 4 4 ⋯ 4
24

Alternatively, the meaning of a negative exponent when the exponent is an integer can be described as repeated
multiplication by the reciprocal of the base. For example,
1 1 1 1
4−24 = � � � � � � ⋯ � � .
4 4 4 4
24

Interpreting exponents as repeated multiplication or division only makes sense for integer exponents. However, the
properties of exponents do apply for any real number exponent.

E x a m p l e 2 ( 5 m inute s) : A p p l y ing th e P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts to R e w rite E x p re ssions

Transition into this example by explaining that many times when working with algebraic and numeric expressions that
contain exponents, it is advantageous to rewrite them in different forms . One obvious advantage of exponents is
that they shorten the length of an expression involving repeated multiplication. Ask students to imagine always having
to write out the product of ten 2’ s if they wanted to express the number 1,024 as a power
of 2. While the exponent notation gives a way to express repeated multiplication S caffolding:
succinctly, the properties of exponents also provide a way to make computations with Students needing additional
exponents more efficient. Share the properties of exponents below. Have students practice with exponents can
record these properties in their math notebooks. use the following numeric
The Properties of Exponents examples that mirror the
algebraic expressions in
For nonzero real numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 and all integers 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏, the following Example 2 . Have students
properties hold. work them side by side to help
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 see the structure of the
(𝑥𝑥 )𝑏𝑏 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 expressions.
(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦  Write each expression in
𝑥𝑥 −𝑏𝑏 the form 𝑘𝑘𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑘𝑘 is a
= 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 𝑏𝑏 real number and 𝑏𝑏 and 𝑛𝑛
( Note: Most cases of the properties listed above hold when 𝑥𝑥 = 0 or 𝑦𝑦 = 0. The only are integers.
cases that cause problems are when values of the variables result in the expression 0 or
division by 0. ) Ask students to discuss with a partner different ways to rewrite the (5 2 )(−3 22 )
following expressions in the form 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑘𝑘 is a real number and 𝑛𝑛 is an integer. Have
students share out their responses with the entire class. For each problem, model both 3 4
approaches. While modeling, make sure to have students verbalize the connections (2 4)4
between the methods. Ask volunteers to explain why the rules hold.
3
(52 )−3

3−3 34
3

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E x a m p l e 2 : A p p l y ing th e P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts to R e w rite E x p re ssions

R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm , w h e re is a re a l num be r, is a n inte g e r, a nd is a nonz e ro re a l num be r.

a . ( ) (− )

Method 1 : Ap p l y the d efin ition of an ex p on en t an d p rop erties of al g eb ra.

( ) (− )= − =− ( ) ( )=−

Method 2 : Ap p l y the rul es of ex p on en ts an d the p rop erties of al g eb ra.

− = − =− =−

b.
( )

Method 1 : Ap p l y the d efin ition of an ex p on en t an d p rop erties of al g eb ra.

= = = = =
( )
Method 2 : Ap p l y the rul es of ex p on en ts an d the p rop erties of al g eb ra.

−
= =

c .
( )

Method 1 : Ap p l y the d efin ition of an ex p on en t an d p rop erties of al g eb ra.

= = = = =
( )−
� �� �� �

Method 2 : Ap p l y the rul es of ex p on en ts an d the p rop erties of al g eb ra.

= = =
( )− (− ) −

d .

Method 1 : Ap p l y the d efin ition of an ex p on en t an d p rop erties of al g eb ra.

−
−
= = = =

Method 2 : Ap p l y the rul es of ex p on en ts an d the p rop erties of al g eb ra.

− −
− −
= = = =

After seeing these examples, students should begin to understand why the properties of exponents are so useful for
working with exponential expressions. Show both methods as many times as necessary in order to reinforce the
properties with students so that they ultimately rewrite most expressions like these by inspection, using the properties
rather than expanding exponential expressions.

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E x e rc ise s 1 – 5 ( 5 m inute s)
The point of these exercises is to force students to use the properties of exponents to rewrite expressions in the form
𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 . Typical high school textbooks ask students to write expressions with nonnegative exponents. However, in
advanced mathematics classes, students need to be able to fluently rewrite expressions in different forms. Students
who continue on to study higher- level mathematics such as calculus need to rewrite expressions in this form in order to
q uickly apply a common derivative rule. The last two exercises are not feasible to work out by expanding the exponent.
U se them to assess whether or not students are able to apply the rules fluently even when larger numbers or variables
are involved.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 5

R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm , w h e re is a re a l num be r a nd is a n inte g e r. A ssum e ≠ .

1 .

2 .

3 .

− −(− ) −
=

−
4 . � − �

( )− = − −
= −

5 . ( )

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Have students respond individually in writing or with a partner to the following q uestions.
 How can the properties of exponents help us to rewrite expressions?
They make the process less tedious, especially when the exponents are very large or very small integers.
 Why are the properties of exponents useful when working with large or small numbers?
Y ou can quickly rewrite expressions without having to rewrite each power of the base in expanded
form.

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L e sson S um m a ry
T h e P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts
F or re a l num be rs a nd w ith ≠ , ≠ , a nd a l l inte g e rs a nd , th e f ol l ow ing p rop e rtie s h ol d .

1 . =

2 . ( ) =

3 . ( ) =

4 . = −

5 . = −

6 . � � =

7 . =

E x it T ic k e t ( 3 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 : I nte g e r E x p one nts

E x it T ic k e t

The following formulas for paper folding were discovered by Britney Gallivan in 2 0 0 1 when she was a high school junior.
The first formula determines the minimum width, , of a sq uare piece of paper of thickness needed to fold it in half 𝑛𝑛
times, alternating horizontal and vertical folds. The second formula determines the minimum length, 𝐿𝐿, of a long
rectangular piece of paper of thickness needed to fold it in half 𝑛𝑛 times, always folding perpendicular to the long side.
3 𝑛𝑛−1
= 2 2 𝐿𝐿 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 4)(2𝑛𝑛 − 1)
6
1 . Notebook paper is approximately 0.004 in. thick. U sing the formula for the width , determine how wide a sq uare
piece of notebook paper would need to be to successfully fold it in half 13 times, alternating horizontal and vertical
folds.

2 . Toilet paper is approximately 0.002 in. thick. U sing the formula for the length 𝐿𝐿, how long would a continuous
sheet of toilet paper have to be to fold it in half 12 times, folding perpendicular to the long edge each time?

3 . U se the properties of exponents to rewrite each expression in the form 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 . Then, evaluate the expression for the
given value of 𝑥𝑥.
5 −1
a. 2𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 ; 𝑥𝑥 = 2
4

1
b. ; 𝑥𝑥 = −
(2 ) 3 3

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

T h e f ol l ow ing f orm ul a s f or p a p e r f ol d ing w e re d isc ov e re d by B ritne y G a l l iv a n in 2 0 0 1 w h e n sh e w a s a h ig h sc h ool j unior.

T h e f irst f orm ul a d e te rm ine s th e m inim um w id th , , of a sq ua re p ie c e of p a p e r of th ic k ne ss ne e d e d to f ol d it in h a l f
tim e s, a l te rna ting h oriz onta l a nd v e rtic a l f ol d s. T h e se c ond f orm ul a d e te rm ine s th e m inim um l e ng th , , of a l ong
re c ta ng ul a r p ie c e of p a p e r of th ic k ne ss ne e d e d to f ol d it in h a l f tim e s, a l w a y s f ol d ing p e rp e nd ic ul a r to th e l ong sid e .
−
= = ( + )( − )

1 . N ote book p a p e r is a p p rox im a te l y . . th ic k . U sing th e f orm ul a f or th e w id th , d e te rm ine h ow w id e a

sq ua re p ie c e of note book p a p e r w oul d ne e d to be to suc c e ssf ul l y f ol d it in h a l f tim e s, a l te rna ting h oriz onta l a nd
v e rtic a l f ol d s.
−
T he p ap er w oul d n eed to b e ap p rox im atel y , . . w id e: = = ( . ) ≈ . .

2 . T oil e t p a p e r is a p p rox im a te l y . . th ic k . U sing th e f orm ul a f or th e l e ng th , h ow l ong w oul d a c ontinuous

sh e e t of toil e t p a p e r h a v e to be to f ol d it in h a l f tim e s, f ol d ing p e rp e nd ic ul a r to th e l ong e d g e e a c h tim e ?

T he p ap er w oul d hav e to b e ap p rox im atel y , . . l on g , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y . .:

.
=� �( + )( − )= � �( )( )= . ≈ , . .

3 . U se th e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm . T h e n, e v a l ua te th e e x p re ssion f or th e

g iv e n v a l ue of .

a . −
; =

−
� � =

W hen = , = ( ) = .

b. ; =−
( )

− −
=

W hen =− , = �− � = − .

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P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
Note to the teacher: Problem 3 , part ( g) , is important for the financial lessons that occur near the end of this module.

1 . S up p ose y our c l a ss trie d to f ol d a n unrol l e d rol l of toil e t p a p e r. I t w a s orig ina l l y . w id e a nd . l ong . T oil e t
p a p e r is a p p rox im a te l y . . th ic k .
a . Com p l e te e a c h ta bl e , a nd re p re se nt th e a re a a nd th ic k ne ss using p ow e rs of .

N um be r of T h ic k ne ss N um be r of A re a on T op
F ol d s A f te r F ol d s F ol d s A f te r F ol d s
( .) ( )
. = . =
−
. = . =
−
. = . =
−
. = . =
−
. = . =
−
. = . =
−
. = . . =

b. Cre a te a n a l g e bra ic f unc tion th a t d e sc ribe s th e a re a in sq ua re inc h e s a f te r f ol d s.

( )= −
, w here is a n on n eg ativ e in teg er.

c . Cre a te a n a l g e bra ic f unc tion th a t d e sc ribe s th e th ic k ne ss in inc h e s a f te r f ol d s.

( )= . , w here is a n on n eg ativ e in teg er.

2 . I n th e E x it T ic k e t, w e sa w th e f orm ul a s be l ow . T h e f irst f orm ul a d e te rm ine s th e m inim um w id th , , of a sq ua re

p ie c e of p a p e r of th ic k ne ss ne e d e d to f ol d it in h a l f tim e s, a l te rna ting h oriz onta l a nd v e rtic a l f ol d s. T h e se c ond
f orm ul a d e te rm ine s th e m inim um l e ng th , , of a l ong re c ta ng ul a r p ie c e of p a p e r of th ic k ne ss ne e d e d to f ol d it in
h a l f tim e s, a l w a y s f ol d ing p e rp e nd ic ul a r to th e l ong sid e .
−
= = ( + )( − )

U se th e a p p rop ria te f orm ul a to v e rif y w h y it is p ossibl e to f ol d a inc h by inc h sh e e t of g ol d f oil in h a l f

tim e s. U se . m il l ionth of a m e te r f or th e th ic k ne ss of g ol d f oil .

G iv en that the thic kn ess of the g ol d foil is . m il l ion th of a m eter, w e hav e

.
= . = . .
, , .
U sin g the form ul a
−
=
w ith = an d = . , w e g et
−
= ( . ) ≈ .
T hus, an y sq uare sheet of g ol d foil l arg er than . in c hes b y . in c hes c an b e fol d ed in hal f tim es, so a in c h
b y in c h sheet of g ol d foil c an b e fol d ed in hal f tim es.

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3 . U se th e f orm ul a f rom P robl e m 2 to d e te rm ine if y ou c a n f ol d a n unrol l e d rol l of toil e t p a p e r in h a l f m ore th a n

tim e s. A ssum e th a t th e th ic k ne ss of a sh e e t of toil e t p a p e r is a p p rox im a te l y . . a nd th a t one rol l is
. l ong .

F irst, c on v ert feet to in c hes. .= .

T hen , sub stitute . an d in to the form ul a for an d , resp ec tiv el y.

( . )
= ( + )( − )= .

T he rol l is j ust l on g en oug h to fol d in hal f tim es.

4 . A p p l y th e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm , w h e re is a n inte g e r a nd ≠ .

a . ( )( )( )

b.
(− )

c .

− − −
=

d . ( )− ( )−

− (− ) −
=

−
e . � − �

−
− − −
−
= =

5 . A p p l y th e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to v e rif y th a t e a c h sta te m e nt is a n id e ntity .

a . = � � f or inte g e r v a l ue s of

= = = � �

b. − = f or inte g e r v a l ue s of

− = − = ( − )= =

c .
( )
= � � f or inte g e r v a l ue s of

( )
= = = � �
( )

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ALGEBRA II

6 . J ona h w a s try ing to re w rite e x p re ssions using th e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts a nd p rop e rtie s of a l g e bra f or nonz e ro
v a l ue s of . I n e a c h p robl e m , h e m a d e a m ista k e . E x p l a in w h e re h e m a d e a m ista k e in e a c h p a rt, a nd p rov id e a
c orre c t sol ution.

J ona h ’ s I nc orre c t W ork

a . ( )− = − −

b. =

−
c . = −

I n p art ( a) , he m ul tip l ied b y the ex p on en t − . T he c orrec t sol ution is − −

= −
.

I n p art ( b ) , he m ul tip l ied b y w hen he rew rote −

. T he shoul d rem ain in the d en om in ator of the ex p ression .
T he c orrec t sol ution is .

I n p art ( c ) , he on l y d iv id ed the first term b y , b ut he shoul d hav e d iv id ed b oth term s b y . T he c orrec t sol ution

is − = − .

7 . If = a nd = , e x p re ss in te rm s of .

B y the sub stitution p rop erty, if = an d = , then = ( ) . Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an eq uiv al en t
form g iv es = .

8 . If = and =− −
, express in terms of .

B y the sub stitution p rop erty, if = an d =− −

, then = �− −
� . Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an
eq uiv al en t form g iv es =− −
.

9 . If = and = , show that = .

Rew rite the eq uation = to isol ate the v ariab l e .

B y the sub stitution p rop erty, if = an d = , then = ( ) . Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an
eq uiv al en t form g iv es = = .

1 0 . D o th e f ol l ow ing ta sk s w ith out a c a l c ul a tor.

a . E x p re ss a s a p ow e r of .

=( ) =

b. D iv id e by .

= = or = =

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1 1 . U se powers of to perform each calculation without a calculator or other technology.

a .

−
= = = =

b.

= = = =

1 2 . Write the first five terms of each of the following recursively defined seq uences:
a . + = , =

, , , ,

b. + = ( ), =

, , , ,

c . + = ( ), = , w h e re is a re a l num be r W rite e a c h te rm in th e f orm .

, , , ,

d . + = ( )− , = , ( ≠ ) W rite e a c h te rm in th e f orm .

, −
, , −
,

1 3 . I n M od ul e 1 , y ou e sta bl ish e d th e id e ntity ( − )( + + + ⋯+ −

)= − , w h e re is a re a l num be r a nd
is a p ositiv e inte g e r.
U se th is id e ntity to re sp ond to p a rts ( a ) – ( g ) be l ow .
a . R e w rite th e g iv e n id e ntity to isol a te th e sum + + + ⋯+ −
f or ≠ .

−
−
( + + +⋯+ )=
−

b. F ind a n e x p l ic it f orm ul a f or + + + + ⋯+ .

−
= −
−

c . F ind a n e x p l ic it f orm ul a f or + + + + ⋯+ in te rm s of p ow e rs of .

−
−

d . J e rry sim p l if ie d th e sum + + + + + by w riting + . W h a t d id h e d o w rong ?

H e assum ed that w hen you ad d term s w ith the sam e b ase, you al so ad d the ex p on en ts. Y ou on l y ad d the
ex p on en ts w hen you m ul tip l y term s w ith the sam e b ase.

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e . F ind a n e x p l ic it f orm ul a f or + +( ) +( ) + ⋯+ ( ) in te rm s of p ow e rs of .

−( )
−

f. F ind a n e x p l ic it f orm ul a f or + ( )+ ( ) + ( ) + ⋯+ ( ) in te rm s of p ow e rs of .
H int: U se p a rt ( e ) .

−( )
−

g . F ind a n e x p l ic it f orm ul a f or + ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + ) + ⋯+ ( + ) −
in te rm s of p ow e rs
of ( + ).

−( + ) −( + )
=
−( + ) −

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L e sson 2 : B a se 1 0 a nd S c ie ntif ic N ota tion

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students review place value and scientific notation.
 Students use scientific notation to compute with large numbers.

L e sson N ote s
This lesson reviews how to express numbers using scientific notation. Students first learned about scientific notation
in Grade 8 where they expressed numbers using scientific notation and computed with and compared numbers
expressed using scientific notation. Refer to Grade 8, Module 1 , Topic B to review the approach to introducing
scientific notation and its use in calculations with very large and very small numbers. This lesson sets the stage for the
introduction of base- 10 logarithms later in this module by focusing on the fact that every real number can be expressed
as the product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. In the paper- folding activity in the last lesson,
students worked with some very small and very large numbers. This lesson opens with these numbers to connect these
lessons. Students also compute with numbers using scientific notation and discuss how the properties of exponents can
simplify these computations. In both the lesson and the Problem Set, students define appropriate q uantities
for the purpose of descriptive modeling. The lesson includes a demonstration that reinforces the point that
using scientific notation is convenient when working with very large or very small numbers and helps students gain some
sense of the change in magnitude when different powers of 10 are compared. This is an excellent time to watch the
9- minute classic film “ Powers of 10” by Charles and Ray Eames, available at
https: //www. youtube. com/watch? v= 0 fKBhvDjuy0 , which clearly illustrates the effect of adding another zero. The
definition of scientific notation from Grade 8, Module 1 , Lesson 9 is included after Example 1 . Consider allowing
students to use a calculator for this lesson.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning ( 2 m inute s)
In the last lesson, Example 1 gave the thickness of a sheet of gold foil as 0.28 millionth of a meter. In the Exit Ticket,
students calculated the size of a sq uare sheet of paper that could be folded in half thirteen times, and this area was very
large. These numbers are used in the Opening Exercise of this lesson. Before students begin the Opening Exercise,
briefly remind them of these numbers that they saw in the previous lesson, and tell them that this lesson provides them
with a way to conveniently represent very small or very large numbers. If there was not an opportunity to share one of
the news stories in Lesson 1 , that could be done at this time as well.

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O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 5 m inute s)

Students should work these exercises independently and then share their responses with a partner. Ask one or two
students to explain their calculations to the rest of the class. Be sure to draw out the meaning of 0.28 millionth of a
meter and how that can be expressed as a fraction of a meter. Check to make sure students know the place value for
large numbers such as billions. Students should be able to work the first exercise without a calculator, but on the second
exercise, students should definitely use a calculator. If they do not have access to a calculator, give them the number
sq uared, and simply have them write the rounded value.

O p e ning E x e rc ise

I n th e l a st l e sson, y ou w ork e d w ith th e th ic k ne ss of a sh e e t of g ol d f oil ( a v e ry sm a l l num be r) a nd som e v e ry l a rg e

num be rs th a t g a v e th e siz e of a p ie c e of p a p e r th a t a c tua l l y c oul d be f ol d e d in h a l f m ore th a n tim e s.

a . Conv e rt . m il l ionth of a m e te r to c e ntim e te rs, a nd e x p re ss y our a nsw e r a s a d e c im a l num be r.

.
= = .
, , , ,

b. T h e l e ng th of a p ie c e of sq ua re note book p a p e r th a t c a n be f ol d e d in h a l f tim e s is , . . U se th is

num be r to c a l c ul a te th e a re a of a sq ua re p ie c e of p a p e r th a t c a n be f ol d e d in h a l f tim e s. R ound y our
a nsw e r to th e ne a re st m il l ion.
( . ) = , , .
Roun d ed to the n earest m il l ion , the area is , , sq uare in c hes.

c . M a tc h th e e q uiv a l e nt e x p re ssions w ith out using a c a l c ul a tor.

−
. × − − × . . ×
−
, , , × . . ×

. × is eq ual to , .
− × is eq ual to − .
× −
is eq ual to . .
. × is eq ual to , , .
. × −
is eq ual to . .

While reviewing these solutions, point out that very large and very small numbers req uire students to include many
digits to indicate the place value as shown in parts ( a) and ( b) . Also, based on part ( c) , it appears that integer powers of
10 can be used to express a number as a product.

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E x a m p l e 1 ( 7 m inute s) S caffolding:
 Have students working
Write the following statement on the board, and ask students to consider whether or not
above grade level write
they believe it is true. Have them discuss their thoughts with a partner, and then ask for
the number 245 as the
volunteers to explain their thinking.
product of a number and a
Every positive decimal number can be expressed as the product of a number power of 10 three
between 1 and 1 0 and a power of 1 0 . different ways.
Students should explain that every positive decimal number can be expressed as the  To challenge students
product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. Consider using the following working above grade level,
prompts to direct student thinking: have them make a
convincing argument
 Think of an example of a decimal number between 1 and 10. Write it down. regarding the truth of a
2.5 statement such as the
 Think of a power of 10. Write it down. following:
100 or 102 Every decimal number can
 What does the word product mean? be expressed as the
product of another
It means the result of multiplying two numbers together.
decimal number and a
 Compute the product of the two numbers you wrote down. power of 10.
2.5 102 = 2500

First, have students share their answers with a partner. Then, put a few of the examples on the board. Finally,
demonstrate how to reverse the process to express the following numbers as the product of a number between 1 and
10 and a power of 10. At this point, explain to students that when numbers are written in this fashion, it is said that
they are written using scientific notation. This is an especially convenient way to represent extremely large or extremely
small numbers that otherwise would have many zero digits as placeholders. Make sure to emphasize that using this
notation is simply rewriting a numerical expression in a different form, which helps students to q uickly determine the
size of the number. Students may need to be reminded of place value for numbers less than 1 and writing eq uivalent
fractions whose denominators are powers of 10. The solutions demonstrate how numbers can be expressed using
scientific notation.

E x a m p le 1

W rite e a c h num be r a s a p rod uc t of a d e c im a l num be r be tw e e n a nd a nd a p ow e r of .

a . ,

. , = . ×

b. .
. −
= = . = . ×

c . , ,
. , , = . ×

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d . .
. −
= = . = . ×
, , , , , , , , ,

e . .
. = . ×

 Our knowledge of the integer powers of 10 enables us to understand the concept of scientific notation.
 Consider the estimated number of stars in the universe: 6 × 1022 . This is a 23- digit whole number with the
leading digit ( the leftmost digit) 6 followed by 22 zeros. When it is written in the form 6 × 1022 , it is said to be
expressed in scientific notation.
Students may recall scientific notation from previous grades. Take time to review the definition of scientific notation
provided below.

A positive, finite decimal is said to be written in scientific notation if it is expressed as a

product 𝑑𝑑 × 10𝑛𝑛 , where
𝑑𝑑 is a finite decimal number so that 1 𝑑𝑑 < 10, and 𝑛𝑛 is an integer.
The integer 𝑛𝑛 is called the order of magnitude of the decimal 𝑑𝑑 × 10𝑛𝑛 .

E x e rc ise s 1 – 6 ( 4 m inute s)
Students should work these exercises independently as their progress is monitored. Encourage students to work q uickly
and begin generalizing a process for q uickly writing numbers using scientific notation ( such as counting the number of
digits between the leading digit and the ones digit) . After a few minutes, share the solutions with students so they can
check their work.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 6

F or E x e rc ise s 1 – 6 , w rite e a c h num be r in sc ie ntif ic nota tion.

1 . , ,
. ×

2 . . ( z e ros a f te r th e d e c im a l p l a c e )
−
. ×

3 . , , , , , ( z e ros a f te r th e )

. ×

4 . .
−
. ×

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5 . , , , , , , , , ( z e ros a f te r th e )
. ×

6 . . ( z e ros a f te r th e d e c im a l p l a c e )
−
×

To help students q uickly write these problems using scientific notation, the number of zeros is written above for each
problem. Be very careful that students are not using this number as the exponent on the base 10. Lead a discussion to
clarify that difference for all students who make this careless mistake.

E x e rc ise s 7 – 8 ( 5 m inute s)
After students practice writing numbers in scientific notation, emphasize the usefulness of scientific notation for working
with very large or very small numbers by showing this demonstration:
http: //joshworth. com/dev/pixelspace/pixelspac solarsystem. html, which illustrates just how far the planets in our solar
system are from each other. After the demonstration, write down the distances between Earth and the sun, between
Jupiter and the sun, and between Pluto and the sun on the board, and have students work with a partner to answer
Exercise 7. Be sure to mention that these distances are averages; the distances between the planets and the sun are
constantly changing as the planets complete their orbits. The average distance from the sun to Earth is 151,268,468
km. The average distance from the sun to Jupiter is 780,179,470 km. The average distance between the sun and
Pluto is 5,908,039,124 km. In these exercises, students round the distances to the nearest tenth to minimize all the
writing and help them focus more readily on the magnitude off the numbers relative to one another.

E x e rc ise s 7 – 8

7 . U se th e f a c t th a t th e a v e ra g e d ista nc e be tw e e n th e sun a nd E a rth is , , , th e a v e ra g e d ista nc e

be tw e e n th e sun a nd J up ite r is , , , a nd th e a v e ra g e d ista nc e be tw e e n th e sun a nd P l uto
is , , , to a p p rox im a te th e f ol l ow ing d ista nc e s. E x p re ss y our a nsw e rs in sc ie ntif ic nota tion
( × ), w h e re is round e d to th e ne a re st te nth .
a . D ista nc e f rom th e sun to E a rth :

. ×

b. D ista nc e f rom th e sun to J up ite r:

. ×

c . D ista nc e f rom th e sun to P l uto:

. ×

d . H ow m uc h f a rth e r J up ite r is f rom th e sun th a n E a rth is f rom th e sun:

, , − , , = , ,
. ×

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e . H ow m uc h f a rth e r P l uto is f rom th e sun th a n J up ite r is f rom th e sun:

, , , − , , = , , ,
. ×

8 . O rd e r th e num be rs in E x e rc ise 7 f rom sm a l l e st to l a rg e st. E x p l a in h ow w riting th e num be rs in sc ie ntif ic nota tion

h e l p s y ou to q uic k l y c om p a re a nd ord e r th e m .

T he n um b ers from sm al l est to l arg est are . × , . × , . × , . × , an d . × . T he p ow er

of hel p s to q uic kl y sort the n um b ers b y their ord er of m ag n itud e, an d then it is easy to q uic kl y c om p are the
n um b ers w ith the sam e ord er of m ag n itud e b ec ause they are on l y w ritten as a n um b er b etw een on e an d ten .

E x a m p l e 2 ( 1 0 m inute s) : A rith m e tic O p e ra tions w ith N um be rs W ritte n U sing S c ie ntif ic N ota tion
Model the solutions to the following example problems. Be sure to emphasize that final answers should be expressed
using the scientific notation convention of a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. On part ( a) , it may be
necessary to provide some additional scaffolding if students are struggling to rewrite the numbers using the same order
of magnitude. Have students practice writing a number as a product of a power of 10 in three different ways. For
example, 15 000 = 1.5 × 104 = 15 × 103 = 150 × 102 . The lessons of Algebra I, Module 1 , Topic B provide some
suggestions and fluency exercises if students need additional practice on arithmetic operations with numbers in scientific
notation. Be sure that students understand that the properties of exponents allow them to q uickly perform the
indicated operations.
S caffolding:
E x a m p l e 2 : A rith m e tic O p e ra tions w ith N um be rs W ritte n U sing S c ie ntif ic N ota tion For Example 2 , part ( a) ,
a . ( . × )+( . × ) students may want to add the
( . × )+( × )= . × = . ×
exponents as they do when
multiplying numbers written
using scientific notation. Take
b. ( × − )( × ) time to discuss the differences
( )×( − )= × −
= . × − in the three expressions if
students are making this type
of mistake.
. ×
c .
×
. −
× = . × = ×

Debrief with the q uestions designed to help students see that the order of magnitude and the properties of exponents
greatly simplify calculations.
 How do the properties of exponents help to simplify these calculations?
 How can you q uickly estimate the size of your answer?

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E x e rc ise s 9 – 1 0 ( 5 m inute s)

E x e rc ise s 9 – 1 0

9 . P e rf orm th e f ol l ow ing c a l c ul a tions w ith out re w riting th e num be rs in d e c im a l f orm .

a . ( . × )−( × )

× − × =( − )× = × = . ×

b. ( . × )( . × )

( . . )×( )= . ×

. ×
c .
×
−
. × − − − −
= . × = . × = . ×
×

1 0 . E stim a te h ow m a ny tim e s f a rth e r J up ite r is f rom th e sun th a n E a rth is f rom th e sun. E stim a te h ow m a ny tim e s
f a rth e r P l uto is f rom th e sun th a n E a rth is f rom th e sun.

Earth is ap p rox im atel y . × from the sun , an d J up iter is ap p rox im atel y . × from the sun .
T herefore, J up iter is ab out tim es as far from the sun as Earth is from the sun . P l uto is ap p rox im atel y
. × from the sun . T herefore, sin c e

×
= ≈ . ,
. × .
P l uto is ap p rox im atel y tim es as far from the sun as Earth is from the sun .

Cl osing ( 3 m inute s)
Have students discuss the following q uestion with a partner and record the definition of scientific notation in their
mathematics notebooks. Debrief by asking a few students to share their responses with the entire class.
 List two advantages of writing numbers using scientific notation.
Y ou do not have to write as many zeros when working with very large or very small numbers, and you
can quickly multiply and divide numbers using the properties of exponents.

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 2 : B a se 1 0 a nd S c ie ntif ic N ota tion

E x it T ic k e t

1 . A sheet of gold foil is 0.28 millionth of a meter thick. Write the thickness of a gold foil sheet measured in
centimeters using scientific notation.

2 . Without performing the calculation, estimate which expression is larger. Explain how you know.
4 × 1012
(4 × 101 )(2 × 10 ) and
2 × 10−4

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . A sh e e t of g ol d f oil is . m il l ionth of a m e te r th ic k . W rite th e th ic k ne ss of a g ol d f oil sh e e t m e a sure d in

c e ntim e te rs using sc ie ntif ic nota tion.

T he thic kn ess is . × −
. I n sc ien tific n otation , the thic kn ess of a g ol d foil sheet is . × −
, w hic h is
. × − .

2 . W ith out p e rf orm ing th e c a l c ul a tion, e stim a te w h ic h e x p re ssion is l a rg e r. E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

×
( × )( × ) a nd
×
T he ord er of m ag n itud e on the first ex p ression is , an d the ord er of m ag n itud e on the sec on d ex p ression is .
T he p rod uc t an d q uotien t of the n um b er b etw een an d in eac h ex p ression is a n um b er b etw een an d .
T herefore, the sec on d ex p ression is l arg er than the first on e.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . W rite th e f ol l ow ing num be rs use d in th e se sta te m e nts in sc ie ntif ic nota tion. ( N ote : S om e of th e se num be rs h a v e
be e n round e d . )
a . T h e d e nsity of h e l ium is . g ra m p e r c ubic c e ntim e te r.
−
. ×

b. T h e boil ing p oint of g ol d is , ° .

. ×

c . T h e sp e e d of l ig h t is , m il e s p e r se c ond .

. ×

d . O ne se c ond is . h our.
−
. ×

e . T h e a c c e l e ra tion d ue to g ra v ity on th e sun is / .

f. O ne c ubic inc h is . c ubic y a rd .

−
. ×

g . E a rth ’ s p op ul a tion in 2 0 1 2 w a s , , , p e op l e .

. ×

h . E a rth ’ s d ista nc e f rom th e sun is , , m il e s.

. ×

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i. E a rth ’ s ra d ius is , m il e s.

j. T h e d ia m e te r of a w a te r m ol e c ul e is . .
−
. ×

2 . W rite th e f ol l ow ing num be rs in d e c im a l f orm . ( N ote : S om e of th e se num be rs h a v e be e n round e d . )

a . A l ig h t y e a r is . × .

, , , , ,

b. A v og a d ro’ s num be r is . × −
.

, , , , , , ,

c . T h e univ e rsa l g ra v ita tiona l c onsta nt is . × −

� � .

d . E a rth ’ s a g e is . × y e a rs.

, , ,

e . E a rth ’ s m a ss is . × .

, , , , , , , ,

f. A f oot is . × −
m il e .

g . T h e p op ul a tion of Ch ina in 2 0 1 4 w a s . × p e op l e .

, , ,

h . T h e d e nsity of ox y g e n is . × −
g ra m s p e r l ite r.

i. T h e w id th of a p ix e l on a sm a rtp h one is . × −
.

j. T h e w a v e l e ng th of l ig h t use d in op tic f ibe rs is . × −

.

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3 . S ta te th e ne c e ssa ry v a l ue of th a t w il l m a k e e a c h sta te m e nt true .

a . . = . ×
−

b. − . =− . ×

c . , , , = . ×

d . . = . ×
−

e . = . ×

f. , × = . ×

g . × . = ×
−

h . . × . = ×
−

i. = ×

j. = . ×
.

4 . P e rf orm th e f ol l ow ing c a l c ul a tions w ith out re w riting th e num be rs in d e c im a l f orm .

a . ( . × )+( . × )

. ×

b. ( . × − )−( . × − )
−
− . ×

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c . ( × )( . × − )

. ×

. ×
d .
×
−
. ×

5 . T h e w a v e l e ng th of v isibl e l ig h t ra ng e s f rom na nom e te rs to na nom e te rs, w h e re = × −

.
E x p re ss th e ra ng e of w a v e l e ng th s of v isibl e l ig h t in c e ntim e te rs.

C on v ert n an om eters to c en tim eters: ( . × )( × − )= . × −

C on v ert n an om eters to c en tim eters: ( . × )( × − )= . × −

T he w av el en g th of v isib l e l ig ht in c en tim eters is . × −

to . × −
.

6 . I n 1 6 9 4 , th e D utc h sc ie ntist A ntonie v a n L e e uw e nh oe k w a s one of th e f irst sc ie ntists to se e a re d bl ood c e l l in a

m ic rosc op e . H e a p p rox im a te d th a t a re d bl ood c e l l w a s “ , tim e s a s sm a l l a s a g ra in of sa nd . ” A ssum e a g ra in
of sa nd is w id e , a nd a re d bl ood c e l l is a p p rox im a te l y m ic rom e te rs w id e . O ne m ic rom e te r is × −
.
S up p ort or re f ute L e e uw e nh oe k ’ s c l a im . U se sc ie ntif ic nota tion in y our c a l c ul a tions.

C on v ert m il l im eters to m eters: ( × − )( − )

= × −
. A m ed ium - siz e g rain of san d m easures
× − ac ross. Sim il arl y, a red b l ood c el l is ap p rox im atel y × − ac ross. D iv id in g these n um b ers
p rod uc es
−
×
= . × = . × .
× −

So, a red b l ood c el l is . tim es as sm al l as a g rain of san d . L eeuw en hoek’ s c l aim w as off b y ap p rox im atel y a
fac tor of .

7 . W h e n th e M a rs Curiosity R ov e r e nte re d th e a tm osp h e re of M a rs on its d e sc e nt in , it w a s tra v e l ing roug h l y

, . O n th e surf a c e of M a rs, its sp e e d a v e ra g e d . . H ow m a ny tim e s f a ste r w a s th e sp e e d
w h e n it e nte re d th e a tm osp h e re th a n its ty p ic a l sp e e d on th e p l a ne t’ s surf a c e ? U se sc ie ntif ic nota tion in y our
c a l c ul a tions.

. ×
= . = . ×
. × −

T he sp eed w hen it en tered the atm osp here is g reater than its surfac e sp eed b y an ord er of m ag n itud e of .

8 . E a rth ’ s surf a c e is a p p rox im a te l y %w a te r. T h e re is no w a te r on th e surf a c e of M a rs, a nd its d ia m e te r is roug h l y

h a l f of E a rth ’ s d ia m e te r. A ssum e both p l a ne ts a re sp h e ric a l . T h e ra d ius of E a rth is a p p rox im a te l y , m il e s.
T h e surf a c e a re a of a sp h e re is g iv e n by th e f orm ul a = , w h e re is th e ra d ius of th e sp h e re . W h ic h h a s
m ore l a nd m a ss, E a rth or M a rs? U se sc ie ntif ic nota tion in y our c a l c ul a tions.

T he surfac e area of Earth: ( ) ≈ ×

T he surfac e area of Mars: ( ) ≈ ×

T hirty p erc en t of Earth’ s surfac e area is ap p rox im atel y × sq uare m il es. Earth has m ore l an d m ass b y
ap p rox im atel y %.

L e sson 2 : Base 1 0 and Scientific Notation 41

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 2 M 3
ALGEBRA II

9 . T h e re a re a p p rox im a te l y tril l ion ( . × ) re d bl ood c e l l s in th e h um a n bod y a t a ny one tim e . A re d bl ood

c e l l is a p p rox im a te l y × − w id e . I m a g ine if y ou c oul d l ine up a l l y our re d bl ood c e l l s e nd to e nd . H ow l ong
w oul d th e l ine of c e l l s be ? U se sc ie ntif ic nota tion in y our c a l c ul a tions.

B ec ause ( . × )( × − )= . × , the l in e of c el l s w oul d b e . × l on g , w h ic h is . ×

. ×
. O n e m il e is eq uiv al en t to . , so the l in e of b l ood c el l s m easures , w hic h is
.
ap p rox im atel y , , w hic h is al m ost hal fw ay to the m oon !

1 0 . A ssum e e a c h p e rson ne e d s a p p rox im a te l y sq ua re f e e t of l iv ing sp a c e . N ow im a g ine th a t w e a re g oing to buil d a

g ia nt a p a rtm e nt buil d ing th a t w il l be m il e w id e a nd m il e l ong to h ouse a l l th e p e op l e in th e U nite d S ta te s,
e stim a te d to be . m il l ion p e op l e in . I f e a c h f l oor of th e a p a rtm e nt buil d ing is f e e t h ig h , h ow ta l l w il l
th e a p a rtm e nt buil d ing be ?

Sin c e ( . × )( )= . × , w e n eed . × of l iv in g sp ac e.

N ex t, d iv id e the total n um b er of sq uare feet b y the n um b er of sq uare feet p er fl oor to g et the n um b er of n eed ed
fl oors. Rem em b er that = = .

. ×
≈ . ×
. ×
Mul tip l yin g the n um b er of fl oors b y feet p er fl oor g iv es a heig ht of , feet, w hic h is ap p rox im atel y
. m il es.

42 L e sson 2 : Base 1 0 and Scientific Notation

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 3 M 3
ALGEBRA II

L e sson 3 : R a tiona l E x p one nts— W h a t a re a nd ?

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students calculate q uantities that involve positive and negative rational exponents.

L e sson N ote s
Students extend their understanding of integer exponents to rational exponents by examining the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2
1 1
and estimating the values of 22 and 23 . The lesson establishes the meaning of these numbers in terms of radical
1
expressions, and these form the basis of how expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 are defined before generalizing further to
expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑏𝑏 is a positive real number and and 𝑛𝑛 are integers, with 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0. The
lesson and Problem Set provide fluency practice in applying the properties of exponents to expressions containing
rational exponents and radicals . In the following lesson, students verify that the definition of an expression
with rational exponents, 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√ , is consistent with the remaining exponential properties. The lesson begins with
students creating a graph of a simple exponential function, 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 , which they studied in Module 3 of Algebra I.
In that module, students also learned about geometric seq uences and their relationship to exponential functions, which
is a concept that is revisited at the end of this module. In Algebra I, students worked with exponential functions with
integer domains. This lesson, together with the subseq uent Lessons 4 and 5 , helps students understand why the domain
of an exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 , where 𝑏𝑏 is a positive number and 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, is the set of real numbers. To do so, it is
necessary to establish what it means to raise 𝑏𝑏 to a rational power and, in Lesson 5 , to any real number power.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning ( 1 m inute )
S caffolding:
In Algebra I, students worked with geometric seq uences and simple exponential functions.
 Encourage students to
Remind them that in Lesson 1 , they created formulas based on repeatedly doubling and
create a table of values to
halving a number when they modeled folding a piece of paper. They reviewed how to use
help them construct the
the properties of exponents for expressions that had integer exponents.
graph.
 For students working
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 5 m inute s) above grade level, have
them repeat these
Have students graph 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 for each integer 𝑥𝑥 from 𝑥𝑥 = −2 to 𝑥𝑥 = 5 on the axes exercises with the function
provided without using a graphing utility or calculator. Discuss the pattern of points, and 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 3 , and ask them
ask students to connect the points in a way that produces a smooth curve. Students 1 1
should work these two problems independently. If time permits, have them check their to estimate 32 and 33 .
solutions with a partner before leading a whole- class discussion to review the solutions.

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L e sson 3 : Rational Exponents—What are 22 and 23 ?

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 3 M 3
ALGEBRA II

O p e ning E x e rc ise

a . W h a t is th e v a l ue of ? J ustif y y our a nsw e r.

A p ossib l e stud en t resp on se fol l ow s: I thin k it w il l b e aroun d . b ec ause = an d = .

b. G ra p h ( )= f or e a c h inte g e r f rom = − to = . Conne c t th e p oints on y our g ra p h w ith a sm ooth

c urv e .

Ask for a few volunteers to explain their reasoning for their answers to Opening Exercise, part ( a) . Then, debrief these
two exercises by leading a short discussion.
 The directions in the Opening Exercise said to connect the points with a smooth curve. What does it imply
about the domain of a function when we connect points that we have plotted?
That the domain of the function includes the points between the points that we plotted.
 How does your graph support or refute your answer to the first exercise? Do you need to modify your answer
1
to the q uestion: What is the value of 22 ? Why or why not?
1
If the domain is all real numbers, then the value of 22 will be the 𝑦𝑦-coordinate of the point on the graph
1
where 𝑥𝑥 = . From the graph, it looks like the value is somewhere between 1 and 2. The scaling on
2
this graph is not detailed enough for me to accurately refine my answer yet.
1
Transition to the next set of exercises by telling students that they can better estimate the value of 22 by looking at a
graph that is scaled more precisely.

44 1 1
L e sson 3 : Rational Exponents—What are 22 and 23 ?

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 ^dKZzK&&hEd/KE^ Lesson 3 M3
ALGEBRA II

The graph of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ʹ௫ shown below for the next exercises appears in the student materials, but the graph could also
ͳ ͳ
be displayed using technology. Have students estimate the value of ʹʹ and ʹ͵ from the graph. Students should work by
themselves or in pairs to work through the following questions without using a calculator.

The graph on the right shows a close-up view of ࢌሺ࢞ሻ ൌ ૛࢞ for െ૙Ǥ ૞ ൏ ࢞ ൏ ૚Ǥ ૞.

c. Find two consecutive integers that are under and over

૚
estimates of the value of ૛૛ .
૚
૛૙ ൏ ૛૛ ൏ ૛૚
૚
૚ ൏ ૛૛ ൏ ૛

૚
d. Does it appear that ૛૛ is halfway between the
integers you specified in part(c)?
૚
No. It looks like ૛૛ is a little less than halfway
between ૚ and ૛.

e. Use the graph of ࢌሺ࢞ሻ ൌ ૛࢞ to estimate the value of

૚
૛૛ .
૚
૛૛ ൎ ૚Ǥ ૝

૚
f. Use the graph of ࢌሺ࢞ሻ ൌ ૛࢞ to estimate the value of ૛૜ .
૚
૛૜ ൎ ૚Ǥ ૛૞

Discussion (9 minutes)
Scaffolding:
Before getting into the point of this lesson, which is to connect rational exponents to
radical expressions, revisit the initial question with students. If needed, demonstrate the
argument using perfect
ͳ
 What is the value of ʹʹ ? Does anyone want to adjust his or her initial guess? squares. For example, use a
base of Ͷ instead of a base of ʹ.
Our initial guess was a little too big. Itt seems like ͳǤͶ might be a better
answer. భ ଶ
Show that ቀͶమ ቁ ൌ Ͷ
 How could we make a better guess? ଶ
and ൫ξͶ
ξ ൯ ൌ Ͷ.
ξͶ
We could look at the graph with even smaller
aller increments fo
f r the scale
using technology.
If time permits, zoom in further on the graph of ݂ሺ‫ݔ‬ሻ ൌ ʹ௫ using a graphing calculator or other technology either by
ଵ
examining a graph or a table of values of ‫ ݔ‬closer and closer to .
ଶ
ͳ
ξ . Walk students through the following questions, providing guidance as
Next, make the connection that ʹʹ ൌ ξʹ
needed. Students proved that there was only one positive number that squared to ʹ in Geometry, Module 2. It may be
necessary to remind them of this with a bit more detail iff they are struggling to follow this argument.

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Lesson 3: Rational Exponents—What are ʹʹ and ʹ͵ ?

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 3 M 3
ALGEBRA II

1
 Assume for the moment that whatever 22 means, it satisfies our known rule for integer exponents
1 1
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
. Working with this assumption, what is the value of 22 22 ?
1 1 1 1
It would be 2 because 22 22 = 22 2 = 21 = 2.
 What uniq ue positive number sq uares to 2? That is, what is the only positive number that when multiplied by
itself is eq ual to 2?
By definition, we call the unique positive number that squares to 2 the square root of 2, and we write
√2.
√
Write the following statements on the board, and ask students to compare them and think about what the statements
1
must tell them about the meaning of 22 .
1 1
22 22 = 2 and √2 √ =2
√ √2
1
 What do these two statements tell us about the meaning of 22 ?
S ince both statements involve multiplying a number by itself and getting 2, and we know that there is
1
√ .
only one number that does that, we can conclude that 22 = √2
1
At this point, have students confirm these results by using a calculator to approximate both 22 and √2
√ to several decimal
1
places. In the Opening, 22 was approximated graphically, and now it has been shown to be an irrational number.
1
Next, ask students to think about the meaning of 23 using a similar line of reasoning.
1
S caffolding:
 Assume that whatever 23 means will satisfy 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
. What is the value If needed, demonstrate the
1 1 1
of �23 � �23 � �23 �? argument using perfect cubes.
For example, use a base of 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
instead of a base of 2.
The value is 2 because �23 � �23 � �23 � = 23 3 3 = 21 = 2.
3

What is the value of √

3 3 3 Show �83 � = 8
 √2 √ √2?
√2 √
3 3
3 3 3 3 3 and √
√8 = 8.
The value is 2 because √
√2 √ √2 = √
√2 √ √2 = 2.
1
 What appears to be the meaning of 23?
S ince both the exponent expression and the radical expression involve multiplying a number by itself
1
3
√2.
three times and the result is equal to 2, we know that 23 = √

46 1 1
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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 3 M 3
ALGEBRA II

1
3
Students can also confirm using a calculator that the decimal approximations of 23 and √
√2 are the same. Next, they are
asked to generalize their findings.
1 1 1
 Can we generalize this relationship? Does 24 = √2
√ ? Does 210 = √2
√ ? What is 2𝑛𝑛 , for any positive integer 𝑛𝑛?
Why?
1
√2 because
2𝑛𝑛 = √

1 𝑛𝑛 1 1 1 1 1 1
�2𝑛𝑛 � = �2𝑛𝑛 � �2𝑛𝑛 � ⋯ �2𝑛𝑛 � = 2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 = 21 = 2.
𝑛𝑛
1
Have students confirm these results using a calculator as well as checking to see if the decimal approximations of 2𝑛𝑛
√ are the same for different values of 𝑛𝑛 such as 4, 5, 6, 10, … . Be sure to share the generalization shown above on
and √2
1
the board to help students understand why it makes sense to define 2𝑛𝑛 to be √2
√ .
However, be careful to not stop here; there is a problem with the reasoning if √2
√ is not defined. In previous courses,
only sq uare roots and cube roots were defined.
It is first necessary to define the 𝑛𝑛th root of a number; there may be more than one, as in the case where 22 = 4 and
(−2)2 = 4. It is said that both −2 and 2 are sq uare roots of 4. However, priority is given to the positive- valued sq uare
root, and it is said that 2 is the principal square root of 4. Often the sq uare root of 4 is referred to when what is meant is
the principal sq uare root of 4. The definition of 𝑛𝑛th root presented below is consistent with allowing complex 𝑛𝑛th roots,
which students encounter in Precalculus and in college if they pursue engineering or higher mathematics. If complex 𝑛𝑛th
3 3 1 3 3 1 3 3
roots are allowed, there are three cube roots of 2: √ √2, √√2 �− 2 + 2 �, and √ √2 �− 2 − 2 �, and the real number √ √2
is referred to as the principal cube root of 2. There is no need to discuss this with any but the most advanced students.

√ , is the positive real number 𝑎𝑎 such that 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 = 2. In general, if 𝑎𝑎 is positive, then the 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑎𝑎
The 𝑛𝑛th root of 2, √2
exists for any positive integer 𝑛𝑛, and if 𝑎𝑎 is negative, then the 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑎𝑎 exists only for odd integers 𝑛𝑛. This even/odd
condition is handled subtly in the definition below; the 𝑛𝑛th root exists only if there is already an exponential relationship
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 .
Present the following definitions to students, and have them record them in their notes.

T H
: Let 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 be numbers, and let 𝑛𝑛 be a positive integer. If 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , then 𝑎𝑎 is
R O O T O F A N U M B E R
a 𝑛𝑛 root of 𝑏𝑏. If 𝑛𝑛 = 2, then the root is a called a square root. If 𝑛𝑛 = 3, then the root is called a
th

cube root.
P R I N CI P A L T H R O O T O F A N U M B E R : Let 𝑏𝑏 be a real number that has at least one real 𝑛𝑛th root. The
principal 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏 is the real 𝑛𝑛th root that has the same sign as 𝑏𝑏 and is denoted by a radical
symbol: √𝑏𝑏 √ .
Every positive number has a uniq ue principal 𝑛𝑛th root. We often refer to the principal 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏
as just the 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏. For any positive integer 𝑛𝑛, the 𝑛𝑛th root of 0 is 0.

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L e sson 3 : Rational Exponents—What are 22 and 23 ?

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 3 M 3
ALGEBRA II

Students have already learned about sq uare and cube roots in previous grades. In Module 1 and at the beginning of this
lesson, students worked with radical expressions involving cube and sq uare roots. Explain that the 𝑛𝑛th roots of a number
satisfy the same properties of radicals learned previously. Have students record these properties in their notes.

If 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 0, 𝑏𝑏 ≥ 0 ( 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 0 when 𝑏𝑏 is a denominator) , and 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer, then

𝑎𝑎 √𝑎𝑎
√ = √𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏
√𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 √ and = .
𝑏𝑏 √
√𝑏𝑏

Background information regarding 𝑛𝑛th roots and their uniq ueness is provided below. Consider sharing this with students
working above grade level or the entire class if extending this lesson to an additional day.
The existence of the principal 𝑛𝑛th root of a positive real number 𝑏𝑏 is a conseq uence of the fundamental theorem
of algebra: Consider the polynomial function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑏𝑏. When 𝑛𝑛 is odd, we know that 𝑓𝑓 has at least one
real zero because the graph of 𝑓𝑓 must cross the 𝑥𝑥- axis. That zero is a positive number, which ( after showing
that it is the only real zero) is the 𝑛𝑛th root. The case for when 𝑛𝑛 is even follows a similar argument.
To show uniq ueness of the 𝑛𝑛th root, suppose there are two 𝑛𝑛th roots of a number 𝑏𝑏, 𝑥𝑥, and 𝑦𝑦, such that 𝑥𝑥 > 0,
𝑦𝑦 > 0, 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏, and 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏. Then, 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 − 𝑏𝑏 = 0, and the expression 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 factors ( see Lesson 7 in
Module 1 ) .
0 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛
0 = (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦)(𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−2 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−3 𝑦𝑦 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛−2 + 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛−1 )

Since both 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 are positive, the second factor is never zero. Thus, for 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 − 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 0, we must have
𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 = 0, and it follows that 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦. Thus, there is only one 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏.
A proof of the first radical property is shown below for background information. Consider sharing this proof with
students working above grade level or the entire class if extending this lesson to an additional day.

Prove that √𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 √ .

√ = √𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏
Let 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0 be the number such that 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎, and let 𝑦𝑦 ≥ 0 be the number such that 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏, so that 𝑥𝑥 = √𝑎𝑎 and
√ . Then, by a property of exponents, (𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦)𝑛𝑛 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏. Thus, 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 must be the 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏. Writing
𝑦𝑦 = √𝑏𝑏
this using our notation gives

√ = 𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 = √𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏

√𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 √ .

E x a m p l e ( 3 m inute s)
This example familiarizes students with the wording in the definition presented above.

E x a m p le

a . W h a t is th e th root of ?

= w hen = b ec ause = . T hus, √ = .

b. W h a t is th e c ube root of ?

= w hen = b ec ause = . T hus, √ = .

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c . W h a t is th e th
root of , ?

= , w hen = b ec ause = . T hus, √ , = .

E x e rc ise 1 ( 2 m inute s)

In these brief exercises, students work with the definition of 𝑛𝑛th roots and the multiplication property presented above.
Have students check their work with a partner and briefly discuss any q uestions that arise as a whole class.

E x e rc ise 1

1 . E v a l ua te e a c h e x p re ssion.
S caffolding:
a . √ If needed, continue to support
students who struggle with
abstraction by including
additional numeric examples.
b. √

c . √ √

√ =

d . √ √ √

, =

D isc ussion ( 8 m inute s)

1 1 1
Return to the q uestion posted in the title of this lesson: What are 22 and 23 ? Now we know the answer, 22 = √2
√ and
1 1 1
3
23 = √√2. So far, we have given meaning to 2𝑛𝑛 by eq uating 2𝑛𝑛 and √2
√ . Ask students if they believe these results extend
to any base 𝑏𝑏 > 0.
 We just did some exercises where the 𝑏𝑏- value was a number different from 2. In our earlier work, was there
something special about using 2 as the base of our exponential expression? Would these results generalize to
1 1 1 1
expressions of the form 3𝑛𝑛 ? 7𝑛𝑛 ? 10𝑛𝑛 ? 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , for any positive real number 𝑏𝑏?
There is nothing inherently special about the base 2 in the above discussion. These results should
1
generalize to expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 for any positive real number base 𝑏𝑏 because we have defined
an 𝑛𝑛th root for any positive base 𝑏𝑏.
1
Now that we know the meaning of the 𝑛𝑛th root of a number 𝑏𝑏, √𝑏𝑏√ , the work done earlier with base 2 suggests that 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
should also be defined as the 𝑛𝑛 root of 𝑏𝑏. Discuss the definition below with the class. If students are unclear on the
th

1 1
definition, do some numerical examples. For example, (−32)5 = −2 because (−2) = −32, but (−16)4 does not exist
because there is no principal 4th root of a negative number.

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1
For a real number 𝑏𝑏 and a positive integer 𝑛𝑛, define 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 to be the principal 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏 when it
exists. That is,
1
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√ .

√ holds for any real number 𝑏𝑏 if 𝑛𝑛 is an odd integer and for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 if 𝑛𝑛 is an
Note that the definition of √𝑏𝑏
even integer. Consider emphasizing this with the class. Thus, when 𝑏𝑏 is negative and 𝑛𝑛 is an odd integer, the expression
1 1
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 is negative. If 𝑛𝑛 is an even integer, then 𝑏𝑏 must be restricted to positive real numbers only, and 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 is positive.
1
In the next lesson, students see that with this definition, 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 satisfies all the usual properties of exponents, so it makes
sense to define it in this way.
At this point, consider revisiting the original q uestion with students one more time.
1 1
 What is the value of 22 ? What does it mean? What is the value of 𝑏𝑏 2 for any positive number 𝑏𝑏? How are
radicals related to rational exponents?
1 1
W e estimated numerically that 22 ≈ 1.4 in part (e) of the Opening Exercise. W e now know that 22 is
1
√ . In general, 𝑏𝑏 2 = √𝑏𝑏
equal to √2 √ for any positive real number 𝑏𝑏. A number that contains a radical can
be expressed using rational exponents in place of the radical.
1
In the following Discussion, the definition of exponentiation with exponents of the form is extended to exponentiation
𝑛𝑛
3
with any positive rational exponent. Begin by considering an example: What do we mean by 24? Give students a few
minutes to respond individually in writing to this q uestion on their student pages, and then have them discuss their
reasoning with a partner. Make sure to correct any blatant misconceptions and to clarify incomplete thinking while
leading the Discussion that follows.

D isc ussion

If = √ a nd = √ , w h a t d oe s e q ua l ? E x p l a in y our re a soning .

Stud en t sol ution s an d ex p l an ation s w il l v ary. O n e p ossib l e sol ution w oul d b e =� � , so it m ust m ean that

= √ . Sin c e the p rop erties of ex p on en ts an d the m ean in g of an ex p on en t m ad e sen se w ith in teg ers an d n ow for
ration al n um b ers in the form , it w oul d m ake sen se that they w oul d w ork for al l ration al n um b ers, too.

1
Now that there is a definition for exponential expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , use the discussion below to define 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , where
and 𝑛𝑛 are integers, 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0, and 𝑏𝑏 is a positive real number. Make sure students understand that the interpretation of
1
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 must be consistent with the exponent properties ( which hold for integer exponents) and the definition of 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 .
3 1
 How can we rewrite the exponent of 24 using integers and rational numbers in the form ?
𝑛𝑛
3 1 3 3 1
W e can write 24 = �24 � , or we can write 24 = (23 )4 .

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1
 Now, apply our definition of 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 .
3 1 3 3 3 1
24 = �24 � = √2
√ or 24 = (23 )4 = √
√23 = √8
√
3 3
 √ , then if we raise 24 to the fourth power, we should get 8. Does this
Does this make sense? If 24 = √8
happen?
3 4 3 3 3 3 �4 �
3
�24 � = �24 � �24 � �24 � �24 � = 2 4 = 23 = 8
3 3
S o, 8 is the product of four equal factors, which we denote by 24 . Thus, 24 = √8
√ .

Take a few minutes to allow students to think about generalizing their work above to 2 𝑛𝑛 and then to 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 . Have them
write a response to the following q uestions and share it with a partner before proceeding as a whole class.

 Can we generalize this result? How would you define 2 𝑛𝑛 , for positive integers and 𝑛𝑛?

Conj ecture: 2 𝑛𝑛 = √2
√ , or equivalently, 2 𝑛𝑛 = √2
√ .

 Can we generalize this result to any positive real number base 𝑏𝑏? What is 3 𝑛𝑛 ? 7 𝑛𝑛 ? 10 𝑛𝑛 ? 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 ?
There is nothing inherently special about the base 2 in the above D iscussion. These results should
generalize to expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 for any positive real number base 𝑏𝑏.

Then we are ready to define 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏

√ for positive integers and 𝑛𝑛 and positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏.
This result is summarized in the box below.

1
For any positive integers and 𝑛𝑛, and any real number 𝑏𝑏 for which 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 exists, we define

√ , which is eq uivalent to 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏 √ .

Note that this property holds for any real number 𝑏𝑏 if 𝑛𝑛 is an odd integer. Consider emphasizing this with the class.
When 𝑏𝑏 is negative and 𝑛𝑛 is an odd integer, the expression 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 is negative. If 𝑛𝑛 is an even integer, then 𝑏𝑏 must be
restricted to positive real numbers only.

E x e rc ise s 2 – 8 ( 4 m inute s)
In these exercises, students use the definitions above to rewrite and evaluate expressions. Have students check their
work with a partner and briefly discuss as a whole class any q uestions that arise.

E x e rc ise s 2 – 1 2
R e w rite e a c h e x p one ntia l e x p re ssion a s a ra d ic a l e x p re ssion.

2 .

=√

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3 .

=√

4 . � �

� � =

5 .

= √

R e w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e x p re ssions a s e q uiv a l e nt ra d ic a l e x p re ssions. I f th e num be r is ra tiona l , w rite it w ith out
ra d ic a l s or e x p one nts.

6 .

= = √

7 .

= = √ = =

8 . � �

� � = � � = =� � =

E x e rc ise 9 ( 3 m inute s)
In this exercise, students are asked to consider a negative rational exponent. Have students work directly with a partner,
and ask them to use thinking similar to that in the preceding Discussion. Correct and extend student thinking while
reviewing the solution.

9 . S h ow w h y th e f ol l ow ing sta te m e nt is true :

−
=

Stud en t sol ution s an d ex p l an ation s w il l v ary. O n e p ossib l e sol ution w oul d b e

−
− −
=� � = √ = = .
√

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Share the following property with the class, and show how the work they did in the previous exercises supports this
conclusion. Consider verifying these properties using an argument similar to the ones presented earlier for the meaning
of 𝑏𝑏 .

1
For any positive integers and 𝑛𝑛, and any nonzero number 𝑏𝑏 for which 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 exists, we define
1
𝑏𝑏 − 𝑛𝑛 =
√
√𝑏𝑏
or, eq uivalently,
1
𝑏𝑏 − 𝑛𝑛 = .
√
√𝑏𝑏

E x e rc ise s 1 0 – 1 2 ( 3 m inute s)

R e w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e x p re ssions a s e q uiv a l e nt ra d ic a l e x p re ssions. I f th e num be r is ra tiona l , w rite it w ith out
ra d ic a l s or e x p one nts.
−
1 0 .

−
= = =
√ √

−
1 1 .

−
= = = =
√

−
1 2 . � �

−
− − − −
W e hav e � � = =� � = . Al tern ativ el y, � � = �� � � = ( ) = √ = .

Cl osing ( 3 m inute s)
Have students summarize the key points of the lesson in writing. Circulate around the classroom to informally assess
understanding and provide assistance. Student work should reflect the summary provided below.

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L e sson S um m a ry
T H
R O O T O F A N U M B E R : L e t a nd be num be rs, a nd l e t be a p ositiv e inte g e r. I f = , th e n is a th root of . I f
= , th e n th e root is a c a l l e d a sq uare root. I f = , th e n th e root is c a l l e d a c ub e root.

P R I N CI P A L T H
R O O T O F A N U M B E R: L e t be a re a l num be r th a t h a s a t l e a st one re a l th root. T h e p rin c ip al th root of
is th e re a l th root th a t h a s th e sa m e sig n a s a nd is d e note d by a ra d ic a l sy m bol : √ .

E v e ry p ositiv e num be r h a s a uniq ue p rinc ip a l th root. W e of te n re f e r to th e p rinc ip a l th root of a s j ust the th

root of . T h e th root of is .

F or a ny p ositiv e inte g e rs a nd , a nd a ny re a l num be r f or w h ic h th e p rinc ip a l th

root of e x ists, w e h a v e

=√
=√ = √
−
= f or ≠ .
√

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 3 : R a tiona l E x p one nts— W h a t a re a nd ?

E x it T ic k e t

1 . Write the following exponential expressions as eq uivalent radical expressions.

1
a. 22

3
b. 24

2
−
c. 3 3

2 . Rewrite the following radical expressions as eq uivalent exponential expressions.

a. √
√5

b. 2 √3
√

1
c. 3
√1

3 . Provide a written explanation for each q uestion below.

1 3 1
a. Is it true that �10003 � = (10003 )3 ? Explain how you know.

1 3 1
b. Is it true that �42 � = (43 )2 ? Explain how you know.

c. Suppose that and 𝑛𝑛 are positive integers and 𝑏𝑏 is a real number so that the principal 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏 exists.
1 1
In general, does �𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 � = (𝑏𝑏 )𝑛𝑛 ? Explain how you know.

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . R e w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e x p re ssions a s e q uiv a l e nt ra d ic a l e x p re ssions.

a .

=√

b.

= =√

−
c .

−
= =
√ √

2 . R e w rite th e f ol l ow ing ra d ic a l e x p re ssions a s e q uiv a l e nt e x p one ntia l e x p re ssions.

a . √

√ =

b. √

√ = =√ =

c .
√

=( )− = −
√

=( )−
√

3 . P rov id e a w ritte n e x p l a na tion f or e a c h q ue stion be l ow .

a . I s it true th a t � � =( ) ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

� � = √ = =

( ) =( ) =
So, this statem en t is true.

b. I s it true th a t � � =( ) ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

� � = √ = =

( ) = =√ =
So, this statem en t is true.

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c . S up p ose th a t a nd a re p ositiv e inte g e rs a nd is a re a l num be r so th a t th e p rinc ip a l th

root of e x ists.
I n g e ne ra l , d oe s � � =( ) ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

F rom the tw o ex am p l es w e hav e seen , it ap p ears that w e c an ex ten d the p rop erty � � =( ) for
in teg ers an d to ration al ex p on en ts.

W e kn ow that, in g en eral , w e hav e

� � = √
=√
=( ) .
.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . S e l e c t th e e x p re ssion f rom ( A ) , ( B ) , a nd ( C) th a t c orre c tl y c om p l e te s th e sta te m e nt.

(A ) (B ) ( C)

a . is e q uiv a l e nt to . √
(B )

b. is e q uiv a l e nt to . √ √
(B )

−
c . is e q uiv a l e nt to . −
√
(C )

d . � � is e q uiv a l e nt to .
√
(C )

2 . I d e ntif y w h ic h of th e e x p re ssions ( A ) , ( B ) , a nd ( C) a re e q uiv a l e nt to th e g iv e n e x p re ssion.

(A ) (B ) ( C)

−
a . � �

( A) an d ( B )

−
b. � � − � �

( B ) on l y

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3 . R e w rite in ra d ic a l f orm . I f th e num be r is ra tiona l , w rite it w ith out using ra d ic a l s.

a .
b. � �
√

−
c . ( )
d . � �
√ =

−
e .

=
√

4 . R e w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions in e x p one nt f orm .

a . √ b. √

c . √ d . √

5 . U se th e g ra p h of ( ) = sh ow n to th e rig h t to
e stim a te th e f ol l ow ing p ow e rs of .

a . ≈ .

b. ≈ .

c . ≈ .
d . .
≈ .
e . .
≈ .
−
f. ≈ .

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6 . R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm , w h e re is a re a l num be r, is a p ositiv e re a l num be r, a nd is ra tiona l .

a . √ b.
√

c . d .

− −

−
e . f. � �
−

7 . F ind th e v a l ue of f or w h ic h = .

8 . F ind th e v a l ue of f or w h ic h = .

−
9 . If = , f ind th e v a l ue of .

= , so ( )− = ( )− = = .

1 0 . E v a l ua te th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions w h e n = .
−
a .

−
� � = =

b.

� � =� � =

c . √ −

−
� � =√ =

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1 1 . S h ow th a t e a c h e x p re ssion is e q uiv a l e nt to . A ssum e is a p ositiv e re a l num be r.

a . √
√ =

� �
b.

( )
= =
( )

c .

= =

1 2 . Y osh ik o sa id th a t = be c a use is one - f ourth of . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to e x p l a in w h y sh e is or is not

c orre c t.

� �
Y oshiko’ s reason in g is n ot c orrec t. B y our ex p on en t p rop erties, � � = = = , b ut = .

Sin c e � � ≠ , w e kn ow that ≠ .

1 3 . J e f f e rson sa id th a t = be c a use = a nd = . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to e x p l a in w h y h e is or is

not c orre c t.

J efferson ’ s reason in g is c orrec t. W e kn ow that =� � , so = , an d thus = .

1 4 . R ita sa id th a t = be c a use = , so = , a nd th e n = . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to

e x p l a in w h y sh e is or is not c orre c t.

Rita’ s reason in g is n ot c orrec t b ec ause she d id n ot ap p l y the p rop erties of ex p on en ts c orrec tl y. She shoul d al so
real iz e that raisin g to a p ositiv e p ow er l ess than w oul d p rod uc e a n um b er l ess than . T he c orrec t c al c ul ation is
b el ow .

=� �

=
=

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1 5 . S up p ose f or som e p ositiv e re a l num be r th a t � � = .

a . W h a t is th e v a l ue of ?

� � =

� � =

( ) =
=
=√

b. W h ic h e x p one nt p rop e rtie s d id y ou use to f ind y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( a ) ?

W e used the p rop erties = an d ( ) = .

1 6 . I n th e l e sson, y ou m a d e th e f ol l ow ing a rg um e nt:

� � =

=
=
= .

S inc e √ is a num be r so th a t √ = a nd is a num be r so th a t � � = , y ou c onc l ud e d th a t =√ .

W h ic h e x p one nt p rop e rty w a s use d to m a k e th is a rg um e nt?

W e used the p rop erty = . ( Stud en ts m ay al so m en tion the un iq uen ess of th roots. )

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L e sson 4 : P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts a nd R a d ic a l s

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students rewrite expressions involving radicals and rational exponents using the properties of exponents.

L e sson N ote s
In Lesson 1 , students reviewed the properties of exponents for integer exponents before establishing the meaning of the
𝑛𝑛th root of a positive real number and how it can be expressed as a rational exponent in Lesson 3 . In Lesson 4 , students
extend properties of exponents that applied to expressions with integer exponents to expressions with rational
1 1
exponents. In each case, the notation 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 specifically indicates the principal root ( e. g. , 22 is √2
√ , as opposed to −√2
√ ).
This lesson extends students’ thinking using the properties of radicals and the
S caffolding:
definitions from Lesson 3 so that they can see why it makes sense that the
properties of exponents hold for any rational exponents. Examples  Throughout the lesson, remind
and exercises work to establish fluency with the properties of exponents when students of past properties of
the exponents are rational numbers and emphasize rewriting expressions and integer exponents and radicals
evaluating expressions using the properties of exponents and radicals. either through an anchor chart
posted on the wall or by recording
relevant properties as they come
Cl a ssw ork up. Included is a short list of
previous properties used in this
O p e ning ( 2 m inute s) module.
Students revisit the properties of sq uare roots and cube roots studied in Module  For all real numbers 𝑎𝑎,
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 > 0, and
1 to remind them that those were extended to any 𝑛𝑛th root in Lesson 3 . So, they all integers , 𝑛𝑛 for which the
are now ready to verify that the properties of exponents hold for rational expressions are defined:
exponents. 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛

Draw students’ attention to a chart posted prominently on the wall or to their

(𝑏𝑏 )𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
notebooks where the properties of exponents and radicals are displayed,
including those developed in Lesson 3 .
(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏) = 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
Remind students of the description of exponential expressions of the form 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 ,
1
which they make use of throughout the lesson: 𝑏𝑏 − =
𝑏𝑏
Let 𝑏𝑏 be any positive real number, and , 𝑛𝑛 be any integers with 𝑛𝑛 > 0; then Additionally, if 𝑛𝑛 > 0,
1
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√ = √𝑏𝑏
√ . √ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
√𝑏𝑏

√𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏
√ = √𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏
√

𝑛𝑛
√𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√ √ = 𝑏𝑏

√
√𝑏𝑏 = √𝑏𝑏
√ = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 .

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O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 5 m inute s)

These exercises briefly review content from Module 1 and the last lesson.

O p e ning E x e rc ise

W rite e a c h e x p one ntia l e x p re ssion a s a ra d ic a l e x p re ssion, a nd th e n use th e d e f inition a nd p rop e rtie s of ra d ic a l s to w rite
th e re sul ting e x p re ssion a s a n inte g e r.

a .

√ √ =√ =

b.

√ √ √ =√ √ =√ =

c .

√ √ =√ =√ =

d . � �

√ =√ =

To transition from the Opening Exercise to Example 1 , ask students to write parts ( a) and ( b) of the Opening Exercise in
exponent form. Then, ask them to discuss with a partner whether or not it would be true in general that
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 where , 𝑛𝑛, , and are integers with 𝑛𝑛 ≠ 0 and ≠ 0.
3 3 3
 How could you write √7 √ = 7 with rational exponents? How about √
√ √7 √3 √ √3 = 3?
√3 √
7 7 = 71 and 33 33 33 = 31
 Based on these examples, does the exponent property 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
appear to be valid when and 𝑛𝑛 are
rational numbers? Explain how you know.
S ince the exponents on the left side of each statement add up to the exponents on the right side, it
appears to be true. H owever, the right side exponent was always 1. If we work with 83 83 = 83 and
3 3 3 3
write it in radical form, then √ √8 = √
√8 √ √82 = √√64. S o, it may be true in general.
N ote that examples alone do not prove that a mathematical statement is always true.
In the rest of this lesson, students make sense of these observations in general to extend the properties of exponents to
rational numbers by applying the definition of the 𝑛𝑛th root of 𝑏𝑏 and the properties of radicals introduced in Lesson 3 .

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E x a m p l e s 1 – 3 ( 1 0 m inute s)
In the previous lesson, it was assumed that the exponent property 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 and
1
integers and 𝑛𝑛 would also hold for rational exponents when the exponents were of the form , where 𝑛𝑛 was a positive
𝑛𝑛
integer. This example helps students see that the property below makes sense for any rational exponent.

𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , where , 𝑛𝑛, , and are integers with 𝑛𝑛 > 0 and > 0.

Consider modeling Example 1 below and having students work with a partner on Example 2 . Make sure students include
a justification for each step in the problem. The following discussion q uestions can be used to guide students through
Example 3 .
 How can we write these expressions using radicals?
1
√ and 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
In Lesson 3 , we learned that 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏 √ for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 and positive integers
and 𝑛𝑛.
 Which properties help us to write the expression as a single radical?
The property of radicals that states √𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏 √ for positive real numbers 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 and positive
√ = √𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏
𝑛𝑛 and the property of exponents that states 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 and
integer 𝑛𝑛,
integers and 𝑛𝑛
 How do we rewrite this expression in exponent form?

√ .
In Lesson 3 , we related radicals and rational exponents by 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
 What makes Example 3 different from Examples 1 and 2 ?
The exponents have different denominators, so when we write the expression in radical form, the roots
are not the same, and we cannot apply the property that √𝑎𝑎 √𝑏𝑏 √ .
√ = √𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏
 Can you think of a way to rewrite the problem so it looks more like Examples 1 and 2 ?
W e can write the exponents as equivalent fractions with the same denominator.

E x a m p le s1 – 3

W rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm f or p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd inte g e rs a nd w ith

> by a p p l y ing th e p rop e rtie s of ra d ic a l s a nd th e d e f inition of th root. S caffolding:
 Throughout the lesson,
1 .
create parallel problems to
B y the d efin ition of th root, demonstrate that these
problems work with
=√ √ .
numerical values as well.
=√ B y the p rop erties of rad ic al s an d p rop erties of ex p on en ts
 For example, in part ( a) ,
=
substitute 4 for 𝑏𝑏.
= B y the d efin ition of
 In part ( b) , substitute a
perfect cube such as 8 or
T he ration al n um b er is eq ual to . T hus,
27 for 𝑏𝑏.
= .

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2 .

� �
=√ B y the d efin ition of an d
= B y the p rop erties of rad ic al s an d p rop erties of ex p on en ts
=

= B y the d efin ition of

T hus,

= .

3 .
W rite the ex p on en ts as eq uiv al en t frac tion s w ith the sam e d en om in ator.

=
Rew rite in rad ic al form .
=
Rew rite as a sin g l e rad ic al ex p ression .
=
=
Rew rite in ex p on en t form usin g the d efin ition .
=
T hus,

= .

1 1 1 4 1 3
 Now, add the exponents in each example. What is + ? + ? + ?
4 4 3 3 4
1 1 1 1 4 1 3 1
+ = , + = , and + =
4 4 2 3 3 3 4 2
 What do you notice about these sums and the value of the exponent when we rewrote each expression?
The sum of the exponents was equal to the exponent of the answer.
Based on these examples, particularly the last one, it seems reasonable to extend the properties of exponents to hold
when the exponents are any rational number. Thus, the following property can be stated:
1 1
 For any integers , 𝑛𝑛, and , with 𝑛𝑛 > 0 and > 0, and any real numbers 𝑏𝑏 so that 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 and 𝑏𝑏 are defined,

𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 .
Have students copy this property into their notes along with the ones listed below. Also, consider writing these
properties on a piece of chart paper and displaying them in the classroom. These properties are listed in the Lesson
Summary.

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In a similar fashion, the other properties of exponents can be extended to hold for any rational exponents as well.
1 1 1
 For any integers , 𝑛𝑛, , and , with 𝑛𝑛 > 0 and > 0, and any real numbers 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 so that 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 , 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 , and 𝑏𝑏 are
defined,

𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√
1 𝑛𝑛
�𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 � = 𝑏𝑏
1
(𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 )𝑛𝑛 = 𝑏𝑏

(𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏) 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛

�𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 � = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
1
𝑏𝑏 − 𝑛𝑛 = .
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
At this point, consider having the class look at the Opening Exercise again and asking them which property could be used
to simplify each problem.
For advanced learners, a derivation of the property explored in Example 1 is provided below.

Rewrite 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 and 𝑏𝑏 as eq uivalent exponential expressions in which the exponents have the same denominator, and
apply the definition of 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 as the 𝑛𝑛th root.

By the definition of 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 and then using properties of algebra, students can rewrite the exponent to be + .
𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
= √𝑏𝑏
√ √𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
√
= √
√𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
= √
√𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛
= 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
= 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛

= 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛

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E x e rc ise s 1 – 4 ( 6 m inute s) S caffolding:

Have students work with a partner or in small groups to rewrite expressions with  When students get to
rational exponents using the properties presented above. As students work, these exercises, it may be
emphasize that it is not necessary to write these expressions using radicals since it has necessary to remind them
just been established that the properties of exponents hold for rational numbers. In that it is often easier to
the last two exercises, students have to use their knowledge of radicals to rewrite the rewrite 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 as √𝑏𝑏
√
answers without exponents. when evaluating radical
expressions.
E x e rc ise s 1 – 4
 Provide a scientific
W rite e a c h e x p re ssion in th e f orm . I f a num e ric e x p re ssion is a ra tiona l num be r, th e n w rite calculator for students
y our a nsw e r w ith out e x p one nts. who struggle with
arithmetic, but encourage
1 .
them to use the radical
= and exponent properties
to show the steps.

−
2 . � �

− −
=

3 .

=
= √
=
=

4 .

√
=

E x a m p l e 4 ( 5 m inute s)
 We can rewrite radical expressions using properties of exponents. There are other methods for rewriting
radical expressions, but this example models using the properties of exponents. Often, textbooks and exams
give directions to simplify an expression, which is vague unless we specify what it means. We want students to
develop fluency in applying the properties, so the directions here say to rewrite in a specific fashion.

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E x a m p le 4

R e w rite th e ra d ic a l e x p re ssion so th a t no p e rf e c t sq ua re f a c tors re m a in insid e th e ra d ic a l .

=( )

= ( )
= √

 Although this process may seem drawn out, once it has been practiced, most of the steps can be internalized,
and expressions are q uickly rewritten using this techniq ue.

E x e rc ise 5 ( 5 m inute s)
For the values 𝑥𝑥 = 50, 𝑦𝑦 = 12, and = 3, the expressions in Exercises 5 ( a) and ( b) are difficult to evaluate. Students
need to rewrite these expressions in a simpler form by minimizing fractions in the exponents before attempting to
evaluate them. Do not allow calculators to be used on these exercises.

E x e rc ise 5

5 . U se th e d e f inition of ra tiona l e x p one nts a nd p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion w ith ra tiona l
e x p one nts c onta ining a s f e w f ra c tions a s p ossibl e . T h e n, e v a l ua te e a c h re sul ting e x p re ssion f or = , = ,
a nd = .
a .

= ( )

Ev al uatin g , w e g et ( )( )( ) = = .

b.

= ( )

Ev al uatin g , w e g et ( ) ( ) = ( )( ) = = .

E x e rc ise 6 ( 5 m inute s)
This exercise reminds students that rational numbers can be represented in decimal form and gives them a chance to
work on their numeracy skills. Students should work on this exercise with a partner or in their groups to encourage
dialogue and debate. Have a few students demonstrate their results to the entire class. There is more than one possible
approach, so when debriefing, try to share different approaches that show varied reasoning. Conclude with one or two
strong arguments. Students can confirm their reasoning using a calculator.

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E x e rc ise 6

6 . O rd e r th e se num be rs f rom sm a l l e st to l a rg e st. E x p l a in y our re a soning .

. . .

T he n um b er .
is b etw een an d , . W e c an rew rite .
=( ) . , w hic h is ,
so .
= = .

T he n um b er .
is b etw een an d , . W e c an rew rite .
=( ) . , w hic h is , so .
= = .

T he n um b er .
is l arg er than , so .
is l arg er than .

T hus, .
is c l earl y the sm al l est n um b er, b ut w e n eed to d eterm in e if .
is g reater than or l ess than , . T od o
this, w e kn ow that . = .
= .
. T his m ean s that . > .
, an d .
= , w hic h is
g reater than , .

T hus, the n um b ers in ord er from sm al l est to l arg est are .

, .
, an d .
.

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Have students summarize the definition and properties of rational exponents and any important ideas from the lesson
by creating a list of what they have learned so far about the properties of exponents and radicals. Circulate around the
classroom to informally assess understanding. Reinforce the properties of exponents listed below.

L e sson S um m a ry
T h e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts d e v e l op e d in G ra d e 8 f or inte g e r e x p one nts e x te nd to ra tiona l e x p one nts.
T h a t is, f or a ny inte g e rs , , , a nd , w ith > a nd > , a nd a ny re a l num be rs a nd so th a t , , a nd
a re d e f ine d , w e h a v e th e f ol l ow ing p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts:

1 . =

2 . =√

3 . � � =

4 . ( ) =

5 . ( ) =

6 . � � =

−
7 . = .

E x it T ic k e t ( 5 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 4 : P rop e rtie s of E x p one nts a nd R a d ic a l s

E x it T ic k e t

11 2
1 . Find the exact value of 910 95 without using a calculator.

3 3
2 . Justify that √ √ using the properties of exponents in at least two different ways.
√8 = √16
√8 √

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . F ind th e e x a c t v a l ue of w ith out using a c a l c ul a tor.

=
= √
=

2 . J ustif y th a t √ √ =√ using th e p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts in a t l e a st tw o d if f e re nt w a y s.

= =( )

=( ) =
= =

= =

=( ) =√ √

=√

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . E v a l ua te e a c h e x p re ssion f or = a nd = .

a . √ √ b. √ √

√ √ = = ( ) =

c . √ + √ d . −
+
( + ) =
+ √ = + =
√

− −
− −
e . � � f. � − �

− − −
� � = � − � = �− � =−

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2 . R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion so th a t e a c h te rm is in th e f orm , w h e re is a re a l num be r, is a p ositiv e re a l num be r,

a nd is a ra tiona l num be r.

− −
a . b.
−
−

−
d . � �
c .

−
−

e . � − �
f.
−
− −

g . √ √
√− √ − −
h .
√
−
− −

√ −
i.

− −
−

3 . S h ow th a t √ + is not e q ua l to + w h e n = a nd = .

W hen = an d = , the tw o ex p ression s are √ + √ an d + . T he first ex p ression sim p l ifies to ,

an d the sec on d sim p l ifies to . T he tw o ex p ression s are n ot eq ual .

−
4 . S h ow th a t � + � is not e q ua l to + w h e n = a nd = .

−
W hen = an d = , the tw o ex p ression s are √ + √ an d + . T he first ex p ression is , an d the
√ √
sec on d on e is + = . T he tw o ex p ression s are n ot eq ual .

5 . F rom th e se num be rs, se l e c t ( a ) one th a t is ne g a tiv e , ( b) one th a t is irra tiona l , ( c ) one th a t is not a re a l num be r, a nd
( d ) one th a t is a p e rf e c t sq ua re :

−
, , − and
, an − .

T he first n um b er, , is irration al ; the sec on d n um b er, , is a p erfec t sq uare; the third n um b er,

−
− , is n eg ativ e; an d the l ast n um b er, � − � , is n ot a real n um b er.

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6 . S h ow th a t f or a ny ra tiona l num be r , th e e x p re ssion � � is e q ua l to .

−
= =

7 . L e t be a ny ra tiona l num be r. E x p re ss e a c h a nsw e r a s a p ow e r of .

a . M ul tip l y by .

b. M ul tip l y √ by .

c . S q ua re .
( ) =

d . D iv id e by .

− −
= =

e . S h ow th a t = − .

− = −
= ( − )
=
=

8 . R e w rite e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing ra d ic a l e x p re ssions a s a n e q uiv a l e nt e x p one ntia l e x p re ssion in w h ic h e a c h v a ria bl e

oc c urs no m ore th a n onc e .
a .

= ( )

= ( )

b.

=( )

9 . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to f ind tw o inte g e rs th a t a re up p e r a nd l ow e r e stim a te s of th e v a l ue of .

.
. .
< <
.
= = an d = , so < .
< .

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1 0 . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to f ind tw o inte g e rs th a t a re up p e r a nd l ow e r e stim a te s of th e v a l ue of .

.

.
< <

= an d = , so = = . T hus, < .
< .

1 1 . K e p l e r’ s th ird l a w of p l a ne ta ry m otion re l a te s th e a v e ra g e d ista nc e , , of a p l a ne t f rom th e sun to th e tim e , , it

ta k e s th e p l a ne t to c om p l e te one f ul l orbit a round th e sun a c c ord ing to th e e q ua tion = . W h e n th e tim e , , is
m e a sure d in E a rth y e a rs, th e d ista nc e , , is m e a sure d in a stronom ic a l units ( A U s) . ( O ne A U is e q ua l to th e a v e ra g e
d ista nc e f rom E a rth to th e sun. )
a . F ind a n e q ua tion f or in te rm s of a nd a n e q ua tion f or in te rm s of .

b. V e nus ta k e s a bout . E a rth y e a r to orbit th e sun. W h a t is its a v e ra g e d ista nc e f rom th e sun?

B ec ause =( . ) ≈ . , the av erag e d istan c e from V en us to the sun is . .

c . M e rc ury is a n a v e ra g e d ista nc e of . A U f rom th e sun. A bout h ow l ong is its orbit in E a rth y e a rs?

B ec ause = ( . ) ≈ . , the l en g th of Merc ury' s orb it is ap p rox im atel y . Earth years.

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L e sson 5 : I rra tiona l E x p one nts— W h a t a re √ a nd ?

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students approximate the value of q uantities that involve positive irrational exponents.
 Students extend the domain of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 for positive real numbers 𝑏𝑏 to all real numbers.

L e sson N ote s

The goal today is to define 2 to an irrational power. There is already a definition for 2 to a rational power : 2 = √2
√ ,
but irrational numbers cannot be written as “ an integer divided by an integer. ” By defining 2 to an irrational power, it is
possible to state definitively that the domain of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 is all real numbers. This result can be extended
to any exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 where 𝑏𝑏 is a positive real number. These important results are necessary to
proceed to the study of logarithms. tudents determine a recursive process for calculation from a context when they
use rational approximations of irrational numbers to approximate first √2 and then 2√2 . The foundational work
done in this lesson with exponential expressions is extended to logarithms in later lessons so that logarithmic functions
in base 2, 10, and 𝑒𝑒 are well defined and can be used to solve exponential eq uations. U nderstanding the domain of
exponential functions also allows students to correctly graph exponential and logarithmic functions in Topic C.
The work done in Lesson 5 also helps demystify irrational numbers, which eases the introduction to Euler’ s
number, 𝑒𝑒, in Lesson 6.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning ( 5 m inute s)
U se the Opening to recall the definitions of rational and irrational numbers and solicit examples and characteristics from
the class. Randomly select students to explain what they know about rational and irrational numbers. Then, make a list
including examples and characteristics of both. Alternatively, have students give rational and irrational numbers, make a
class list, and then have students generalize characteristics of rational and irrational numbers in their notebooks.
Rational and irrational numbers along with some characteristics and examples are described below.

R A T I O N A L N U M B E R : A rational number is a number that can be represented as where and are integers with ≠ 0.

I R R A T I O N A L N U M B E R : An irrational number is a real number that cannot be represented as for any integers and with
≠ 0.
 What are some characteristics of rational numbers?
A rational number can be represented as a finite or repeating decimal; that is, a rational number can be
written as a fraction.

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 What are some characteristics of irrational numbers?

An irrational number cannot be represented as a finite or repeating decimal, so it must be represented
symbolically or as an infinite, nonrepeating decimal.
 What are some examples of irrational numbers?
3
√ , ,√
√2 √17
 We usually assume that the rules we develop for rational numbers hold true for irrational numbers, but what
√ or 2𝜋𝜋 mean?
could something like 2√2
S olicit ideas from the class. S tudents may consider numbers like this to be between rational exponents
or “ filling the gaps” from rational exponents.
 Let’ s find out more about exponents raised to irrational powers and how we can get a handle on their values.

E x e rc ise 1 ( 8 m inute s)
Have students work on the following exercises independently or in pairs. Students need to use calculators. After
students finish, debrief them with the q uestions that follow the exercises.

E x e rc ise 1

a . W rite th e f ol l ow ing f inite d e c im a l s a s f ra c tions ( y ou d o not ne e d to re d uc e to l ow e st te rm s) .

, . , . , . , . , .

. =

. =

. =

. =

. =

b. W rite .
, .
, .
, a nd .
in ra d ic a l f orm ( √ ).
. /
= =
. /
= =
. /
= =
. /
= =
. /
= = √

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c . U se a c a l c ul a tor to c om p ute d e c im a l a p p rox im a tions of th e ra d ic a l e x p re ssions y ou f ound in p a rt ( b) to

d e c im a l p l a c e s. F or e a c h a p p rox im a tion, und e rl ine th e d ig its th a t a re a l so in th e p re v ious a p p rox im a tion,
sta rting w ith . d one f or y ou be l ow . W h a t d o y ou notic e ?
= = .
.
= ≈ .
.
= ≈ .
.
= ≈ .
.
= ≈ .
.
= ≈ .

More an d m ore of the d ig its are the sam e.

Note to teacher: Students cannot find 21414 on most calculators due to the number being 426 digits long. They need to
1414
calculate √
√2 instead of √
√21414 . At this point, it may be a good time to switch to using the decimal
approximation within the exponent, reminding students that the calculator is evaluating the decimal by using the radical
form, that is, 𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛 = √𝑏𝑏
√ . Ideally, a student suggests using the decimal exponent first. If roots are used, make sure that
the root is taken before the exponent for large exponents. Examples and possible solutions throughout the lesson
assume that roots are used so the true meaning of rational exponents is emphasized.
 How are the exponents in each power of 2 changing?
A new digit is included in the exponent each time: 1.4,
1.4 1.41, 1.414,
1.414 1.4142, 1.414 21.
 If we kept including more digits, what do you conjecture will happen to the decimal approximations?
A greater and greater number of digits in each approximation would remain the same.
 Let’ s see!

E x a m p l e ( 6 m inute s)
Students should already be aware that rational exponents are defined using roots and exponents.
Write a decimal approximation for 21.414213 .
21.414213 is the 10,000,000 root of 21414213 .
Remember to take the root first. We get
21.414213 ≈ 2.665 14.
 Can anyone tell the class what the exponents 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, … approximate?

√ , but if not, ask them to find √2

Hopefully, one student says √2 √ on their calculators, and ask again.
 Y es, √2
√ ≈ 1.414 213 562.
The goal of this lesson is to find a meaning for 2√2
√ . We now know enough to discuss both the problem and

√ .
solution to defining 2 to an irrational power such as √2

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 √ , we
First, the problem: Each time we took a better finite decimal approximation of the irrational number 2√2
needed to take a greater 𝑛𝑛 root. However, an irrational number has an infinite number of digits in its decimal
th

expansion. We cannot take an th root! In particular, while we have always assumed 2√2√ and 2𝜋𝜋 existed

( because when we show the graph of 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 , we drew a solid curve—not one with “ holes” at
√ and 2𝜋𝜋 really are.
√ , , etc. ) , we do not as of yet have a way to define what 2√2
𝑥𝑥 = √2
 Fortunately, our beginning exercise suggests a solution using a limit process ( much the way we defined the
area of a circle in Geometry, Module 3 in terms of limits) .
 Let 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 stand for the term of the seq uence of finite decimal approximations of √2
√ with 𝑘𝑘 digits after the
decimal point:
{1, 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, 1.4142, 1.414 21, 1.414 213, 1.414 213 5, … },
and label these as 𝑎𝑎 = 1, 𝑎𝑎1 = 1.4, 𝑎𝑎2 = 1.41, 𝑎𝑎3 = 1.414. Then, define 2√2
√ to be the limit of the values of

2 . Thus,
2 √ as 𝑘𝑘
2√2 .
The important point to make to students is that each 2 can be computed since each 𝑎𝑎𝑘𝑘 is a rational number and
therefore has a well- defined value in terms of 𝑛𝑛th roots.

This is how calculators and computers are programmed to compute approximations of 2√2
√ . Try it: The calculator says

that 2√2
√ ≈ 2.665 144 14.

E x e rc ise 2 ( 5 m inute s)
Students should attempt the following exercise independently or in pairs. After the exercise, use the Discussion to
debrief and informally assess understanding.
S caffolding:
E x e rc ise 2  Have students working above grade
a . W rite six te rm s of a se q ue nc e th a t a c a l c ul a tor c a n use to a p p rox im a te . level give the most accurate estimate
( H int: = . …) they can for part ( b) . Most
{ , .
, .
, .
, .
, .
,…}
calculators can provide an additional
three to four decimal places of .
For reference, ≈
b. Com p ute .
a nd on y our c a l c ul a tor. I n w h ic h d ig it d o th e y sta rt to
3.141 592 653 589 793 238 46.
d if f e r?
 Another option for students working
.
= ≈ .
above grade level is to discuss the
≈ .
T hey start to d iffer in the hun d red ths p l ac e. seq uence of upper bounds of
{4, 3.2, 3.15, 3.142, 3.1416, … } and
whether this seq uence leads to an
c . H ow c oul d y ou im p rov e th e a c c ura c y of y our e stim a te of ? accurate estimate of 2𝜋𝜋 .
I n c l ud e m ore d ig its of the d ec im al ap p rox im ation of in the ex p on en t.

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D isc ussion ( 1 0 m inute s)

 Why does the seq uence 23 , 23.1 , 23.14 , 23.141 , 23.141 , … get closer and closer to 2𝜋𝜋 ?
Allow students to make some conjectures, but be sure to go through the reasoning below.
 We can trap 2𝜋𝜋 in smaller and smaller intervals, each one contained in the previous interval.
Write the following incomplete ineq ualities on the board, and ask students to help complete them before continuing.
Mention that in this process, they are squeezing between two rational numbers that are each getting closer and closer
to the value of .

3< <4
3.1 < <? 3.2
3.14 < <? 3.15
3.141 < <? 3.142
3.1415 < <? 3.1416

 Since 3 < < 4, and the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 increases, we know that 23 < < 24 . Likewise, we can use the
smaller intervals that contain to find smaller intervals that contain 2𝜋𝜋 . In this way, we can sq ueeze 2𝜋𝜋
between rational powers of 2.
Now, have students use calculators to estimate the endpoints of each interval created by the upper and lower estimates
of the values of 2𝜋𝜋 , and write the numerical approximations of each interval on the board so students can see the
endpoints of the intervals getting closer together, sq ueezing the value of 2𝜋𝜋 between them. Record values to four
decimal places.

D ecimal Form

23 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 24 8.0000 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 16.0000

23.1 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 23.2 8.5742 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 9.1896

23.14 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 23.1 8.8152 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 8.8766

23.141 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 23.142 8.8214 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 8.8275

23.141 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 23.141 8.8244 < 2𝜋𝜋 < 8.8250

 What is the approximate value of 2𝜋𝜋 ? How many digits of this number do we know?
Because our upper and lower estimates agree to two decimal places, our best approximation is
2 ≈ 8.82.
 How could we get a more accurate estimate of 2𝜋𝜋 ?
U se more and more digits of as exponents.

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 As the exponents get closer to the value of , what happens to the size of the interval?
The intervals get smaller; the endpoints of the interval get closer together.
 What does every interval share in common?
Every interval contains 2𝜋𝜋 .
 The only number that is guaranteed to be contained in every interval is 2𝜋𝜋 . ( Emphasize this fact. )
 √ or . In fact, with a little more work,
There was nothing special about our choice of 2 in this discussion, or √2
we could define √
√2 using the same ideas.

Cl osing ( 6 m inute s)
Ask students to respond to the following q uestions either in writing or with a partner. U se this as an opportunity to
informally assess understanding. The summative point of the lesson is that the domain of an exponential function
𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 is all real numbers, so emphasize the final q uestion below.
 For any positive real number 𝑏𝑏 > 0 and any rational number 𝑟𝑟, how do we define 𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑟 ?
2 3
If 𝑟𝑟 is rational, then 𝑟𝑟 = for some integers and . Then 𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑟 = √𝑏𝑏
√ . For example, 53 = √
√52 .
 For any positive real number 𝑏𝑏 > 0 and any irrational number 𝑟𝑟, how do we define 𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑟 ?
If 𝑟𝑟 is irrational, 𝑏𝑏 𝑟𝑟 is the limit of the values 𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏 where 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛 is the finite decimal approximation of 𝑏𝑏 to 𝑛𝑛
decimal places.
 If 𝑏𝑏 is any positive real number, then consider the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 . How is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) defined if 𝑥𝑥 is a rational
number?

If 𝑥𝑥 is a rational number, then there are integers and so that 𝑥𝑥 = . Then 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 = √𝑏𝑏
√ .
 How is 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) defined if 𝑥𝑥 is an irrational number?
If 𝑥𝑥 is an irrational number, we find a sequence of rational numbers {𝑎𝑎 , 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … } that gets closer and
closer to 𝑥𝑥. Then the sequence {𝑏𝑏 , 𝑏𝑏 , 𝑏𝑏 , … } approaches 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥).
 What is the domain of the exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 ?
The domain of the function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑏𝑏 is all real numbers.

E x it T ic k e t ( 5 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 5 : I rra tiona l E x p one nts— W h a t a re √ a nd ?

E x it T ic k e t

U se the process outlined in the lesson to approximate the number 2√3

√ . U se the approximation
√ ≈ 1.732 050 8.
√3
a. Find a seq uence of five intervals that contain √3
√ whose endpoints get successively closer to √3
√ .

b. Find a seq uence of five intervals that contain 2√3

√ whose endpoints get successively closer to 2√3
√ . Write your

𝑟𝑟
intervals in the form 2 < 2√3 √ < 2 for rational numbers 𝑟𝑟 and .

c. U se your calculator to find approximations to four decimal places of the endpoints of the intervals in part ( b) .

d. Based on your work in part ( c) , what is your best estimate of the value of 2√3
√ ?

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

U se th e p roc e ss outl ine d in th e l e sson to a p p rox im a te th e num be r √

. U se th e a p p rox im a tion √ ≈ . .

a . F ind a se q ue nc e of f iv e inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √ w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √ .

<√ <
. <√ < .
. <√ < .
. <√ < .
. <√ < .

b. F ind a se q ue nc e of f iv e inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √ w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √ . W rite y our
inte rv a l s in th e f orm < √ < f or ra tiona l num be rs a nd .

< √ <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <

c . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to f ind a p p rox im a tions to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s of th e e nd p oints of th e inte rv a l s in p a rt ( b) .

. < √ < .
. < √ < .
. < √
< .
. < √ < .
. < √ < .

d . B a se d on y our w ork in p a rt ( c ) , w h a t is y our be st e stim a te of th e v a l ue of √ ?

√ ≈ .

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . I s it p ossibl e f or a num be r to be both ra tiona l a nd irra tiona l ?

N o. Either the n um b er c an b e w ritten as for in teg ers an d or it c an n ot. I f it c an , the n um b er is ration al . I f it

c an n ot, the n um b er is irration al .

2 . U se p rop e rtie s of e x p one nts to re w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions a s a num be r or a n e x p one ntia l e x p re ssion w ith
onl y one e x p one nt.
√
a . √

82 L e sson 5 : Irrational Exponents—What are 2√2

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A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 5 M 3
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√
√
b. �√
√ �
−√
√
c . � √
�
+ −
d .
+ −
e . ÷ √

( ) ( )
f.

3 .
a . B e tw e e n w h a t tw o inte g e r p ow e rs of d oe s √
l ie ?
√
< <

b. B e tw e e n w h a t tw o inte g e r p ow e rs of d oe s √ l ie ?

< √ <

c . B e tw e e n w h a t tw o inte g e r p ow e rs of d oe s √
l ie ?
√
< <

4 . U se th e p roc e ss outl ine d in th e l e sson to a p p rox im a te th e num be r √

. U se th e a p p rox im a tion
√ ≈ . .
a . F ind a se q ue nc e of f iv e inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √ w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √ .

<√ <
. <√ < .
. <√ < .
. <√ < .
. <√ < .

b. F ind a se q ue nc e of f iv e inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √ w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √

. W rite y our
inte rv a l s in th e f orm < √ < f or ra tiona l num be rs a nd .
√
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <

c . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to f ind a p p rox im a tions to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s of th e e nd p oints of th e inte rv a l s in p a rt ( b) .

√
. < < .
√
. < < .
√
. < < .
√
. < < .
√
. < < .

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d . B a se d on y our w ork in p a rt ( c ) , w h a t is y our be st e stim a te of th e v a l ue of √

?
√
≈ .

e . Ca n w e te l l if √
is ra tiona l or irra tiona l ? W h y or w h y not?

N o. W e d o n ot hav e en oug h in form ation to d eterm in e w hether √

has a rep eated p attern in its d ec im al
rep resen tation or n ot.

5 . U se th e p roc e ss outl ine d in th e l e sson to a p p rox im a te th e num be r √

. U se th e a p p rox im a tion √ ≈ . .
a . F ind a se q ue nc e of f iv e inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √
w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √
.
W rite y our inte rv a l s in th e f orm < √ < f or ra tiona l num be rs a nd .

< √ <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <

b. U se y our c a l c ul a tor to f ind a p p rox im a tions to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s of th e e nd p oints of th e inte rv a l s in p a rt ( a ) .

√
. < < .
. < √ < .
. < √
< .
. < √ < .
. < √ < .

c . B a se d on y our w ork in p a rt ( b) , w h a t is y our be st e stim a te of th e v a l ue of √ ?

√ ≈ .

6 . U se th e p roc e ss outl ine d in th e l e sson to a p p rox im a te th e num be r √

. U se th e a p p rox im a tion
√ ≈ . .
a . F ind a se q ue nc e of se v e n inte rv a l s th a t c onta in √ w h ose e nd p oints g e t suc c e ssiv e l y c l ose r to √ .
W rite y our inte rv a l s in th e f orm < √ < f or ra tiona l num be rs a nd .

< √ <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <
. √ .
< <

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b. U se y our c a l c ul a tor to f ind a p p rox im a tions to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s of th e e nd p oints of th e inte rv a l s in p a rt ( a ) .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

√
. < < .

c . B a se d on y our w ork in p a rt ( b) , w h a t is y our be st e stim a te of th e v a l ue of √ ?

√ ≈ .

7 . A ra tiona l num be r ra ise d to a ra tiona l p ow e r c a n e ith e r be ra tiona l or irra tiona l . F or e x a m p l e , is ra tiona l be c a use
= 2 , a nd is irra tiona l be c a use = √ . I n th is p robl e m , y ou w il l inv e stig a te th e p ossibil itie s f or a n irra tiona l
num be r ra ise d to a n irra tiona l p ow e r.
√
√
a . E v a l ua te √ .
√
√ √ √
√ = √ = √ =

b. Ca n th e v a l ue of a n irra tiona l num be r ra ise d to a n irra tiona l p ow e r e v e r be ra tiona l ?

√
Y es. F or in stan c e, in p art ( a) ab ov e, √ is irration al , an d the n um b er √ is either irration al or ration al .
√
If√ is ration al , then this is an ex am p l e of an irration al n um b er raised to an irration al p ow er that is
√
ration al . O therw ise, √ is irration al , an d p art ( a) is an ex am p l e of an irration al n um b er raised to an
irration al p ow er that is ration al .

L e sson 5 : Irrational Exponents—What are 2√2

√ and 2𝜋𝜋 ? 85

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L e sson 6 : E ul e r’ s N um be r, 𝒆𝒆

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students write an exponential function that represents the amount of water in a tank after 𝑡𝑡 seconds if the
height of the water doubles every 10 seconds.
 Students discover Euler’ s number 𝑒𝑒 by numerically approaching the constant for which the height of water in a
tank eq uals the rate of change of the height of the water in the tank.
 Students calculate the average rate of change of a function.

L e sson N ote s
Leonhard Euler ( pronounced “ Oiler” ) , 1 70 7–1 783 , was a prolific Swiss mathematician and physicist who made many
important contributions to mathematics such as much of the modern terminology and notation, including function
notation, and popularizing the use of to represent the circumference of a circle divided by its diameter. Euler also
discovered many properties of the irrational number 𝑒𝑒, which is now known as Euler’s number. Euler’ s number naturally
occurs in various applications, and a comparison can be made to , which also occurs naturally. During the lesson,
students determine an explicit expression for the height of water in a water tank from its context and calculate the
average rate of change over smaller and smaller intervals to create a seq uence that converges to 𝑒𝑒. It is important
to stress that the water tank exploration is a way to define 𝑒𝑒. Y es, it is remarkable, but when students discover it,
the teacher’ s reaction should not be “ Ta- da! It’ s magic! ” Instead, the teacher should stress that students have defined
this special constant ( similar to how is defined as the ratio of any circle’ s circumference to its diameter) that will be
used extensively in the near future and occurs in many different applications.

Cl a ssw ork
E x e rc ise s 1 – 3 ( 8 m inute s)
In these exercises, students find exponential eq uations that model the increasing height of water in a cylindrical tank as
it doubles over a fixed time interval. These preliminary exercises lead to the discovery of Euler’ s number, 𝑒𝑒 , at the end
of the lesson. As a demonstration, show students the 47- second video in which the height
of water in a tank doubles repeatedly until it fills the tank completely; note how long it takes for the height to appear to
change at all. Although this situation is contrived, it provides a good visual representation of the power of exponential
growth. This is a good time to discuss constraints and how q uantities cannot realistically increase exponentially
without bound due to physical constraints to the growth. In this case, the water tank has a finite volume, and there is
only a finite amount of water on the planet. Likewise, the main constraint to population growth is the availability of
such resources as food and land.
After watching the video, students may work individually or in pairs. Point out to students that the growth shown in
the video happened much more q uickly than it happens in the problems below, but the underlying concept is the
same. Students should be prepared to share their solutions with the class.

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E x e rc ise s 1 – 3
1 . A ssum e th a t th e re is initia l l y of w a te r in th e ta nk , a nd th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r d oubl e s e v e ry se c ond s.
W rite a n e q ua tion th a t c oul d be use d to c a l c ul a te th e h e ig h t ( ) of th e w a te r in th e ta nk a t a ny tim e .

T he heig ht of the w ater at tim e sec on d s c an b e m od el ed b y ( )= /

.

2 . H ow w oul d th e e q ua tion in E x e rc ise 1 c h a ng e if …

a . th e initia l d e p th of w a te r in th e ta nk w a s ?
/
( )=

S caffolding:
b. th e initia l d e p th of w a te r in th e ta nk w a s ?
Students working below grade
( )= / level can create a table of
water depths to visualize the
accumulation of water. Since
c . th e initia l d e p th of w a te r in th e ta nk w a s ?
the doubling happens every
( )= /
10 seconds, have them deduce
the exponent by asking, “ How
d . th e initia l d e p th of w a te r in th e ta nk w a s , f or som e p ositiv e re a l num be r ? many times would doubling
( )= / occur in 30 seconds? How
many times would doubling
3 . H ow w oul d th e e q ua tion in E x e rc ise 2 , p a rt ( d ) , c h a ng e if …
occur in one minute? ”
a . th e h e ig h t trip l e d e v e ry te n se c ond s? T im e ( s) D e p th ( c m )
( )= / 0 1
10 2
b. th e h e ig h t d oubl e d e v e ry f iv e se c ond s? 20 4
30 8
/
( )=

c . th e h e ig h t q ua d rup l e d e v e ry se c ond ?

( )=

d . th e h e ig h t h a l v e d e v e ry te n se c ond s?

( . / )
( )=

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Students have worked informally with the average rate of change of a function before in Algebra I, Modules 3 and 4 .
For the next examples, the following definition is needed. Go through this definition, and post it on the board or in
another prominent place before beginning the next example. Students continue to work with the average rate of
change of a function in the Problem Set.
A V E R A G E R A T E O F CH A N G E : Given a function 𝑓𝑓 whose domain contains the interval of real numbers [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] and whose range
is a subset of the real numbers, the average rate of change on the interval [𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏] is defined by the number:
𝑓𝑓(𝑏𝑏) − 𝑓𝑓(𝑎𝑎)
.
𝑏𝑏 − 𝑎𝑎

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E x a m p l e ( 4 m inute s)
U se this example to model the process of finding the average rate of change of the height of the water that is increasing
according to one of the exponential functions in the hypothetical scenario. Students repeat this calculation in the
exercises that follow. The student materials contain the images below of the three water tanks but not the
accompanying formulas.

E x a m p le

Consid e r tw o id e ntic a l w a te r ta nk s, e a c h of w h ic h be g ins w ith a h e ig h t of w a te r a nd f il l s w ith w a te r a t a d if f e re nt

ra te . W h ic h e q ua tions c a n be use d to c a l c ul a te th e h e ig h t of w a te r in e a c h ta nk a t tim e ? U se f or ta nk 1 a nd f or
ta nk 2 .

T h e h e ig h t of th e w a te r T h e h e ig h t of th e w a te r
in ta nk 1 d oubl e s e v e ry in ta nk 2 trip l e s e v e ry
se c ond . se c ond .

( )= ( )=

a . I f both ta nk s sta rt f il l ing a t th e sa m e tim e , w h ic h one f il l s f irst?

T an k fil l s first b ec ause the l ev el is risin g m ore q uic kl y.

b. W e w a nt to k now th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r in th e se ta nk s ov e r a n inte rv a l th a t
sta rts a t a f ix e d tim e a s th e y a re f il l ing up . W h a t is th e f orm ul a f or th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of a f unc tion
on a n inte rv a l [ , ]?
( )− ( )
−

c . W h a t is th e f orm ul a f or th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e f unc tion on a n inte rv a l [ , ]?

( )− ( )
−

d . L e t’ s c a l c ul a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e f unc tion on th e inte rv a l [ , + . ], w h ic h is a n inte rv a l

one - te nth of a se c ond l ong sta rting a t a n unk now n tim e .
( + . )− ( ) ( . )−( )
=
+ . − .
.
−
=
.
( .
− )
=
.
≈ ( . )
≈ . ( )

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 So, the average rate of change of the height function is a multiple of the value of the function. This means that
the speed at which the height is changing at time depends on the depth of water at that time. On average,
over the interval [ , + 0.1], the water in tank 1 rises at a rate of approximately 0.717 735 1 ( ) centimeters
per second.
 Let’ s say that at time there is a height of 5 cm of water in the tank. Then, after one- tenth of a second, the
1
height of the water would increase by (0.717 735(5)) ≈ 0.3589 cm. But if there is a height of 20 cm of
1
water in the tank, after one- tenth of a second, the height of the water would increase by
1
0.717 735(20) ≈ 1.4355 cm.
1

E x e rc ise s 4 – 5 ( 1 0 m inute s)
Students need to use calculators to compute the numerical constants in the exercises below.

E x e rc ise s 4 – 8

4 . F or th e se c ond ta nk , c a l c ul a te th e a v e ra g e c h a ng e in th e h e ig h t, , f rom tim e se c ond s to + . se c ond .

E x p re ss th e a nsw e r a s a num be r tim e s th e v a l ue of th e orig ina l f unc tion a t tim e . E x p l a in th e m e a ning of th e se
f ind ing s.
( + . )− ( ) .
−
=
. .
.
−
=
.
( .
− )
=
.
( . )
≈
.
≈ .
≈ . ( )

O n av erag e, ov er the tim e in terv al [ , + . ], the w ater in tan k 2 rises at a rate of ap p rox im atel y
. ( ) c en tim eters p er sec on d .

5 . F or e a c h ta nk , c a l c ul a te th e a v e ra g e c h a ng e in h e ig h t f rom tim e se c ond s to + . se c ond . E x p re ss th e

a nsw e r a s a num be r tim e s th e v a l ue of th e orig ina l f unc tion a t tim e . E x p l a in th e m e a ning of th e se f ind ing s.

T an k 1 :
( + . )− ( ) .
−
=
. .
.
−
=
.
( .
− )
=
.
( . )
≈
.
≈ .
≈ . ( )

O n av erag e, ov er the tim e in terv al [ , + . ], the w ater in tan k 1 rises at a rate of ap p rox im atel y
. ( ) c en tim eter p er sec on d .

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T an k 2 :
( + . )− ( ) .
−
=
. .
.
−
=
.
( .
− )
=
.
( . )
≈
.
≈ .
≈ . ( )

O v er the tim e in terv al [ , + . ], the w ater in tan k 2 rises at an av erag e rate of ap p rox im atel y . ( )
c en tim eters p er sec on d .

E x e rc ise s 6 – 8 ( 1 2 m inute s)
The following exercises lead to discovery of the constant 𝑒𝑒 that occurs naturally in many situations that can be modeled
mathematically. Looking at the results of the previous three exercises, if the height of the water doubles, then the
expression for the average rate of change contains a factor less than one. If the height of the water triples, then the
expression for the average rate of change contains a factor greater than one. U nder what conditions does the
expression for the average rate of change contain a factor of exactly one? Answering this q uestion leads to 𝑒𝑒.

6 . I n E x e rc ise 5 , th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r in ta nk 1 on th e inte rv a l [ , + . ] c a n be
d e sc ribe d by th e e x p re ssion , a nd th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r in ta nk 2 on th e
inte rv a l [ , + . ] c a n be d e sc ribe d by th e e x p re ssion . W h a t a re a p p rox im a te v a l ue s of a nd ?

≈ . an d ≈ .

7 . A s a n e x p e rim e nt, l e t’ s l ook f or a v a l ue of so th a t if th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r c a n be d e sc ribe d by ( )= , th e n

th e e x p re ssion f or th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e on th e inte rv a l [ , + . ] is ( ).
a . W rite out th e e x p re ssion f or th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of ( )= on th e inte rv a l [ , + . ].
( + . )− ( )
.

b. S e t y our e x p re ssion in p a rt ( a ) e q ua l to ( ), a nd re d uc e to a n e x p re ssion inv ol v ing a sing l e .

( + . )− ( )
= ( )
.
.
−
=
.
( .
− )
=
.
.
− = .
.
= .

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 6 M 3
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c . N ow w e w a nt to f ind th e v a l ue of th a t sa tisf ie s th e e q ua tion y ou f ound in p a rt ( b) , but w e d o not h a v e a

w a y to e x p l ic itl y sol v e th is e q ua tion. L ook ba c k a t E x e rc ise 6 ; w h ic h tw o c onse c utiv e inte g e rs h a v e
be tw e e n th e m ?

W e are l ookin g for the b ase of the ex p on en t that p rod uc es a rate of c han g e on a sm al l in terv al n ear that is
( ). W hen that b ase is , the v al ue of the rate is roug hl y . ( ). W hen the b ase is , the v al ue of the
rate is roug hl y . . Sin c e . < < . , the b ase w e are l ookin g for is som ew here b etw een an d .

d . U se y our c a l c ul a tor a nd a g ue ss- a nd - c h e c k m e th od to f ind a n a p p rox im a te v a l ue of to d e c im a l p l a c e s.

Stud en ts m ay c hoose to use a tab l e suc h as the tab l e show n b el ow . Make sure that stud en ts are m ain tain in g
en oug h d ec im al p l ac es of . to d eterm in e w hic h v al ue is c l osest to . .
. .

. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

T hen ≈ . .

( . )− ( )
8 . V e rif y th a t f or th e v a l ue of f ound in E x e rc ise , ≈ ( ), w h e re ( )= .
.
( + . )− ( ) . .
. − .
=
. .
( . . )
. −
=
.
. ( . )
≈
.
≈ . .
≈ . ( )

W hen the heig ht of the w ater in c reases b y a fac tor of . un its p er sec on d , the heig ht at an y tim e is eq ual to the rate of
c han g e of heig ht at that tim e.

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

If there is time, perform the calculation of 𝑏𝑏 several more times, over smaller and smaller time intervals and finding
more and more digits of 𝑏𝑏. If not, then just present students with the fact below.
 What happens to the value of 𝑏𝑏?
If we were to keep finding the average rate of change of the function 𝑏𝑏 on smaller and smaller time
intervals and solving the equation 𝑏𝑏 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡 , we would find that the height of the water increases
by a factor that gets closer and closer to the number 2.718281828 4 ….
 The number that this process leads to is called Euler’s number and is denoted by 𝑒𝑒. Like , 𝑒𝑒 is an irrational
number, so it cannot be accurately represented by a decimal expansion. The approximation of 𝑒𝑒 to 13 decimal
places is 𝑒𝑒 ≈ 2.7182818284590.

L e sson 6 : Euler’ s Number, 𝑒𝑒 91

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 Like , 𝑒𝑒 is important enough to merit inclusion on scientific calculators. Depending on the calculator, 𝑒𝑒 may
appear alone, as the base of an exponential expression 𝑒𝑒 , or both. Find the 𝑒𝑒 button on your calculator, and
experiment with its use. Make sure you can use your calculator to provide an approximation of 𝑒𝑒, and use the
button to calculate 𝑒𝑒 2 and 2𝑒𝑒.

Cl osing ( 4 m inute s)
Summarize the lesson with students, and ensure the first two points below are addressed. Have students highlight what
they think is important about the lesson in writing or with a partner. U se this as an opportunity to informally assess
learning.
 We just discovered the number 𝑒𝑒, which is important in the world of mathematics. It naturally occurred in our
water tank exploration. It also occurs naturally in many other applications, such as finance and population
growth.
 Just as we can create and use an exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2 or 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 10 , we can also create and use
an exponential function 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒 . The interesting thing about the exponential function base 𝑒𝑒 is that the
rate of change of this function at a value 𝑎𝑎 is the same as the value of this function at 𝑎𝑎.
 Euler’ s number will surface in a variety of different places in your future exposure to mathematics, and you will
see that it is one of the numbers on which much of the mathematics we practice is based.

L e sson S um m a ry
 E ul e r’ s num be r, 𝒆𝒆, is a n irra tiona l num be r th a t is a p p rox im a te l y e q ua l to . .

 A V E R A G E R A T E O F CH A N G E : G iv e n a f unc tion w h ose d om a in c onta ins th e inte rv a l of re a l num be rs [ , ]

a nd w h ose ra ng e is a subse t of th e re a l num be rs, th e av erag e rate of c han g e on the in terv al [ , ] is
d e f ine d by th e num be r
( )− ( )
.
−

E x it T ic k e t ( 3 m inute s)

92 L e sson 6 : Euler’ s Number, 𝑒𝑒

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Name Date

L e sson 6 : E ul e r’ s N um be r, 𝒆𝒆

E x it T ic k e t

1 . Suppose that water is entering a cylindrical water tank so that the initial height of the water is 3 cm and the height
of the water doubles every 30 seconds. Write an eq uation of the height of the water at time 𝑡𝑡 seconds.

2 . Explain how the number 𝑒𝑒 arose in our exploration of the average rate of change of the height of the water in the
water tank.

L e sson 6 : Euler’ s Number, 𝑒𝑒 93

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . S up p ose th a t w a te r is e nte ring a c y l ind ric a l w a te r ta nk so th a t th e initia l h e ig h t of th e w a te r is a nd th e h e ig h t

of th e w a te r d oubl e s e v e ry se c ond s. W rite a n e q ua tion of th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r a t tim e se c ond s.

( )= � �

2 . E x p l a in h ow th e num be r 𝒆𝒆 a rose in our e x p l ora tion of th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e h e ig h t of th e w a te r in th e

w a te r ta nk .

W e first n otic ed that if the w ater l ev el in the tan k w as d oub l in g ev ery sec on d , then the av erag e rate of c han g e of the
heig ht of the w ater w as roug hl y . tim es the heig ht of the w ater at that tim e. An d if the w ater l ev el in the tan k
w as trip l in g ev ery sec on d , then the av erag e rate of c han g e of the heig ht of the w ater w as roug hl y . tim es the
heig ht of the w ater at that tim e. W hen w e w en t l ookin g for a b ase so that the av erag e rate of c han g e of the
heig ht of the w ater w as . tim es the heig ht of the w ater at that tim e, w e foun d that the b ase w as roug hl y 𝒆𝒆.
C al c ul atin g the av erag e rate of c han g e ov er shorter in terv al s g av e a b etter ap p rox im ation of 𝒆𝒆.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
Problems 1 –5 address other occurrences of 𝑒𝑒 and some fluency practice with the number 𝑒𝑒, and the remaining problems
focus on the average rate of change of a function. The last two problems are extension problems that introduce some
ideas of calculus with the familiar formulas for the area and circumference of a circle and the volume and surface area of
a sphere.

1 . T h e p rod uc t is c a l l e d fac torial a nd is d e note d by !. T h e n != , a nd

f or a ny p ositiv e inte g e r , ! = ( − )( − ) ⋯ .
a . Com p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e of f a c toria l v a l ue s:

b. E v a l ua te th e sum + .
!

c . E v a l ua te th e sum + + .
! !
.

d . U se a c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te th e sum + + + to d e c im a l p l a c e s. D o not round th e f ra c tions

! ! !
be f ore e v a l ua ting th e sum .

≈ .

e . U se a c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te th e sum + + + + to d e c im a l p l a c e s. D o not round th e

! ! ! !
f ra c tions be f ore e v a l ua ting th e sum .

≈ .

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f. U se a c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te sum s of th e f orm + + + ⋯+ to d e c im a l p l a c e s f or

! ! !
= , , , , , . D o not round th e f ra c tions be f ore e v a l ua ting th e sum s w ith a c a l c ul a tor.

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

If = , the sum is ≈ . .

g . M a k e a c onj e c ture a bout th e sum s + + + ⋯+ f or p ositiv e inte g e rs a s inc re a se s in siz e .

! ! !

I t seem s that as g ets l arg er, the sum s + + + ⋯+ g et c l oser to 𝒆𝒆.

! ! !

h . W oul d c a l c ul a ting te rm s of th is se q ue nc e e v e r y ie l d a n e x a c t v a l ue of 𝒆𝒆? W h y or w h y not?

N o. T he n um b er 𝒆𝒆 is irration al , so it c an n ot b e w ritten as a q uotien t of in teg ers. An y fin ite sum

+ + +⋯+ c an b e ex p ressed as a sin g l e ration al n um b er w ith d en om in ator !, so the sum s are al l
! ! !
ration al n um b ers. H ow ev er, the m ore term s that are c al c ul ated , the c l oser to 𝒆𝒆 the sum b ec om es, so these
sum s p rov id e b etter an d b etter ration al n um b er ap p rox im ation s of 𝒆𝒆.

2 . Consid e r th e se q ue nc e g iv e n by = � + � , w h e re ≥ is a n inte g e r.
a . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te th e f irst te rm s of th is se q ue nc e to d e c im a l p l a c e s.

=� + � =

=� + � = .

=� + � ≈ .

=� + � ≈ .

=� + � = .

b. D oe s it a p p e a r th a t th is se q ue nc e se ttl e s ne a r a p a rtic ul a r v a l ue ?

N o, the n um b ers g et b ig g er, b ut w e c an n ot tel l if it keep s g ettin g b ig g er or settl es on or n ear a p artic ul ar

v al ue.

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 A STORY OF FUNCTIONS L e sson 6 M 3
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c . U se a c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te th e f ol l ow ing te rm s of th is se q ue nc e to d e c im a l p l a c e s.

i. = .
ii. = .
iii. , = .

iv . , = .

v . , , = .

v i. , , = .

v ii. , , = .

d . D oe s it a p p e a r th a t th is se q ue nc e se ttl e s ne a r a p a rtic ul a r v a l ue ?

Y es, it ap p ears that as g ets real l y l arg e ( at l east , , ) , the term s of the seq uen c e settl e n ear
the v al ue of 𝒆𝒆.

e . Com p a re th e re sul ts of th is e x e rc ise w ith th e re sul ts of P robl e m 1 . W h a t d o y ou obse rv e ?

I t took ab out term s of the sum in P rob l em 1 to see that the sum settl ed at the v al ue 𝒆𝒆, b ut it takes
, , term s of the seq uen c e in this p rob l em to see that the sum settl es at the v al ue 𝒆𝒆.

3 . If = a nd = 𝒆𝒆 , e x p re ss in te rm s of 𝒆𝒆, a nd a p p rox im a te to th e ne a re st w h ol e num be r.

If = an d = 𝒆𝒆 , then = ( 𝒆𝒆 ) . Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an eq uiv al en t form g iv es

= 𝒆𝒆 ≈ .

4 . If = a nd = − 𝒆𝒆− , e x p re ss in te rm s of 𝒆𝒆, a nd a p p rox im a te to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s.

If = an d = − 𝒆𝒆− , then = �− 𝒆𝒆− � . Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an eq uiv al en t form g iv es
= − 𝒆𝒆 −
≈− . .

5 . If = 𝒆𝒆 a nd 𝒆𝒆 = , sh ow th a t = 𝒆𝒆 , a nd a p p rox im a te to th e ne a re st w h ol e num be r.

Rew rite the eq uation 𝒆𝒆 = to isol ate the v ariab l e .

𝒆𝒆 =

𝒆𝒆 =

B y the sub stitution p rop erty, if = 𝒆𝒆 an d = 𝒆𝒆 , then = ( 𝒆𝒆 ) 𝒆𝒆. Rew ritin g the rig ht sid e in an
eq uiv al en t form g iv es = 𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆 = 𝒆𝒆 ≈ .

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6 . T h e f ol l ow ing g ra p h sh ow s th e num be r of ba rre l s of oil p rod uc e d by th e G l e nn P ool w e l l in O k l a h om a f rom to

.

O il W e l l P rod uc tion, G l e nn P ool , O k l a h om a

4 0 0 0

O il p rod uc tion p e r y e a r, in ba rre l s

3 5 0 0
3 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
1 0 0 0
5 0 0
0
1 9 0 8 1 9 1 0 1 9 1 2 1 9 1 4 1 9 1 6 1 9 1 8
Y e a r

S ourc e : Cutl e r, W il l a rd W . , J r. E stim a tion of U nd e rg round O il R e se rv e s by O il - W e l l

P rod uc tion Curv e s, U . S . D e p a rtm e nt of th e I nte rior, 1 9 2 4 .

a . E stim a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a m ount of oil p rod uc e d by th e w e l l on th e inte rv a l [ , ],

a nd e x p l a in w h a t th a t num be r re p re se nts.

Stud en t resp on ses w il l v ary b ased on how they read the p oin ts on the g rap h. O v er the in terv al [ , ],
the av erag e rate of c han g e is roug hl y
−
=− ≈− . .
−
T his says that the p rod uc tion of the w el l d ec reased b y an av erag e of ab out b arrel s of oil eac h year
b etw een an d .

b. E stim a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a m ount of oil p rod uc e d by th e w e l l on th e inte rv a l [ , ],

a nd e x p l a in w h a t th a t num be r re p re se nts.

Stud en t resp on ses w il l v ary b ased on how they read the p oin ts on the g rap h. O v er the in terv al [ , ],
the av erag e rate of c han g e is roug hl y
−
=− =− .
−
T his says that the p rod uc tion of the w el l d ec reased b y an av erag e of ab out b arrel s of oil p er year
b etw een an d .

c . E stim a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a m ount of oil p rod uc e d by th e w e l l on th e inte rv a l [ , ],

a nd e x p l a in w h a t th a t num be r re p re se nts.

Stud en t resp on ses w il l v ary b ased on how they read the p oin ts on the g rap h. O v er the in terv al [ , ],
the av erag e rate of c han g e is roug hl y
−
=− ≈− . .
−
T his says that the p rod uc tion of the w el l d ec reased b y an av erag e of ab out . b arrel s of oil p er year
b etw een an d .

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d . Com p a re y our re sul ts f or th e ra te s of c h a ng e in oil p rod uc tion in th e f irst h a l f a nd th e se c ond h a l f of th e tim e

p e riod in q ue stion in p a rts ( b) a nd ( c ) . W h a t d o th ose num be rs sa y a bout th e p rod uc tion of oil f rom th e w e l l ?

T he p rod uc tion d rop p ed m uc h m ore rap id l y in the first three years than it d id in the sec on d three years.
L ookin g at the g rap h, it l ooks l ike the oil in the w el l m ig ht b e run n in g out, so l ess an d l ess c an b e ex trac ted
eac h year.

e . N otic e th a t th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a m ount of oil p rod uc e d by th e w e l l on a ny inte rv a l sta rting a nd

e nd ing in tw o c onse c utiv e y e a rs is a l w a y s ne g a tiv e . E x p l a in w h a t th a t m e a ns in th e c onte x t of oil p rod uc tion.

B ec ause the av erag e rate of c han g e of oil p rod uc tion ov er a on e- year p eriod is al w ays n eg ativ e, the w el l is
p rod uc in g l ess oil eac h year than it d id the year b efore.

7 . T h e f ol l ow ing ta bl e l ists th e num be r of h y brid e l e c tric v e h ic l e s ( H E V s) sol d in th e U nite d S ta te s be tw e e n a nd

.

Y e a r N um be r of H E V s Y e a r N um be r of H E V s
S ol d in U . S . S ol d in U . S .
,
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
,
S ourc e : U . S . D e p a rtm e nt of E ne rg y , A l te rna tiv e F ue l s a nd
A d v a nc e d V e h ic l e D a ta Ce nte r, .

a . D uring w h ic h one - y e a r inte rv a l is th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e num be r of H E V s sol d th e l a rg e st? E x p l a in

h ow y ou k now .

T he av erag e rate of c han g e of the n um b er of H EV s sol d is l arg est d urin g [ , ] b ec ause the n um b er of
H EV s sol d in c reases b y the l arg est am oun t b etw een those tw o years.

b. Ca l c ul a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e num be r of H E V s sol d on th e inte rv a l [ , ], a nd e x p l a in

w h a t th a t num be r re p re se nts.
−
O n the in terv al [ , ], the av erag e rate of c han g e in sal es of H EV s is , w hic h is
−
, . T his m ean s that d urin g this on e- year p eriod , H EV s w ere sel l in g at a rate of , v ehic l es p er
year.

c . Ca l c ul a te th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e num be r of H E V s sol d on th e inte rv a l [ , ], a nd e x p l a in

w h a t th a t num be r re p re se nts.
, − ,
O n the in terv al [ , ], the av erag e rate of c han g e in sal es of H EV s is , w hic h
−
is , . . T his m ean s that d urin g this fiv e- year p eriod , H EV s w ere sel l in g at an av erag e rate of
, v ehic l es p er year.

d . W h a t d oe s it m e a n if th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e num be r of H E V s sol d is ne g a tiv e ?

I f the av erag e rate of c han g e of the v ehic l es sol d is n eg ativ e, then the sal es are d ec l in in g . T his m ean s that
few er c ard s w ere sol d than in the p rev ious year.

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E x te nsion:

8 . T h e f orm ul a f or th e a re a of a c irc l e of ra d ius c a n be e x p re sse d a s a f unc tion ( ) = .

a . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , ].
( )− ( ) −
= =
−

b. F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) . −
= = .
. − .

c . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) . −
= = .
. − .

d . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) . −
= = .
. − .

e . W h a t is h a p p e ning to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of th e c irc l e a s th e inte rv a l g e ts sm a l l e r a nd

sm a l l e r?

T he av erag e rate of c han g e of the area of the c irc l e ap p ears to b e g ettin g c l ose to .

f. F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] f or som e sm a l l p ositiv e

num be r .
( + )− ( ) ( + ) −
=
( + )−
( + + ) –
=

= ( + )

= ( + )

=( + )

g . W h a t h a p p e ns to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of th e c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] a s ?
D oe s th is a g re e w ith y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( d ) ? S h oul d it a g re e w ith y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( e ) ?

As , + , so as g ets sm al l er, the av erag e rate of c han g e ap p roac hes . T his ag rees w ith m y
resp on se to p art ( e) , an d it shoul d b ec ause as , the in terv al [ , + ] g ets sm al l er.

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h . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of a c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] f or som e p ositiv e num be r

a nd som e sm a l l p ositiv e num be r .
( + )− ( ) ( + ) −
=
( + )−
( + + ) –
=

= ( + )

= ( + )

=( + )

i. W h a t h a p p e ns to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e a re a of th e c irc l e on th e inte rv a l [ , + ]a s ?
D o y ou re c og niz e th e re sul ting f orm ul a ?

As , the ex p ression for the av erag e rate of c han g e b ec om es , w hic h is the c irc um feren c e of the
c irc l e w ith rad ius .

9 . T h e f orm ul a f or th e v ol um e of a sp h e re of ra d ius c a n be e x p re sse d a s a f unc tion ( ) = . A s y ou w ork

th roug h th e se q ue stions, y ou w il l se e th e p a tte rn d e v e l op m ore c l e a rl y if y ou l e a v e y our a nsw e rs in th e f orm of a
c oe f f ic ie nt tim e s . A p p rox im a te th e c oe f f ic ie nt to f iv e d e c im a l p l a c e s.
a . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , ].

( )− ( ) −
= = ≈ .
−

b. F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) ( . − )
= ≈ .
. − .

c . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) ( . − )
= ≈ .
. − .

d . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , . ].

( . )− ( ) ( . − )
= ≈ .
. − .

e . W h a t is h a p p e ning to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re a s th e inte rv a l g e ts sm a l l e r a nd
sm a l l e r?

T he av erag e rate of c han g e of the v ol um e of the sp here ap p ears to b e g ettin g c l ose to .

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f. F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] f or som e sm a l l p ositiv e

num be r .

( + )− ( ) (( + ) − )
=
( + )−

= ( + + + − )

= ( + + )

= ( + + )

= ( + + )

g . W h a t h a p p e ns to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] a s ?
D oe s th is a g re e w ith y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( e ) ? S h oul d it a g re e w ith y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( e ) ?

As , the v al ue of the p ol yn om ial + + ap p roac hes . T hen the av erag e rate of c han g e
ap p roac hes = . T his ag rees w ith m y resp on se to p art ( e) , an d it shoul d b ec ause as , the
in terv al [ , + ] g ets sm al l er.

h . F ind th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , + ] f or som e p ositiv e

num be r a nd som e sm a l l p ositiv e num be r .

( + )− ( ) ( + ) −
=
( + )−

= + + + −

= ( + + )

= ( + + )

= ( + + )

i. W h a t h a p p e ns to th e a v e ra g e ra te of c h a ng e of th e v ol um e of a sp h e re on th e inte rv a l [ , + ]a s ?
D o y ou re c og niz e th e re sul ting f orm ul a ?

As , the ex p ression for the av erag e rate of c han g e b ec om es , w hic h is the surfac e area of the
sp here w ith rad ius .

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Mathematics Curriculum
A L G E B R A I I • MODULE 3

Topic B
Logarithms

Focus Standards:  Define appropriate q uantities for the purpose of descriptive modeling.
★

 Create eq uations and ineq ualities in one variable and use them to solve problems.
Include eq uations arising from linear and q uadratic functions, and simple rational and
exponential functions.
★

Write a function that describes a relationship between two q uantities.

★

 Determine an explicit expression, a recursive process, or steps for calculation from
a context.
 For exponential models, express as a logarithm the solution to 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑 where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑐𝑐,
and 𝑑𝑑 are numbers and the base 𝑏𝑏 is 2, 10, or 𝑒𝑒; evaluate the logarithm using
technology.
★

Instructional Days: 9
L e sson 7 : Bacteria and Exponential Growth ( S) 1

L e sson 8 : The “ WhatPower” Function ( P)

L e sson 9 : Logarithms—How Many Digits Do Y ou Need? ( E)
L e sson 1 0 : Building Logarithmic Tables ( P)
L e sson 1 1 : The Most Important Property of Logarithms ( P)
L e sson 1 2 : Properties of Logarithms ( P)
L e sson 1 3 : Changing the Base ( P)
L e sson 1 4 : Solving Logarithmic Eq uations ( P)
L e sson 1 5 : Why Were Logarithms Developed? ( P)

The lessons covered in Topic A familiarize students with the laws and properties of real- valued exponents. In
Topic B, students extend their work with exponential functions to include solving exponential eq uations
numerically and developing an understanding of the relationship between logarithms and exponentials. In
Lesson 7, students use an algorithmic numerical approach to solve simple exponential eq uations that arise
from modeling the growth of bacteria and other populations. Students work to develop

1 Lesson Structure Key: P - Problem Set Lesson, M- Modeling Cycle Lesson, E - Exploration Lesson, S - Socratic Lesson

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progressively better approximations for the solutions to eq uations whose solutions are irrational numbers. In
doing this, students increase their understanding of the real number system and truly begin to understand
what it means for a number to be irrational. Students learn that some simple exponential eq uations can be
solved exactly without much difficulty but that mathematical tools are lacking to solve other eq uations whose
solutions must be approximated numerically.
Lesson 8 begins with the logarithmic function disguised as the more intuitive “ WhatPower” function, whose
behavior is studied as a means of introducing how the function works and what it does to expressions.
Students find the power needed to raise a base 𝑏𝑏 in order to produce a given number. The lesson ends with
students defining the term logarithm base 𝑏𝑏. Lesson 8 is just a first introduction to logarithms in preparation
for solving exponential eq uations; students neither use tables nor look at graphs in this lesson.
Instead, they simply develop the ideas and notation off logarithmic expressions, leaving many ideas to be
explored later in the module.
Just as population growth is a natural example that gives context to exponential growth, Lesson 9 gives
context to logarithmic calculation through the example off assigning uniq ue identification numbers to a group
of people. In this lesson, students consider the meaning of the logarithm in the context of calculating the
number of digits needed to create student ID numbers, phone numbers, and social security numbers.
This gives students a real- world context for the abstract idea of a logarithm; in particular, students
observe that a base- 10 logarithm provides a way to keep track of the number of digits used in a number
in the base- 10 system.
Lessons 1 0 –1 5 develop both the theory of logarithms and procedures for solving various forms of exponential
and logarithmic eq uations. In Lessons 1 0 and 1 1 , students discover the logarithmic properties by completing
carefully structured logarithmic tables and answering sets of directed q uestions. Throughout these two .
lessons, students look for structure in the table and use that structure to extract logarithmic properties
While the logarithmic properties are not themselves explicitly listed, cannot be adeq uately
l
ly
without an understanding of how to apply logarithms to solve exponential eq uations, and the
seemingly odd behavior of graphs of logarithmic functions cannot be adeq uately explained without an
understanding of the properties of logarithms. In particular, in Lesson 1 1 , students discover the
“ most important property of logarithms” : For positive real numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦, log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦).
1
Students also discover the pattern log 𝑏𝑏 � � = − log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) that leads to conjectures about additional
𝑥𝑥
properties of logarithms.

Lesson 1 2 continues the consideration of properties of the logarithm function, while remaining focused solely
on base- 10 logarithms. Its centerpiece is the demonstration of basic properties of logarithms such as the
power, product, and q uotient properties, providing justification in terms of the definition of logarithm and
the properties already developed. In this lesson, students begin to learn how to solve exponential
eq uations, beginning with base- 10 exponential eq uations that can be solved by taking the common
logarithm of both sides of the eq uation.
Lesson 1 3 again focuses on the structure of expressions, as students change logarithms from one base
to another. It begins by showing students how they can make that change and then develops properties
of logarithms for the general base 𝑏𝑏. Students are introduced to the use of a calculator instead of a table in
finding logarithms, and then natural logarithms are defined: ln(𝑥𝑥) = log (𝑥𝑥). One goal of the lesson, in
addition to introducing the base 𝑒𝑒 for logarithms, is to explain why, for finding logarithms to any base, the
calculator has only LOG and LN keys. In this lesson, students learn to solve exponential eq uations with any

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base by the application of an appropriate logarithm. Lessons 1 2 and 1 3 both address solving eq uations
of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑, as do later lessons in the module.
Lesson 1 4 includes the first introduction to solving logarithmic eq uations. In this lesson, students apply the
definition of the logarithm to rewrite logarithmic eq uations in exponential form, so the eq uations must first
be rewritten in the form log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑋𝑋) = 𝑐𝑐, for an algebraic expression 𝑋𝑋 and some constant 𝑐𝑐. Solving eq uations
in this way req uires that students think deeply about the definition of the logarithm and how logarithms
interact with exponential expressions. Although solving logarithmic eq uations is not listed explicitly,
this skill is implicit when students solve eq uations of the form 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) where 𝑓𝑓 and 𝑔𝑔 can be
logarithmic functions. Additionally, logarithmic eq uations provide a greater context in which
to study both the properties of logarithms and the definition, both of which are needed to solve
the eq uations .
Topic B concludes with Lesson 1 5 , in which students learn a bit of the history of how and why logarithms first
appeared. The materials for this lesson contain a base- 10 logarithm table. Although modern technology has
made logarithm tables functionally obsolete, there is still value in understanding the historical development
of logarithms. Logarithms were critical to the development of astronomy and navigation in the days before
computing machines, and this lesson presents a rationale for the pre- technological advantage afforded to
scholars by the use of logarithms. In this lesson, the case is finally made that logarithm functions are one- to-
one ( without explicitly using that terminology) : If log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑋𝑋) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌), then 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌. T his fact not only
validates the use of tables to look up anti- logarithms but also allows exponential eq uations to be
solved with logarithms on both sides of the eq uation.

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L e sson 7 : B a c te ria a nd E x p one ntia l G row th

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students solve simple exponential eq uations numerically.

L e sson N ote s
The lessons in Topic A familiarized students with the laws and properties of real- valued exponents. Topic B introduces
the logarithm and develops logarithmic properties through exploration of logarithmic tables, primarily in base 10. This
lesson introduces simple exponential eq uations whose solutions do not follow from eq uating exponential terms of eq ual
bases. Because students have no sophisticated tools for solving exponential eq uations until logarithms are introduced in
later lessons, numerical methods must be used to approximate solutions to exponential eq uations, a process that asks
students to determine a recursive process from a context to solve 2 = 10. Students have many opportunities
to solve such eq uations algebraically throughout the module, using both the techniq ue of eq uating exponents of
exponential expressions with the same base and using properties of logarithms. The goals of this lesson are to help
students understand ( 1 ) why logarithms are useful by introducing a situation ( i. e. , solving 2 = 10) offering students
no option other than numerical methods to solve it, ( 2 ) that it is often possible to solve eq uations numerically by trapping
the solution through better and better approximation, and ( 3 ) that the better and better approximations are converging
on a ( possibly) irrational number.
Exponential eq uations are used freq uently to model bacteria and population growth, and both of those scenarios occur
in this lesson.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 6 m inute s)
In this exercise, students work in groups to solve simple exponential eq uations that can be solved by rewriting the
expressions on each side of the eq uation as a power of the same base and eq uating exponents. It is also possible for
students to use a table of values to solve these problems numerically; either method is valid, and both should be
discussed at the end of the exercise. Asking students to solve eq uations of this type demands that they think deeply
about the meaning of exponential expressions. Because students have not solved exponential eq uations previously, the
exercises are scaffolded to begin very simply and progress in difficulty; the early exercises may be merely solved by
inspection. When students are finished, ask for volunteers to share their solutions on the board and discuss different
solution methods.

O p e ning E x e rc ise
S caffolding:
W ork w ith y our p a rtne r or g roup to sol v e e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions f or .
Encourage struggling students
a . = b. = to make a table of values of the
= = powers of 2 to use as a
reference for these exercises.

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c . = d . − =
= =
= =
=

e . − = f. =
= =
= =
= =

g . = S caffolding:
= Give early finishers a more
+ = challenging eq uation where
=
both bases need to be
changed, such as 42 = 8 3 .

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

This Discussion should emphasize that the eq uations in the Opening Exercise have straightforward solutions because
both sides can be written as an exponential expression with base 2.
 How did the structure of the expressions in these eq uations allow you to solve them easily?
Both sides of the equations could be written as exponential expressions with base 2.
 Suppose the Opening Exercise had asked us to solve the eq uation 2 = 10 instead of the eq uation 2 = 8.
Why is it far more difficult to solve the eq uation 2 = 10?
W e do not know how to express 10 as a power of 2. In the Opening Exercise, it is straightforward that
8 can be expressed as 23 .
 Can we find two integers that are under and over estimates of the solution to 2 = 10? That is, can we find 𝑎𝑎
and 𝑏𝑏 so that 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑏𝑏?
Y es; the unknown 𝑥𝑥 is between 3 and 4 because 23 < 10 < 24 .
 In the next example, we will use a calculator ( or other technology) to find a more accurate estimate of the
solutions to 2 = 10.

E x a m p l e ( 1 2 m inute s)
The purpose of this exercise is to numerically pinpoint the solution 𝑑𝑑 to the eq uation 2 = 10 by sq ueezing the solution
between numbers that get closer and closer together. Start with 3 < 𝑑𝑑 < 4, and then find that 23.3 < 10 and 10 < 23.4 ,
so 3.3 < 𝑑𝑑 < 3.4. Continuing with this logic, sq ueeze 3.32 < 𝑑𝑑 < 3.33 and then 3.321 < 𝑑𝑑 < 3.322. The point of this
exercise is that it is possible to continue sq ueezing 𝑑𝑑 between numbers with more and more digits, meaning that there is
an approximation of 𝑑𝑑 to greater and greater accuracy.
In the student materials, the tables for the Discussion on the following pages are presented next to each other, but they
are spread out here to show how they fit into the Discussion.

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E x a m p le

T h e Esc heric hia c ol i ba c te ria ( c om m onl y k now n a s E. c ol i) re p rod uc e s onc e e v e ry m inute s, m e a ning th a t a c ol ony of
E. c ol i c a n d oubl e e v e ry h a l f h our. Myc ob ac terium tub erc ul osis h a s a g e ne ra tion tim e in th e ra ng e of to h ours.
R e se a rc h e rs h a v e f ound e v id e nc e th a t sug g e sts c e rta in ba c te ria p op ul a tions l iv ing d e e p be l ow th e surf a c e of th e e a rth
m a y g row a t e x tre m e l y sl ow ra te s, re p rod uc ing onc e e v e ry se v e ra l th ousa nd y e a rs. W ith th is v a ria tion in ba c te ria l
g row th ra te s, it is re a sona bl e th a t w e a ssum e a - h our re p rod uc tion tim e f or a h y p oth e tic a l ba c te ria c ol ony in th is
e x a m p le .

S up p ose w e h a v e a ba c te ria c ol ony th a t sta rts w ith ba c te rium , a nd th e p op ul a tion of ba c te ria d oubl e s e v e ry d a y .

W h a t f unc tion c a n w e use to m od e l th e ba c te ria p op ul a tion on d a y ?

( )= , for real n um b ers ≥ .

Have students volunteer values of 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡) to help complete the following table.

( )

H ow m a ny d a y s w il l it ta k e f or th e ba c te ria p op ul a tion to re a c h ?

I t w il l take d ays b ec ause ( ) = = .

H ow m a ny d a y s w il l it ta k e f or th e ba c te ria p op ul a tion to re a c h ?

I t w il l take d ays b ec ause ( ) = = .

R oug h l y h ow l ong w il l it ta k e f or th e p op ul a tion to re a c h ?

B etw een an d d ays; the n um b er so that =

W e a l re a d y k now f rom our p re v ious d isc ussion th a t if = , th e n < < , a nd th e ta bl e c onf irm s th a t. A t th is
p oint, w e h a v e a n und e re stim a te of a nd a n ov e re stim a te of f or . H ow c a n w e f ind be tte r und e r a nd ov e r e stim a te s
f or ?

( N ote to teac her: O n c e stud en ts resp on d , hav e them v ol un teer v al ues to c om p l ete the tab l e. )

C al c ul ate the v al ues of .

, .
, .
, etc . , un til w e fin d tw o c on sec utiv e v al ues that hav e b etw een them .

( )
. .
. .
. .
. .

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F rom our ta bl e , w e now k now a noth e r se t of und e r a nd ov e r e stim a te s f or th e num be r th a t w e se e k . W h a t a re th e y ?

W e kn ow is b etw een . an d . . T hat is, . < < . .

Continue th is p roc e ss of “ sq ue e z ing ” th e num be r be tw e e n tw o num be rs until y ou a re c onf id e nt y ou k now th e v a l ue of

to tw o d e c im a l p l a c e s.

( ) ( )
. . . .
. . . .
. .

Sin c e . < < . , an d b oth n um b ers roun d to . , w e c an say that ≈ . . W e see that the p op ul ation
reac hes after . d ays ( i. e. , . ≈ ) .

W h a t if w e h a d w a nte d to f ind to d e c im a l p l a c e s?

K eep sq ueez in g b etw een un d er an d ov er estim ates un til they ag ree to the first d ec im al p l ac es. ( N ote to teac her: T o
d ec im al p l ac es, . < < . , so ≈ . .)

T o th e ne a re st m inute , w h e n d oe s th e p op ul a tion of ba c te ria be c om e ?

I t takes . d ays, w hic h is roug hl y d ays, hours, an d m in utes.

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

 Could we repeat the same process to find the time req uired for the bacteria population to reach 20
( or 100 or 500) ?
Y es. W e could start by determining between which two integers the solution to the equation
2𝑡𝑡 = 20 must lie and then continue the same process to find the solution.
 Could we achieve the same level of accuracy as we did in the example? Could we make our solution more
accurate?
Y es. W e can continue to repeat the process and eventually “ trap” the solution to as many decimal
places as we would like.
Lead students to the idea that for any positive number 𝑥𝑥, they can repeat the process above to approximate the
exponent 𝐿𝐿 so that 2𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥 to as many decimal places of accuracy as they would like. Likewise, they can approximate an
exponent so that they can write the number 𝑥𝑥 as a power of 10 or a power of 3 or a power of 𝑒𝑒 or a power of any
positive number other than 1.
Note that there is a little bit of a theoretical hole here that is filled in later when the logarithm function is introduced. In
this lesson, students are only finding a rational approximation to the value of the exponent, which is the logarithm and is
generally an irrational number. That is, in this example, they are not truly writing 10 as a power of 2, but they are only
finding a close approximation. If students q uestion this subtle point, let them know that later in the module they have
definitive ways to write any positive number exactly as a power of the base.

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E x e rc ise ( 8 m inute s)
Divide students into groups of two or three, and assign each group a different eq uation to solve from the list below.
Students should repeat the process of the Example to solve these eq uations by sq ueezing the solution between more
and more precise under and over estimates. Record the solutions in a way that students can see the entire list either
written on poster board, written on the white board, or projected through the document camera.

E x e rc ise

U se th e m e th od f rom th e E x a m p l e to a p p rox im a te th e sol ution to th e e q ua tions be l ow to tw o d e c im a l p l a c e s.

a . = ≈ .

b. = ≈ .

c . = ≈ .

d . = ≈ .

e . = ≈ .

f. = ≈ .

g . = ≈ .

h . = ≈ .

i. = ≈ .

j. = ≈ .

k . = ≈ .

l. = ≈ .

m . = ≈ .

n. = ≈ .

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

 Do you observe a pattern in the solutions to the eq uations in the above Exercise?
Y es. The larger the base, the smaller the solution.
 Why would that be?
The larger the base, the smaller the exponent needs to be in order to reach 1,000.

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Cl osing ( 4 m inute s)
Have students respond to the following q uestions individually in writing or orally with a partner.
 Explain when a simple exponential eq uation, such as those we have seen today, can be solved exactly using
our current methods.
If both sides of the equation can be written as exponential expressions with the same base, then the
equation can be solved exactly.
 When a simple exponential eq uation cannot be solved by hand, what can we do?
W e can give crude under and over estimates for the solution using integers.
W e can use a calculator to find increasingly accurate under and over estimates to the solution until we
are satisfied.

E x it T ic k e t ( 8 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 7 : B a c te ria a nd E x p one ntia l G row th

E x it T ic k e t

Loggerhead turtles reproduce every 2 to 4 years, laying approximately 120 eggs in a clutch. U sing this information, we
can derive an approximate eq uation to model the turtle population. As is often the case in biological studies, we will
count only the female turtles. If we start with a population of one female turtle in a protected area and assume that all
turtles survive, we can roughly approximate the population of female turtles by (𝑡𝑡) = 5𝑡𝑡 . U se the methods of the
Example to find the number of years, 𝑌𝑌, it will take for this model to predict that there will be 300 female turtles. Give
your answer to two decimal places.

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

L og g e rh e a d turtl e s re p rod uc e e v e ry to y e a rs, l a y ing a p p rox im a te l y e g g s in a c l utc h . U sing th is inf orm a tion, w e
c a n d e riv e a n a p p rox im a te e q ua tion to m od e l th e turtl e p op ul a tion. A s is of te n th e c a se in biol og ic a l stud ie s, w e w il l
c ount onl y th e f e m a l e turtl e s. I f w e sta rt w ith a p op ul a tion of one f e m a l e turtl e in a p rote c te d a re a a nd a ssum e th a t a l l
turtl e s surv iv e , w e c a n roug h l y a p p rox im a te th e p op ul a tion of f e m a l e turtl e s by ( ) = . U se th e m e th od s of th e
E x a m p l e to f ind th e num be r of y e a rs, , it w il l ta k e f or th is m od e l to p re d ic t th a t th e re w il l be f e m a l e turtl e s. G iv e
y our a nsw e r to tw o d e c im a l p l a c e s.

Sin c e = an d = , w e kn ow that < < .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

T hus, to tw o d ec im al p l ac es, w e hav e ≈ . . So, it w il l take roug hl y years for the p op ul ation to g row to
fem al e turtl es.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
The Problem Set gives students an opportunity to practice using the numerical methods established in the lesson for
approximating solutions to exponential eq uations.

1 . S ol v e e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions f or using th e sa m e te c h niq ue a s w a s use d in th e O p e ning E x e rc ise .

a . = b. −
= c . −
= −

= =− = or =

d . − −
= e . = f. −
=

= = = or =−

g . = h . = i. =

= = = or =−

2 . S ol v e th e e q ua tion = a l g e bra ic a l l y using tw o d if f e re nt initia l ste p s a s d ire c te d be l ow .

a . W rite e a c h sid e a s a p ow e r of . b. M ul tip l y both sid e s by .

−( )
= =
− = = +
= =

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3 . F ind c onse c utiv e inte g e rs th a t a re und e r a nd ov e r e stim a te s of th e sol utions to th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e q ua tions.
a . =

= an d = , so < < .

b. =

= an d = , so < < .

c . =
= an d = , so < < .

d . = ,

= , an d = , , , so < < .

e . −
=

= an d = , , so < − < ; thus, < < .

f. = .

= an d = , so < < .

4 . Com p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e to a p p rox im a te th e sol ution to = , to th re e d e c im a l p l a c e s.

. , . . , . . , .
. , . . , . . , .
, . , . . , . . , .
, . , . . , . . , .
, . , . . , .
. , .

= ,
.
≈ , , so ≈ . .

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5 . Com p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e to a p p rox im a te th e sol ution to = to th re e d e c im a l p l a c e s.

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. .
. .
. .

=
.
≈ , so ≈ . .

6 . A p p rox im a te th e sol ution to = to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s.

Sin c e = an d = , w e kn ow that < < .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e kn ow that . < < . .

T hus, the ap p rox im ate sol ution to this eq uation to four d ec im al p l ac es is . .

7 . A d a ng e rous ba c te ria l c om p ound f orm s in a c l ose d e nv ironm e nt but is im m e d ia te l y d e te c te d . A n initia l d e te c tion

re a d ing sug g e sts th e c onc e ntra tion of ba c te ria in th e c l ose d e nv ironm e nt is one p e rc e nt of th e f a ta l e x p osure l e v e l .
T h is ba c te ria is k now n to d oubl e in c onc e ntra tion in a c l ose d e nv ironm e nt e v e ry h our a nd c a n be m od e l e d by th e
f unc tion ( ) = , w h e re is m e a sure d in h ours.
a . I n th e f unc tion ( ) = , w h a t d oe s th e m e a n? W h a t d oe s th e m e a n?

T he rep resen ts the in itial p op ul ation of b ac teria, w hic h is % of the fatal l ev el . T his m ean s that the fatal
l ev el oc c urs w hen ( ) = , . T he b ase rep resen ts the g row th rate of the b ac teria; it d oub l es ev ery
hour.

b. D oc tors a nd tox ic ol og y p rof e ssiona l s e stim a te th a t e x p osure to tw o- th ird s of th e ba c te ria ’ s f a ta l

c onc e ntra tion l e v e l w il l be g in to c a use sic k ne ss. W ith out c onsul ting a c a l c ul a tor or oth e r te c h nol og y , of f e r a
roug h tim e l im it f or th e inh a bita nts of th e inf e c te d e nv ironm e nt to e v a c ua te in ord e r to a v oid sic k ne ss.

T he b ac teria l ev el is d an g erous w hen ( )= = ( )≈ . .

Sin c e = , ( )≈ , in hab itan ts of the in fec ted area shoul d ev ac uate w ithin hours.

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c . A m ore c onse rv a tiv e a p p roa c h is to e v a c ua te th e inf e c te d e nv ironm e nt be f ore ba c te ria c onc e ntra tion l e v e l s
re a c h one - th ird of f a ta l l e v e l s. W ith out c onsul ting a c a l c ul a tor or oth e r te c h nol og y , of f e r a roug h tim e l im it
f or e v a c ua tion in th is c irc um sta nc e .

U n d er these g uid el in es, the b ac teria l ev el is d an g erous w hen ( )= = ( )≈ . .

Sin c e = , ( )≈ , so the c on serv ativ e ap p roac h is to rec om m en d ev ac uation w ithin hours.

d . U se th e m e th od of th e E x a m p l e to a p p rox im a te w h e n th e ba c te ria c onc e ntra tion w il l re a c h % of th e f a ta l

e x p osure l e v e l , to th e ne a re st m inute .

W e n eed to ap p rox im ate the sol ution to = , , w hic h is eq uiv al en t to sol v in g = .

. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . .
. .
. .

I n hab itan ts n eed to ev ac uate w ithin . hours, w hic h is ap p rox im atel y hours an d m in utes.

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L e sson 8 : T h e “ W h a tP ow e r” F unc tion

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students calculate a simple logarithm using the definition.

L e sson N ote s
The term logarithm is foreign and can be intimidating, so the lesson begins with a simple renaming of the logarithm
function to the more intuitive “ WhatPower” function. Do not explain this function to students directly, but let them
figure out what the function does. The first two exercises have already been solved to provide a hint of how the
“ WhatPower” function works.
This lesson is the first introduction to logarithms, and the work done here prepares students to solve exponential
eq uations of the form 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑 and use logarithms to model relationships between two q uantities in later lessons.
In the next lessons, students create logarithm tables to discover some of the basic properties of logarithms
before continuing on to look at the graphs of logarithmic functions and then to finally modeling logarithmic data.
In this lesson, the ideas and notation of logarithmic expressions are developed, leaving many ideas to be explored
later in the module.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 1 2 m inute s)
Allow students to work in pairs or small groups to complete these exercises. Do not explain this function to students
directly, but allow them to struggle to figure out what this new “ WhatPower” function means and how to evaluate these
expressions. When there are about two minutes left, instruct groups that have not finished part ( a) to skip to part ( b) so
that all groups have time to think about and state the definition of this function. Consider collecting the groups’
definitions on paper and sharing some or all of them with the class using the document camera. This definition is refined
through the lessons; in particular, we are interested in the allowable values of the base 𝑏𝑏.

O p e ning E x e rc ise

a . E v a l ua te e a c h e x p re ssion. T h e f irst tw o h a v e be e n c om p l e te d f or y ou.

i. ( )=

, b ec ause =

ii. ( )=
, b ec ause =

iii. ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

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iv . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

v . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

v i. ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause = , ,

v ii. ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause = , ,

v iii. ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

ix . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

x . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

x i. √ =_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =√

x ii. � �=_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause � � =

x iii. ( ) =_ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause =

x iv . ( . ) =_ _ _ _ _ _

− , b ec ause −
= .

x v . � �=_ _ _ _ _ _

− , b ec ause −
=

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x v i. ( ) =_ _ _ _ _ _

−
− , b ec ause � � = =

b. W ith y our g roup m e m be rs, w rite a d e f inition f or th e f unc tion , w h e re is a num be r.

T he v al ue of is the n um b er you n eed to raise to in ord er to g et . T hat is, if = , then

= ( ).

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

Discuss the definitions students created, but do not settle on an official definition just yet. To reinforce the idea of how
this function works, ask students a series of “ WhatPower” q uestions, writing the expressions on the board or the
document camera and reading WhatPower𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) as “ What power of 𝑏𝑏 is 𝑥𝑥? ” Be sure that students are visually seeing the
odd structure of this notation and hearing the q uestion “ What power of 𝑏𝑏 is 𝑥𝑥? ” to reinforce the meaning of this
function that depends on both the parameter 𝑏𝑏 and the variable 𝑥𝑥.
 WhatPower2 (16)
4
 WhatPower2 (4)
2
 WhatPower2 √2
√
1
2
 WhatPower2 (1)
0
1
 WhatPower2 � �
8
−3

E x e rc ise s 1 – 9 ( 8 m inute s)
The point of this set of exercises is for students to determine which real numbers 𝑏𝑏 make sense as a base for the
WhatPower𝑏𝑏 function. Have students complete this exercise in pairs or small groups, and allow time for students to
debate.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 9

E v a l ua te th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions, a nd j ustif y y our a nsw e rs.

1 . ( )
( )= b ec ause = .

2 . ( )

( ) d oes n ot m ake sen se b ec ause there is n o p ow er of that w il l p rod uc e .

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3 . ( )

( )= b ec ause = .

4 . ( )
( ) d oes n ot ex ist b ec ause for an y ex p on en t , = , so there is n o p ow er of that w il l p rod uc e .

5 . − ( )

− ( )= b ec ause (− ) = .

6 . − ( )

− ( ) d oes n ot m ake sen se b ec ause there is n o p ow er of − that w il l p rod uc e .

7 . ( )

−
( ) = − b ec ause � � = .

8 . −
( )

−
( ) d oes n ot m ake sen se b ec ause there is n o p ow er of − that w il l p rod uc e .

9 . D e sc ribe th e a l l ow a bl e v a l ue s of in th e e x p re ssion ( ). W h e n c a n w e d e f ine a f unc tion

( )= ( )? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

If = or = , then the ex p ression ( ) d oes n ot m ake sen se. I f < , then the ex p ression
( ) m akes sen se for som e v al ues of b ut n ot for others, so w e c an n ot d efin e a fun c tion
( )= ( ) if < . T hus, w e c an d efin e the fun c tion ( ) = ( ) if > an d ≠ .

D isc ussion ( 5 m inute s)

Ask student groups to share their responses to Exercise 9 in which they determined which values of 𝑏𝑏 are allowable in
the WhatPower𝑏𝑏 function. By the end of this Discussion, be sure that all groups understand that it is necessary to
restrict 𝑏𝑏 so that either 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1 or 𝑏𝑏 > 1. Then, continue on to rename the WhatPower function to its true name, the
logarithm base 𝑏𝑏.
 What we are calling the “ WhatPower” function is known by the mathematical term logarithm, built from the
Greek word logos ( pronounced lo- gohs) , meaning ratio, and arithmos ( pronounced uh- rith- mohs) , meaning
number. The number 𝑏𝑏 is the base of the logarithm, and we denote the logarithm base 𝑏𝑏 of 𝑥𝑥 ( which means
the power to which we raise 𝑏𝑏 to get 𝑥𝑥) by log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥). That is, whenever you see log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥), think of
WhatPower𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥).

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Discuss the definition shown in the Frayer diagram below. Ask students to articulate the definition in their own words to
a partner and then share some responses. Have students work with a partner to fill in the remaining parts of the
diagram and then share responses as a class. Provide some sample examples and non- examples as needed to illustrate
some of the characteristics of logarithms.

D e f inition of th e L og a rith m B a se Ch a ra c te ristic s

I f th re e num be rs , , a nd w ith < < If > an d > , ( )> .

or > a re re l a te d by = , th e n is If < < an d > , then
th e l og a rith m ba se of , a nd w e w rite ( ) < .
( )= .
L og a rith m
E x a m p le s N on- E x a m p l e s

( )= ( )
( )= − ( )
( . )=− (− )

 What are some examples of logarithms?

log 2 (4) = 2
log 3 (27) = 3
log1 (0.10) = −1
 What are some non- examples?
log (4)
log1 (4)
 Why can’ t 𝑏𝑏 = 0? Why can’ t 𝑏𝑏 = 1?
If there is a number 𝐿𝐿 so that log (4) = 𝐿𝐿, then 0𝐿𝐿 = 4. But there is no number 𝐿𝐿 such that 0𝐿𝐿 is 4,
4 so
this does not make sense. S imilar reasoning can be applied to log1 (4).
 Is log (25) a valid example?
Y es. log (25) = 2 because 52 = 25.
 Is log (−25) a valid example?
N o. There is no number 𝐿𝐿 such that 5𝐿𝐿 = −25. It is impossible to raise a positive base to an exponent
and get a negative value.
 Is log (0) a valid example?
N o. There is no number 𝐿𝐿 such that 5𝐿𝐿 = 0. It is impossible to raise a positive base to an exponent and
get an answer of 0.
 So, what are some characteristics of logarithms?
The base 𝑏𝑏 must be a positive number not equal to 1. The input must also be a positive number. The
output may be any real number (positive, negative, or 0).

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E x a m p l e s ( 4 m inute s)
Lead the class through the computation of the following logarithms. These have all been computed in the Opening
Exercise using the “ WhatPower” terminology.

E x a m p le s

1 . ( )= 2 . ( )=

, b ec ause = , b ec ause =

3 . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _ 4 . ( ) =__ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause = , b ec ause =

5 . ( )=_ _ _ _ _ _ 6 . ( ) =__ _ _ _ _ _

, b ec ause = , b ec ause =

7 . ( . ) =__ _ _ _ _ _ 8 . � � =_ _ _ _ _ _
− , b ec ause −
= .
− , b ec ause −
=

E x e rc ise 1 0 ( 6 m inute s)
Have students complete this exercise alone or in pairs. S caffolding:
 If students are struggling
E x e rc ise 1 0 with notation, give them
1 0 . Com p ute th e v a l ue of e a c h l og a rith m . V e rif y y our a nsw e rs using a n e x p one ntia l sta te m e nt. examples where they
a . ( ) b. ( ) convert between
logarithmic and
( )= b ec ause = . ( )= b ec ause = .
exponential form.
 U se this chart as a visual
c . ( ) d . ( )
support.
( )= b ec ause = . ( )= b ec ause = .
L og a rith m ic E x p one ntia l
F orm F orm
e . ( , , , ) f. ( )

( , , , )= , ( ) = , b ec ause log (64) = 2

b ec ause = , , , . = , , , .

1
g . ( ) h . ( ) 8−2 =
64
( )= b ec ause = . ( )= b ec ause = .
1
log 4 (4) =
3

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i. √ j. ( )

√ = b ec ause =√ . ( )= b ec ause = =

k . √ ( ) l. � �
√
( )= b ec ause √ = . −
√
√ � � = − b ec ause √ = = .
� �

m . ( )
( )= b ec ause ( ) = .

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Ask students to summarize the important parts of the lesson, either in writing, to a partner, or as a class. U se this as an
opportunity to informally assess understanding of the lesson. The following are some important summary elements.

L e sson S um m a ry
 I f th re e num be rs , , a nd a re re l a te d by = , th e n is th e l og arithm b ase of , a nd w e w rite
( ) = . T h a t is, th e v a l ue of th e e x p re ssion ( ) is th e p ow e r of ne e d e d to obta in .
 V a l id v a l ue s of a s a ba se f or a l og a rith m a re < < a nd > .

E x it T ic k e t ( 5 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 8 : T h e “ W h a tP ow e r” F unc tion

E x it T ic k e t

1 . Explain why we need to specify 0 < 𝑏𝑏 < 1 and 𝑏𝑏 > 1 as valid values for the base 𝑏𝑏 in the expression log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥).

2 . Calculate the following logarithms.

a. log (25)

1
b. log1 � �
1

c. log (3)

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . E x p l a in w h y w e ne e d to sp e c if y < < a nd > a s v a l id v a l ue s f or th e ba se in th e e x p re ssion ( ).

If = , then ( )= m ean s that = , w hic h c an n ot b e true if ≠ .

If = , then ( )= m ean s that = , w hic h c an n ot b e true if ≠ .
I f < , then ( ) = m akes sen se for som e b ut n ot al l v al ues of > ; for ex am p l e, if = − an d = ,
there is n o p ow er of − that w oul d p rod uc e , so − ( ) d oes n ot m akes sen se.
T hus, if or = , then for m an y v al ues of , the ex p ression ( ) d oes n ot m ake sen se.

2 . Ca l c ul a te th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s.
a . ( )

( )=

b. � �

� �=−

c . ( )

( )=

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
In this introduction to logarithms, students are only asked to find simple logarithms base 𝑏𝑏 in which the logarithm is an
integer or a simple fraction and the expression can be calculated by inspection.

1 . R e w rite e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing in th e f orm ( )= .

a . = b. −
= c . =

( )= � �=− ( )=

2 . R e w rite e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing in th e f orm ( )= .

a . = b. = , c . =

( )= ( , )= ( )=

3 . R e w rite e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing in th e f orm = .

a . ( )= b. ( . )=− c . =

−
= = . =

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4 . Consid e r th e l og a rith m s ba se . F or e a c h l og a rith m ic e x p re ssion be l ow , e ith e r c a l c ul a te th e v a l ue of th e e x p re ssion

or e x p l a in w h y th e e x p re ssion d oe s not m a k e se nse .
a . ( )

b. ( )

c . √

d . � �

e . ( )
T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that = .

f. �− �

T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that is n eg ativ e.

5 . Consid e r th e l og a rith m s ba se . F or e a c h l og a rith m ic e x p re ssion be l ow , e ith e r c a l c ul a te th e v a l ue of th e e x p re ssion

or e x p l a in w h y th e e x p re ssion d oe s not m a k e se nse .
a . ( )

b. ( )

c . ( )

d . � �

e . ( )
T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that = .

f. �− �

T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that < .

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6 . Consid e r th e l og a rith m s ba se . F or e a c h l og a rith m ic e x p re ssion be l ow , e ith e r c a l c ul a te th e v a l ue of th e e x p re ssion

or e x p l a in w h y th e e x p re ssion d oe s not m a k e se nse .
a . ( )

b. ( )

c . ( )

d . � �

e . ( )

T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that = .

f. �− �

T his d oes n ot m ake sen se. T here is n o v al ue of so that is n eg ativ e.

7 . I s th e re a ny p ositiv e num be r so th a t th e e x p re ssion ( ) m a k e s se nse ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

N o, there is n o v al ue of so that = . I kn ow has to b e a p ositiv e n um b er. A p ositiv e n um b er raised to an

ex p on en t n ev er eq ual s .

8 . I s th e re a ny p ositiv e num be r so th a t th e e x p re ssion (− ) m a k e s se nse ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

N o. Sin c e is p ositiv e, there is n o v al ue of so that is n eg ativ e. A p ositiv e n um b er raised to an ex p on en t n ev er

has a n eg ativ e v al ue.

9 . V e rif y e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing by e v a l ua ting th e l og a rith m s.

a . ( )+ ( )= ( ) b. ( )+ ( )= ( )
+ = + =

c . ( )+ ( )= ( ) d . ( )+ ( )= ( )
+ = + =

1 0 . L ook ing a t th e re sul ts f rom P robl e m 9 , d o y ou notic e a tre nd or p a tte rn? Ca n y ou m a k e a g e ne ra l sta te m e nt a bout
th e v a l ue of ( )+ ( )?

T he sum of tw o l og arithm s of the sam e b ase is foun d b y m ul tip l yin g the in p ut v al ues,
( )+ ( )= ( ). ( N ote to teac her: D o n ot ev al uate this an sw er harshl y. T his is j ust a p rev iew of a
p rop erty that stud en ts l earn l ater in the m od ul e. )

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1 1 . T o e v a l ua te ( ), A utum n re a sone d th a t sinc e ( ) = a nd ( )= , ( ) m ust be th e a v e ra g e of

a nd a nd th e re f ore ( ) = . . U se th e d e f inition of l og a rith m to sh ow th a t ( ) c a nnot be . . W h y is
h e r th ink ing not v a l id ?

Ac c ord in g to the d efin ition of l og arithm , ( ) = . on l y if . = . Ac c ord in g to the c al c ul ator, . ≈ . ,

so ( ) c an n ot b e . . Autum n w as assum in g that the outp uts w oul d fol l ow a l in ear p attern , b ut sin c e the
outp uts are ex p on en ts, the rel ation ship is n ot l in ear.

1 2 . F ind th e v a l ue of e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing .
a . If = ( ) a nd = , f ind th e v a l ue of .

b. If ( ) = , f ind th e v a l ue of .

c . If = a nd = ( ), f ind th e v a l ue of .

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L e sson 9 : L og a rith m s— H ow M a ny D ig its D o Y ou N e e d ?

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students use logarithms to determine how many characters are needed to generate uniq ue identification
numbers in different scenarios.
 Students understand that logarithms are useful when relating the number of digits in a number to the
magnitude of the number and that base 10 logarithms are useful when measuring q uantities that have a wide
range of values such as the magnitude of earthq uakes, volume of sound, and pH levels in chemistry.

L e sson N ote s
In this lesson, students learn that logarithms are useful in a wide variety of situations but have extensive application
when they want to generate a list of uniq ue identifiers for a population of a given size. This application of
logarithms is used in computer programming, when determining how many digits are needed in a phone number to have
enough uniq ue numbers for a population, and more generally, when assigning a scale to any q uantity that has a wide
range of values.
In this lesson, students make sense of a simple scenario and then see how it can be applied to other real- world
situations . They observe and extend patterns to formulate a model. They reason about and make sense of
situations in context and use logarithms to draw conclusions regarding different real- world scenarios.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 2 m inute s)
Remind students that the WhatPower expressions are called logarithms, and announce that they will use logarithms to
help them make sense of and solve some real- world problems.
Students briefly convert two WhatPower expressions into a logarithmic expression and evaluate the result.

O p e ning E x e rc ise

a . E v a l ua te ( ). S ta te y our a nsw e r a s a l og a rith m , a nd e v a l ua te it.

( )=

b. E v a l ua te ( ). S ta te y our a nsw e r a s a l og a rith m , a nd e v a l ua te it.

( )=

If students struggle with these exercises, consider planning for some additional practice on problems like those found in
Lesson 7.

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E x p l ora tory Ch a l l e ng e ( 1 5 m inute s)

Divide students up into small groups, and give them about 1 0 minutes to work through the q uestions that follow. While
circulating around the room, encourage students to be systematic when assigning IDs to the club members. If a group is
stuck, ask q uestions to help move the group along.
 Remember, we only want to use A’ s and B’ s, but two- character IDs only provide enough for four people. Can
you provide an example of a three- character ID using only the letters A and B?
A three-character ID might be ABA or AAA.
 How many different IDs would three characters make? How could you best organize your results?
Three characters would make 8 ID s because I could take the four I already have and add an A or B onto
the end. The best way to organize it is to take the existing two-character ID s and add an A and then
take those existing two-character ID s again and add a B.

E x p l ora tory Ch a l l e ng e

A utum n is sta rting a ne w c l ub w ith e ig h t m e m be rs inc l ud ing h e rse l f . S h e w a nts e v e ry one to h a v e a se c re t id e ntif ic a tion
c od e m a d e up of onl y A ’ s a nd B ’ s. F or e x a m p l e , using tw o c h a ra c te rs, h e r I D c od e c oul d be A A .

a . U sing A ’ s a nd B ’ s, c a n A utum n a ssig n e a c h c l ub m e m be r a uniq ue tw o- c h a ra c te r I D c od e using onl y A ’ s a nd

B ’ s? J ustif y y our a nsw e r. H e re ’ s w h a t A utum n h a s so f a r.

Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e
A utum n A A R obe rt
K ris J il l ia n
T ia B e nj a m in
J im m y S c ott

N o, she c an n ot assig n a un iq ue 2 - c harac ter I D c od e to eac h m em b er. T he on l y c od es av ail ab l e are AA, B A, AB ,

an d B B , an d there are eig ht p eop l e.

b. U sing A ’ s a nd B ’ s, h ow m a ny c h a ra c te rs w oul d be ne e d e d to a ssig n e a c h c l ub m e m be r a uniq ue I D c od e ?

J ustif y y our a nsw e r by sh ow ing th e I D c od e s y ou w oul d a ssig n to e a c h c l ub m e m be r by c om p l e ting th e ta bl e
a bov e ( a d j ust A utum n’ s I D if ne e d e d ) .

Y ou w oul d n eed three c harac ters in eac h I D c od e. A c om p l eted tab l e is show n b el ow . Stud en ts c oul d assig n
on e of the un iq ue c od es to an y c l ub m em b er, so this is n ot the on l y p ossib l e sol ution .

Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e
A utum n AAA R obe rt AAB
K ris B AA J il l ia n B AB
T ia AB A B e nj a m in AB B
J im m y B B A S c ott B B B

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W h e n th e c l ub g re w to m e m be rs, A utum n sta rte d notic ing a p a tte rn.

U sing A ’ s a nd B ’ s:

i. T w o p e op l e c oul d be g iv e n a se c re t I D c od e w ith l e tte r: A a nd B .

ii. F our p e op l e c oul d be g iv e n a se c re t I D c od e w ith l e tte rs: A A , B A , A B , B B .
iii. E ig h t p e op l e c oul d be g iv e n a se c re t I D c od e w ith l e tte rs: A A A , B A A , A B A , B B A , A A B , B A B , A B B , B B B .

c . Com p l e te th e f ol l ow ing sta te m e nt, a nd l ist th e se c re t I D c od e s f or th e p e op l e .

p e op l e c oul d be g iv e n a se c re t I D c od e w ith _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ l e tte rs using A ’ s a nd B ’ s.

p eop l e c oul d b e g iv en a sec ret I D c od e w ith c harac ters. N otic e the orig in al m em b ers hav e their orig in al
three- c harac ter c od e w ith an A ad d ed to the en d . T hen , the n ew er m em b ers hav e the orig in al three- c harac ter
c od es w ith a B ad d ed to the en d .

Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e Cl ub M e m be r N a m e S e c re t I D Cod e
A utum n AAAA G w e n AAAB
K ris B AAA J e rrod B AAB
T ia AB AA M y k e l AB AB
J im m y B B AA J a ne tte B B AB
R obe rt AAB A N e l l ie AAB B
J il l ia n B AB A S e re na B AB B
B e nj a m in AB B A R ic k y AB B B
S c ott B B B A M ia B B B B

d . D e sc ribe th e p a tte rn in w ord s. W h a t ty p e of f unc tion c oul d be use d to m od e l th is p a tte rn?

T he n um b er of p eop l e in the c l ub is a p ow er of . T he n um b er of c harac ters n eed ed to g en erate a un iq ue I D

c od e usin g on l y tw o c harac ters is the ex p on en t of the p ow er of .

( )=
( )=
( )=

( )=
A l og arithm fun c tion c oul d b e used to m od el this p attern . F or p eop l e, you w il l n eed a four- c harac ter I D
c od e b ec ause ( )= .

To debrief this Exploratory Challenge, have different groups explain how they arrived at their solutions. If a group does
not demonstrate an efficient way to organize its answers when the club membership increases, be sure to show it to the
class. For example, the 16 group member ID codes were generated by adding an A onto the end of the original 8 ID
codes and then adding a B onto the end of the original 8 ID codes, as shown in the solutions above.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 2 ( 3 m inute s)
Give students a few minutes to answer these q uestions individually or in groups. Check to see if students are using
logarithms when they explain their solutions. If they are not, be sure to review the answers with the entire class using
logarithm notation.

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E x e rc ise s 1 – 2

I n th e p re v ious p robl e m s, th e l e tte rs A a nd B w e re l ik e th e d ig its in a num be r. A f our- d ig it I D c od e f or A utum n’ s c l ub

c oul d be a ny f our- l e tte r a rra ng e m e nt of A ’ s a nd B ’ s be c a use in h e r I D sy ste m , th e onl y d ig its a re th e l e tte rs A a nd B .

1 . W h e n A utum n’ s c l ub g row s to inc l ud e m ore th a n p e op l e , sh e w il l ne e d f iv e d ig its to a ssig n a uniq ue I D c od e to

e a c h c l ub m e m be r. W h a t is th e m a x im um num be r of p e op l e th a t c oul d be in th e c l ub be f ore sh e ne e d s to sw itc h to
a six - d ig it I D c od e ? E x p l a in y our re a soning .

Sin c e ( )= an d ( ) = , she w il l n eed to sw itc h to a six - d ig it I D c od e w hen the c l ub g row s to m ore

than m em b ers.

2 . I f A utum n h a s m e m be rs in h e r c l ub, h ow m a ny d ig its w oul d sh e ne e d to a ssig n e a c h c l ub m e m be r a uniq ue I D

c od e using onl y A ’ s a nd B ’ s? S h ow h ow y ou g ot y our a nsw e rs.

She w il l n eed d ig its b ec ause ( )= .

D isc ussion ( 1 0 m inute s)

Computers store keyboard characters, such as 1 , 5 , X , x, Q , @ , /, and & , using an
S caffolding:
identification system much like Autumn’ s system called ASCII, which stands for American
U se a word wall or a chart to
Standard Code for Information Interchange. The acronym ASCII is pronounced as “ as-
provide a visual reference for
kee. ” Each character in a font list on the computer is given an ID code that a computer can
English language learners using
recognize. A computer is essentially a lot of electrical switches, which can be in one of two
the academic terms related to
states, ON or OFF, just like Autumn’ s A’ s and B’ s.
computers.
There are usually 256 characters in a font list, so using the solution to Exercise 2 , a A S CI I ( American Standard Code
computer needs eight positions or digits to encode each character in a font list. for Information Exchange,
 For example, the standard ASCII code for uppercase P is 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 . If A is zero acronym pronounced “ as- kee” )
and B is 1 , how would uppercase P be encoded using Autumn’ s system? B it ( one of eight positions in a
U sing A’s and B’s in Autumn’s code, this would be ABABAAAA. byte)
 How would the computer read this code? B y te ( a uniq ue eight- character
The computer reads the code as “ on, off, on, off, on, on, on, on.” identifier for each ASCII symbol
in font list)
If time permits, a q uick Internet search for the term AS CII returns Web pages where the
standard code for different keyboard symbols can be viewed. Each character in an ASCII
code is called a bit, and an entire 8- character code is called a byte. Each byte is made up S caffolding:
of eight bits, and each byte describes a uniq ue character in the font list such as a P, p, % , _ , Ask advanced learners to
4 , etc. q uickly estimate how many
 When a computer saves a basic text document and reports that it contains digits would be needed to
3,242 bytes, what do you think that means? generate ID numbers for the
It means that there are 3,242 letters, symbols, spaces, punctuation number of students enrolled in
marks, etc., in the document. the school or in the school
district. For example, a school
Students have seen how to create uniq ue ID codes using two letters for both Autumn’ s district with more than 10,000
secret club and to encode text characters in a way that is readable by a computer using students would need at least a
ASCII code. Next, they examine why a logarithm really is the right operation to describe five- digit ID number.
the number of characters or digits needed to create uniq ue identifiers for people by
exploring some real- world situations where people are assigned a number.

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E x a m p l e ( 5 m inute s)
This is a simplified example that uses base- 10 logarithms because students are going to be assigning ID numbers using
the digits 0–9. Give students a few minutes to think about the answer to the prompt in the Example, and have them
discuss their ideas with a partner. Most students will likely say to assign 0 to the first person, assign 1 to the second
person, and so on up to the 1000th person. Be sure to tie the solution to logarithms. Since there are 10 symbols ( digits) ,
log1 (1000) = 3 can be used to find the answer, which just counts the number of digits needed to count to 999.
 How can a logarithm help you determine the solution q uickly?
The logarithm counts the number of digits needed because each time we add another digit to our
numbers, we are increasing by a factor of 10. For example, 1 = 10 , 10 = 101 , 100 = 102 , etc.

E x a m p le

A th ousa nd p e op l e a re g iv e n uniq ue id e ntif ie rs m a d e up of th e d ig its , , , … , . H ow m a ny d ig its w oul d be ne e d e d f or

e a c h I D num be r?

Y ou w oul d j ust n eed three d ig its: { , , ,…, , , ,…, , }.

U sing logarithms, it is necessary to determine the value of log(1000), which is 3. This q uickly tells the number of digits
needed to uniq uely identify any range of numbers. Follow up by asking students to extend their thinking.
 When would you need to switch from four to five digits to assign uniq ue numbers to a population?
Y ou could assign up to 104 people a four-digit ID number, which would be 10,000 people. Once you
exceeded that number, you would need five digits to assign each person a unique number.

E x e rc ise s 3 – 4 ( 5 m inute s)
Students should return to their small groups to work these exercises. Have different groups present their solutions to
the whole class after a few minutes. Discuss different approaches, and make sure that students see the power of using a
logarithm to help them q uickly solve or justify a solution to the problem.

E x e rc ise s 3 – 4

3 . T h e re a re a p p rox im a te l y m il l ion p e op l e in th e U nite d S ta te s. Com p ute a nd use ( ) a nd

( ) to e x p l a in w h y S oc ia l S e c urity num be rs a re d ig its l ong .

W e kn ow that ( ) = , w hic h is the n um b er of d ig its n eed ed to assig n an I D n um b er to m il l ion

p eop l e. W e kn ow that ( ) = , w hic h is the n um b er of d ig its n eed ed to assig n an I D n um b er to
b il l ion p eop l e. T he U n ited States g ov ern m en t w il l n ot n eed to in c rease the n um b er of d ig its in a Soc ial Sec urity
n um b er un til the U n ited States p op ul ation reac hes on e b il l ion .

4 . T h e re a re m a ny m ore te l e p h one s th a n th e num be r of p e op l e in th e U nite d S ta te s be c a use of p e op l e h a v ing h om e

p h one s, c e l l p h one s, busine ss p h one s, f a x num be rs, e tc . A ssum ing w e ne e d a t m ost bil l ion p h one num be rs in
th e U nite d S ta te s, h ow m a ny d ig its w oul d be ne e d e d so th a t e a c h p h one num be r is uniq ue ? I s th is re a sona bl e ?
E x p l a in.

Sin c e ( ) = , you w oul d n eed a ten - d ig it p hon e n um b er in ord er to hav e ten b il l ion un iq ue
n um b ers. P hon e n um b ers in the U n ited States are d ig its l on g . I f you d iv id e b il l ion b y m il l ion ( the
n um b er of p eop l e in the U n ited States) , that w oul d al l ow for ap p rox im atel y p hon e n um b ers p er p erson . T hat is
p l en ty of n um b ers for in d iv id ual s to hav e m ore than on e n um b er, l eav in g m an y ad d ition al n um b ers for b usin esses
an d the g ov ern m en t.

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Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Ask students to respond to the following statements in writing or with a partner. Share a few answers to close the
lesson before students begin the Exit Ticket. Preview other situations where logarithms are useful, such as the Richter
scale for measuring the magnitude of an earthq uake.
 To increase the value of log 2 (𝑥𝑥) by 1, you would multiply 𝑥𝑥 by 2. To increase the value of log1 (𝑥𝑥) by 1, you
would multiply 𝑥𝑥 by 10. How does this idea apply to the situations in today’ s lesson?
W e saw that each time the population of Autumn’s club doubled, we needed to increase the total
number of digits needed for the ID numbers by 1. W e saw that since the population of the U nited
S tates was between 100 million and 1 billion, we only needed 9 digits (log(1000000000)
( ) to generate
a S ocial S ecurity number.
 Situations like the ones in today’ s lesson can be modeled with logarithms. Can you think of a situation besides
the ones we discussed today where it would make sense to use logarithms?
Any time a measurement can take on a wide range of values, such as the magnitude of an earthquake
or the volume level of sound (measured in decibels), a logarithm could be used to model the situation.

E x it T ic k e t ( 3 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 9 : L og a rith m s— H ow M a ny D ig its D o Y ou N e e d ?

E x it T ic k e t

A brand- new school district needs to generate ID numbers for its student body. The district anticipates a total
enrollment of 75,000 students within the next ten years. Will a five- digit ID number using the symbols 0, 1, … , 9 be
enough? Explain your reasoning.

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

A bra nd - ne w sc h ool d istric t ne e d s to g e ne ra te I D num be rs f or its stud e nt bod y . T h e d istric t a ntic ip a te s a tota l e nrol l m e nt
of , stud e nts w ith in th e ne x t te n y e a rs. W il l a f iv e - d ig it I D num be r using th e sy m bol s , , … , be e noug h ?
E x p l a in y our re a soning .
( ) = an d ( ) = , so d ig its shoul d b e en oug h. H ow ev er, stud en ts w ho en ter sc hool at the
kin d erg arten l ev el in the ten th year of this n um b erin g sc hem e w oul d n eed to keep their I D s for years. D iv id in g
, b y show s there w oul d b e roug hl y , stud en ts p er g rad e. Ad d in g that m an y stud en ts p er year w oul d take
the n um b er of n eed ed I D s at an y on e tim e ov er , in j ust a few m ore years. T he d istric t shoul d p rob ab l y use a six -
d ig it I D n um b er.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . T h e stud e nt bod y p re sid e nt ne e d s to a ssig n e a c h of f ic ia l l y sa nc tione d c l ub on c a m p us a uniq ue I D c od e f or p urp ose s

of tra c k ing e x p e nse s a nd a c tiv itie s. S h e d e c id e s to use th e l e tte rs A , B , a nd C to c re a te a uniq ue th re e - c h a ra c te r
c od e f or e a c h c l ub.
a . H ow m a ny c l ubs c a n be a ssig ne d a uniq ue I D c od e a c c ord ing to th is p rop osa l ?

Sin c e ( ) = , the p resid en t c oul d assig n c od es to c l ub s ac c ord in g to this p rop osal .

b. T h e re a re a c tua l l y ov e r c l ubs on c a m p us. A ssum ing th e stud e nt bod y p re sid e nt stil l w a nts to use th e
l e tte rs A , B , a nd C, h ow m a ny c h a ra c te rs w oul d be ne e d e d to g e ne ra te a uniq ue I D c od e f or e a c h c l ub?

W e n eed to estim ate ( ). Sin c e = an d = , she c oul d use a six - c harac ter c om b in ation
of l etters an d hav e en oug h un iq ue I D s for up to c l ub s.

2 . Ca n y ou use th e num be rs , , , a nd in a c om bina tion of f our d ig its to a ssig n a uniq ue I D c od e to e a c h of

p e op l e ? E x p l a in y our re a soning .
( )=
( )=
( )=
( )=
( )=

N o. Y ou w oul d n eed to use a fiv e- d ig it I D c od e usin g c om b in ation s of ' s, ' s, ' s, an d ' s suc h as or ,
or you c oul d use the n um b ers to in four c harac ters suc h as , , , , , etc . , b ec ause
( )= .

3 . A utom obil e l ic e nse p l a te s ty p ic a l l y h a v e a c om bina tion of l e tte rs ( ) a nd num be rs ( ) . O v e r tim e , th e sta te of

N e w Y ork h a s use d d if f e re nt c rite ria to a ssig n v e h ic l e l ic e nse p l a te num be rs.
a . F rom 1 9 7 3 to 1 9 8 6 , th e sta te use d a - l e tte r a nd - num be r c od e w h e re th e th re e l e tte rs ind ic a te d th e c ounty
w h e re th e v e h ic l e w a s re g iste re d . E sse x County h a d d if f e re nt - l e tte r c od e s in use . H ow m a ny c a rs c oul d
be re g iste re d to th is c ounty ?

Sin c e ( ) = , the - d ig it c od e c oul d b e used to reg ister up to , v ehic l es. Mul tip l y that b y
d ifferen t c oun ty c od es, an d up to , v ehic l es c oul d b e reg istered in Essex C oun ty.

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b. S inc e 2 0 0 1 , th e sta te h a s use d a - l e tte r a nd - num be r c od e but no l ong e r a ssig ns l e tte rs by c ounty . I s th is
c od ing sc h e m e e noug h to re g iste r m il l ion v e h ic l e s?

Sin c e ( ) = w hen = = , , there are , three- l etter c od es. Sin c e ( )= ,

there are , four- d ig it c od es. Mul tip l y , = , , , an d w e see that this sc hem e
g en erates ov er m il l ion l ic en se p l ate n um b ers.

4 . T h e R ic h te r sc a l e use s ba se l og a rith m s to a ssig n a m a g nitud e to a n e a rth q ua k e ba se d on th e a m ount of f orc e

re l e a se d a t th e e a rth q ua k e ’ s sourc e a s m e a sure d by se ism og ra p h s in v a rious l oc a tions.
a . E x p l a in th e d if f e re nc e be tw e e n a n e a rth q ua k e th a t is a ssig ne d a m a g nitud e of v e rsus one a ssig ne d a
m a g nitud e of .

T he d ifferen c e b etw een an d is , so a m ag n itud e of w oul d b e , or , tim es g reater forc e.

b. A n e a rth q ua k e w ith m a g nitud e c a n usua l l y onl y be f e l t by p e op l e l oc a te d ne a r th e e a rth q ua k e ’ s orig in,

c a l l e d its ep ic en ter. T h e strong e st e a rth q ua k e on re c ord oc c urre d in Ch il e in 1 9 6 0 w ith m a g nitud e . . H ow
m a ny tim e s strong e r is th e f orc e of a n e a rth q ua k e w ith m a g nitud e . th a n th e f orc e of a n e a rth q ua k e w ith
m a g nitud e ?

T he d ifferen c e b etw een an d . is . , so it w oul d b e ab out .

tim es the forc e. T his is ap p rox im atel y
m il l ion tim es g reater forc e.

c . W h a t is th e m a g nitud e of a n e a rth q ua k e w h ose f orc e is , tim e s g re a te r th a n a m a g nitud e . q ua k e ?

Sin c e = , the m ag n itud e w oul d b e the sum of . an d , w hic h is . .

5 . S ound p re ssure l e v e l is m e a sure d in d e c ibe l s ( d B ) a c c ord ing to th e f orm ul a = � �, w h e re is th e inte nsity

of th e sound a nd is a re f e re nc e inte nsity th a t c orre sp ond s to a ba re l y p e rc e p tibl e sound .
a . E x p l a in w h y th is f orm ul a w oul d a ssig n d e c ibe l s to a ba re l y p e rc e p tibl e sound .

I f w e l et = , then

= � �

= ( )
=
= .

T herefore, the referen c e in ten sity is al w ays .

b. D e c ibe l l e v e l s a bov e c a n be p a inf ul to h um a ns. W h a t w oul d be th e inte nsity th a t c orre sp ond s to th is

le v e l?

= � �

= � �

F rom this eq uation , w e c an see that the in ten sity is ab out , , , , tim es g reater than b arel y
p erc ep tib l e soun d .

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L e sson 1 0 : B uil d ing L og a rith m ic T a bl e s

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students construct a table of logarithms base 10 and observe patterns that indicate properties of logarithms.

L e sson N ote s
In the previous lesson, students were introduced to the concept off the logarithm by finding the power to which it is
necessary to raise a base 𝑏𝑏 in order to produce a given number, which was originally called the WhatPower𝑏𝑏 function.
In this lesson and the next, students build their own base- 10 logarithm tables using their calculators. By taking the time
to construct the table themselves ( as opposed to being handed a pre- prepared table) , students have a better
opportunity to observe patterns in the table and practice . These observed
patterns lead to formal statements of the properties off logarithms in upcoming lessons.

To answer some of the q uestions in this and subseq uent lessons, students need an intuitive understanding that
logarithmic functions with base 𝑏𝑏 > 1 always increase; this idea is made explicit in Lesson 1 7 when key features of the
graphs of logarithmic functions are explored. The increasing nature of a logarithmic function with base 𝑏𝑏 > 1 is a direct
conseq uence of the inverse relationship between a logarithmic function and the corresponding exponential function. At
this point in the module, students need to understand that since log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) is the power to which the base 𝑏𝑏 is raised to
get 𝑥𝑥, then for values of 𝑏𝑏 greater than 1, if the value of 𝑥𝑥 is increased, then the value of log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) also increases. In
Exercises 1 –4 of this lesson, students need to work with this property of logarithmic functions when they sq ueeze the
value of log(30) first between consecutive integers and then between consecutive numbers to the tenths and then the
hundredths place. Ensure that students understand this property: Because 101 < 30 < 102 , it is known that
log(101 ) < log(30) < log(102 ), which means that 1 < log(30) < 2.

M a te ria l s N e e d e d
Students need access to a calculator or other technological tool able to compute exponents and logarithms base 10.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 3 m inute s)
In this q uick Opening Exercise, students are asked to recall the WhatPower𝑏𝑏 function
S caffolding:
from the previous lesson and the fact that the logarithm base 𝑏𝑏 is the formal name of the
WhatPower𝑏𝑏 function is reinforced. Only base- 10 logarithms are considered in this lesson Prompt struggling students to
as the table is constructed, so this Opening Exercise is constrained to base- 10 calculations. restate the logarithmic
eq uation log1 (103 ) = 𝑥𝑥 first
At the end of this exercise, announce to students that the notation log(𝑥𝑥) without the as the eq uation
little 𝑏𝑏 in the subscript means log1 (𝑥𝑥). This is called the common logarithm. WhatPower1 (103 ) = 𝑥𝑥 and
then as the exponential
eq uation 10 = 103 .

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O p e ning E x e rc ise

F ind th e v a l ue of th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions w ith out using a c a l c ul a tor.

( ) = ( ) =

( ) = ( ) =

( ) = ( ) =

( ) = ( ) =

� � =− � � =−

� � =− � � =−

F orm ul a te a rul e ba se d on y our re sul ts a bov e : I f is a n inte g e r, th e n ( ) = _________.

( )=

E x a m p l e 1 ( 6 m inute s)
In this example, students get their first glimpse of the property log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) + log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑦𝑦). Be careful not to give
this formula away; by the end of the next lesson, students should have discovered it for themselves.
 Suppose that you are an astronomer, and you measure the distance to a star as 100,000,000,000,000 miles.
A second star is collinear with the first star and Earth and is 1,000,000 times farther away from Earth than the
first star is. How many miles is the second star from Earth? Note: The figure is not to scale.

E x a m p le 1

1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 times farther away

1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 Miles

(100,000,000,000,000)(1,000,000) = 100,000,000,000,000,000,000, so the second star is 100

quintillion miles away from Earth.
 How did you arrive at that figure?
I counted the zeros; there are 14 zeros in 100,000,000,000,000 and 6 zeros in 1,000,000, so there
must be 20 zeros in the product.
 Can we restate that in terms of exponents?
(1014 )(10 ) = 102
 How are the exponents related?
14 + 6 = 20

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 What are log(1014 ), log(10 ), and log(102 )?

6 and 20
14 6,
14,
 In this case, can we state an eq uivalent expression for log(1014 10 )?
log(1014 10 ) = log(1014 ) + log(10 )
 Why is this eq uation true?
log(1014 10 ) = log(102 ) = 20 = 14 + 6 = log(1014 ) + log(10 )
 Generalize to find an eq uivalent expression for log(10 10𝑛𝑛 ) for integers and 𝑛𝑛. Why is this eq uation
true?
log(10 10𝑛𝑛 ) = log(10 𝑛𝑛 )
= + 𝑛𝑛 = log(10 ) + log(10𝑛𝑛 )
This equation is true because when we multiply powers of 10 together, the resulting product is a power
of 10 whose exponent is the sum of the exponents of the factors.
 Keep this result in mind as we progress through the lesson.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 6 ( 8 m inute s)
Historically, logarithms were calculated using tables because there were no calculators or computers to do the work.
Every scientist and mathematician kept a book of logarithmic tables on hand to use for calculation. It is very easy to find
the value of a base- 10 logarithm for a number that is a power of 10, but what about for the other numbers? In this
exercise, students find an approximate value of log(30) using exponentiation, the same way log 2 (10) was
approximated in Lesson 6. After this exercise, students rely on the logarithm button on the calculator to compute base-
10 logarithms for the remainder of this lesson. Emphasize to students that logarithms are generally irrational numbers,
so the results produced by the calculator are only decimal approximations. As such, care should be taken to use the
approximation symbol, ≈, when writing out a decimal expansion of a logarithm.

E x e rc ise s

1 . F ind tw o c onse c utiv e p ow e rs of so th a t is be tw e e n th e m . T h a t is, f ind a n inte g e r e x p one nt so th a t

< < .

Sin c e < < , w e hav e = .

2 . F rom y our re sul t in E x e rc ise 1 , ( ) is be tw e e n w h ic h tw o inte g e rs?

Sin c e is som e p ow er of b etw een an d , < ( )< .

3 . F ind a num be r to one d e c im a l p l a c e so th a t < < .

, a nd use th a t to f ind und e r a nd ov e r e stim a te s
f or ( ).

Sin c e .
≈ . an d .
≈ . , w e hav e .
< < .
. T hen . < ( ) < . , an d
≈ . .

4 . F ind a num be r to tw o d e c im a l p l a c e s so th a t < < .

, a nd use th a t to f ind und e r a nd ov e r e stim a te s
f or ( ).

Sin c e .
≈ . , an d .
≈ . , w e hav e .
< < .
so that . < ( )< . .
So, ≈ . .

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5 . R e p e a t th is p roc e ss to a p p rox im a te th e v a l ue of ( ) to d e c im a l p l a c e s.

Sin c e .
≈ . , an d .
≈ . , w e hav e .
< < .
so that
. < ( )< . .

Sin c e .
≈ . , an d .
≈ . , w e hav e .
< < .
so that
. < ( )< . .

Sin c e .
≈ . , an d .
≈ . , w e hav e .
< < .
so that
. < ( )< . .

T hus, to four d ec im al p l ac es, ( )≈ . .

6 . V e rif y y our re sul t on y our c a l c ul a tor, using th e L O G button.

T he c al c ul ator g iv es ( )≈ . .

D isc ussion ( 1 m inute )

In the next exercises, students use their calculators to create a table of logarithms that they analyze to look for patterns
that lead to the discovery
scovery of the logarithmic properties. The process off identifying and generalizing the observed
patterns provides students with an opportunity to practice .
 Historically, since there were no calculators or computers, logarithms were calculated using a complicated
algorithm involving multiple sq uare roots. Thankfully, we have calculators and computers to do this work for
us now.
 We will use our calculators to create a table of values of base- 10 logarithms. Once the table is made, see what
patterns you can observe.

E x e rc ise s 7 – 1 0 ( 6 m inute s)
Put students in pairs or small groups, but have students work individually to complete the table in Exercise 7. Before
working on Exercises 8–1 0 in groups, have students check their tables against each other. It may be necessary to remind
students that log(𝑥𝑥) means log1 (𝑥𝑥).

7 . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to c om p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e . R ound th e l og a rith m s to d e c im a l p l a c e s.

( ) ( ) ( )

. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .
. . .

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8 . W h a t p a tte rn( s) c a n y ou se e in th e ta bl e f rom E x e rc ise 7 a s is m ul tip l ie d by ? W rite th e p a tte rn( s) using

l og a rith m ic nota tion.

I foun d the p attern s ( )= + ( ) an d ( )= + ( ). I al so n otic ed that

( )= + ( ).

9 . W h a t p a tte rn w oul d y ou e x p e c t to f ind f or ( )? M a k e a c onj e c ture , a nd te st it to se e w h e th e r or not it

a p p e a rs to be v a l id .

I w oul d g uess that the v al ues of ( ) w il l al l start w ith . T hat is, ( )= + ( ). T his ap p ears
to b e the c ase sin c e ( )≈ . , ( )≈ . , an d ( )≈ . .

1 0 . U se y our re sul ts f rom E x e rc ise s 8 a nd 9 to m a k e a c onj e c ture a bout th e v a l ue of ( ) f or a ny p ositiv e inte g e r

.

I t ap p ears that ( )= + ( ), for an y p ositiv e in teg er .

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

Ask groups to share the patterns they observed in Exercise 8 and the conjectures they made in Exercises 9 and 1 0 .
Ensure that all students have the correct conjectures recorded in their notebooks or journals before continuing to the
next set of exercises, which extend the result from Exercise 1 0 to all integers 𝑘𝑘 ( and not just positive values of 𝑘𝑘) .

E x e rc ise s 1 1 – 1 4 ( 8 m inute s)
In this set of exercises, students discover a rule for calculating logarithms of the form S caffolding:
log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥), where 𝑘𝑘 is any integer. Have students again work individually to complete If students are having
the table in Exercise 1 1 and to check their tables against each other before they proceed difficulty seeing the pattern in
to discuss and answer Exercises 1 2 –1 4 in groups. the table for Exercise 1 2 ,
nudge them to add together
𝑥𝑥
1 1 . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to c om p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e . R ound th e l og a rith m s to d e c im a l log(𝑥𝑥) and log � � for some
10
p l a c e s. values of 𝑥𝑥 in the table.
( ) ( ) ( )
. − . −
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .
. . − . . − .

1 2 . W h a t p a tte rn( s) c a n y ou se e in th e ta bl e f rom E x e rc ise 1 1 ? W rite th e m using l og a rith m ic nota tion.

I foun d the p attern s ( )− � � = , w hic h c an b e w ritten as � �=− + ( ), an d

� �=− + ( ).

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1 3 . W h a t p a tte rn w oul d y ou e x p e c t to f ind f or � �? M a k e a c onj e c ture , a nd te st it to se e w h e th e r or not it

a p p e a rs to be v a l id .

I w oul d g uess that the v al ues of � � w il l al l start w ith − an d that � �=− + ( ). T his
ap p ears to b e the c ase sin c e ( . )≈− . , an d − . =− + . ; ( . )≈− . ,
an d − . =− + . ; ( . )≈− . , an d − . =− + . .

1 4 . Com bine y our re sul ts f rom E x e rc ise s 1 0 a nd 1 2 to m a k e a c onj e c ture a bout th e v a l ue of th e l og a rith m f or a m ul tip l e
of a p ow e r of ; th a t is, f ind a f orm ul a f or ( ) f or a ny inte g e r .

I t ap p ears that ( )= + ( ), for an y in teg er .

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Ask groups to share the patterns they observed in Exercise 1 2 and the conjectures they made in Exercises 1 3 and 1 4 with
the class. Ensure that all students have the correct conjectures recorded in their notebooks or journals before
continuing to the next example.

E x a m p l e s 2 – 3 ( 2 m inute s)
Lead the class through these calculations. Consider letting them work on Example 3 either alone or in groups after
leading them through Example 2 .

Example 2
U se the logarithm tables and the rules that have been discovered to calculate log(40000) to 4 decimal places.
log(40000) = log(104 4)
= 4 + log(4)
≈ 4.6021
Example 3
U se the logarithm tables and the rules that have been discovered to calculate log(0.000004) to 4 decimal places.
log(0.000004) = log(10− 4)
= −6 + log(4)
≈ −5.3979

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Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Ask students to summarize the important parts of the lesson, either in writing, to a partner, or as a class. U se this as an
opportunity to informally assess understanding of the lesson. The following are some important summary elements:

L e sson S um m a ry
 T h e nota tion ( ) is use d to re p re se nt ( ).
 F or inte g e rs , ( )= .
 F or inte g e rs a nd , ( )= ( )+ ( ).
 F or inte g e rs a nd p ositiv e re a l num be rs , ( )= + ( ).

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 0 : B uil d ing L og a rith m ic T a bl e s

E x it T ic k e t

1 . U se the logarithm table below to approximate the specified logarithms to four decimal places. Do not use a
calculator.

( ) ( )
1 0.0000 6 0.7782
2 0.3010 7 0.8451
3 0.4771 8 0.9031
4 0.6021 9 0.9542
5 0.6990 10 1.0000

a. log(500)

b. log(0.0005)

2 . Suppose that 𝐴𝐴 is a number with log(𝐴𝐴) = 1.352.

a. What is the value of log(1000𝐴𝐴)?

b. Which one of the following statements is true? Explain how you know.
i. 𝐴𝐴 < 0
ii. 0 < 𝐴𝐴 < 10
iii. 10 < 𝐴𝐴 < 100
iv. 100 < 𝐴𝐴 < 1000
v. 𝐴𝐴 > 1000

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . U se th e l og a rith m ta bl e be l ow to a p p rox im a te th e sp e c if ie d l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s. D o not use a

c a l c ul a tor.

( ) ( )
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .

a . ( )
( )= ( )
= + ( )
≈ .

b. ( . )
( . )= ( − )
=− + ( )
≈− .

2 . S up p ose th a t is a num be r w ith ( )= . .

a . W h a t is th e v a l ue of ( )?

( )= ( )= + ( )= .

b. W h ic h one of th e f ol l ow ing sta te m e nts is true ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

i. <
ii. < <
iii. < <
iv . < <
v . >

B ec ause ( )= . = + . , is g reater than an d l ess than . T hus, ( iii) is true. I n fac t,

from the tab l e ab ov e, w e c an see that is b etw een an d b ec ause ( )≈ . , an d
( )≈ . .

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P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
These problems should be solved without a calculator.

1 . Com p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e of l og a rith m s w ith out using a c a l c ul a tor; th e n, a nsw e r th e q ue stions th a t f ol l ow .

( ) ( )
, , . −
, . −
, . −
. −
. −
. −

a . W h a t is ( )? H ow d oe s th a t f ol l ow f rom th e d e f inition of a ba se - l og a rith m ?

Sin c e = , w e kn ow that ( )= .

b. W h a t is ( ) f or a n inte g e r ? H ow d oe s th a t f ol l ow f rom th e d e f inition of a ba se - l og a rith m ?

B y the d efin ition of the l og arithm , w e kn ow that ( )= .

c . W h a t h a p p e ns to th e v a l ue of ( )a s g e ts re a l l y l a rg e ?

F or an y > , there ex ists > so that < . As g ets real l y l arg e, g ets l arg e. Sin c e
( ) < + , as g ets l arg e, ( ) g ets l arg e.

d . F or > , w h a t h a p p e ns to th e v a l ue of ( )a s g e ts re a l l y c l ose to z e ro?

F or an y < < , there ex ists > so that − < − . T hen − < − + . As g ets c l oser
to z ero, g ets l arg er. T hus, ( ) is n eg ativ e, an d | ( )| g ets l arg e as the p ositiv e n um b er g ets c l ose to
z ero.

2 . U se th e ta bl e of l og a rith m s be l ow to e stim a te th e v a l ue s of th e l og a rith m s in p a rts ( a ) – ( h ) .

( )
.
.
.
.
.
.

a . ( ) b. ( . )

. − .

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c . ( ) d . ( . )

. − .

e . ( ) f. ( )
. .

g . ( . ) h . ( )
− . .

3 . If ( ) = . , f ind th e v a l ue of ( ).
( )= .

4 . If is a p ositiv e inte g e r a nd ( ) ≈ . , h ow m a ny d ig its a re th e re in ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

Sin c e < ( ) < , w e kn ow , < < , ; therefore, has d ig its.

5 . If is a p ositiv e inte g e r a nd ( ) ≈ . , h ow m a ny d ig its a re th e re in ? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

Sin c e < ( )< , w e kn ow < < ; therefore, has d ig its.

6 . V iv ia n sa y s ( )= + ( . ), w h il e h e r siste r L il l ia n sa y s th a t ( )= + ( . ).
W h ic h siste r is c orre c t? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

B oth sisters are c orrec t. Sin c e , = . , w e c an w rite ( )= + ( . ). H ow ev er, w e

c oul d al so w rite , = . , so ( )= + ( . ). B oth c al c ul ation s g iv e
( , )≈ . .

7 . W rite th e ba se - l og a rith m of e a c h num be r in th e f orm + ( ), w h e re is th e e x p one nt f rom th e sc ie ntif ic

nota tion, a nd is a p ositiv e re a l num be r.
a . . ×
+ ( . )

b. . ×
+ ( . )

c . . × −

− + ( . )

8 . F or e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing sta te m e nts, w rite th e num be r in sc ie ntif ic nota tion, a nd th e n w rite th e l og a rith m ba se
of th a t num be r in th e f orm + ( ), w h e re is th e e x p one nt f rom th e sc ie ntif ic nota tion, a nd is a p ositiv e re a l
num be r.
a . T h e sp e e d of sound is / .

= . × , so ( )= + ( . ).

b. T h e d ista nc e f rom E a rth to th e sun is m il l ion m il e s.

, , = . × , so ( )= + ( . ).

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c . T h e sp e e d of l ig h t is , , , / .

, , , = . × , so ( , , , )= + ( . ).

d . T h e w e ig h t of E a rth is , , , , , , , , .

, , , , , , , , = . × , so
( , , , , , , , , )= + ( . ).

e . T h e d ia m e te r of th e nuc l e us of a h y d rog e n a tom is . .

. = . × −
, so ( . )=− + ( . ).

f. F or e a c h p a rt ( a ) – ( e ) , y ou h a v e w ritte n e a c h l og a rith m in th e f orm + ( ), f or inte g e rs a nd p ositiv e re a l

num be rs . U se a c a l c ul a tor to f ind th e v a l ue s of th e e x p re ssions ( ). W h y a re a l l of th e se v a l ue s
be tw e e n a nd ?
( . )≈ .
( . )≈ .
( . )≈ .
( . )≈ .
( . )≈ .

T hese v al ues are al l b etw een an d b ec ause is b etw een an d . W e c an rew rite < < as
< < . I f w e w rite = for som e ex p on en t , then < < , so < < . T his
ex p on en t is the b ase l og arithm of .

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L e sson 1 1 : T h e M ost I m p orta nt P rop e rty of L og a rith m s

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students construct a table of logarithms base 10 and observe patterns that indicate properties of logarithms.

L e sson N ote s
In the previous lesson, students discovered that for logarithms base 10, log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 + log(𝑥𝑥). In this lesson, this
result is extended to develop the most important property of logarithms: log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦). Additionally,
1
students discover the reciprocal property of logarithms: log � � = −log(𝑥𝑥). Students continue to hone their skills at
𝑥𝑥
observing and generalizing patterns in this lesson as they create tables of logarithms and observe patterns .
In the next lesson, these logarithmic properties are formalized and generalized for any base, but for this lesson
the focus is solely on logarithms base 10. U nderstanding deeply the properties of logarithms helps prepare students
to rewrite expressions based on their structure, solve exponential eq uations, and interpret transformations of
graphs of logarithmic functions.

M a te ria l s N e e d e d
Students need access to a calculator or other technological tool able to compute exponents and logarithms base 1 0 .

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning ( 1 m inute )
In the previous lesson, students discovered the logarithmic property log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 + log(𝑥𝑥), which is a special case of
the additive property log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦) that they discover today. The Opening Exercise reminds students of
how they can use this property to compute logarithms of numbers not in the table. By the end of today’ s lesson,
students are able to calculate any logarithm base 10 using just a table of values of log(𝑥𝑥) for prime integers 𝑥𝑥. The only
times in this lesson that calculators should be used is to create the tables in Exercises 1 and 6. Remind students that
logarithm tables contain only approximations of the precise values of logarithms, which are generally irrational numbers.

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O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 4 m inute s)

Students should complete this exercise without the use of a calculator.

O p e ning E x e rc ise

U se th e l og a rith m ta bl e be l ow to c a l c ul a te th e sp e c if ie d l og a rith m s.
S caffolding:
( )  Consider modeling the
decomposition of 80 with the
. whole class before students
. start the Opening Exercise.
. log(80) = log(10 8)
. = log(10) + log(8)
. = 1 + log(8)
.  Ask advanced students to write
. an expression for log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥)
.
independently.

a . ( )
( )= ( )= + ( )≈ .

b. ( )
( )= ( )= + ( )≈ .

c . ( . )
( . )= ( − )=− + ( )≈− .

d . ( . × )
( . × )= ( )= + ( )≈ .

e . ( . × ) f or a n inte g e r

( . × )= ( )= + ( )≈ + .

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

U se this Discussion to review the formulas discovered in the previous lesson. In the next set of exercises, students use
tables of logarithms to discover some other interesting properties of logarithms.
In the next set of exercises, students discover the additive property of logarithms, which is not as readily apparent as the
patterns observed yesterday. Plant the seed of the idea by restating the previous property in the additive format.
 What was the formula we developed in the last class?
log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 + log(𝑥𝑥)

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 What is the value of log(10𝑘𝑘 )?

log(10𝑘𝑘 ) = 𝑘𝑘
 So, what is another way we can write the formula log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑘𝑘 + log(𝑥𝑥)?
log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑥𝑥) = log(10𝑘𝑘 ) + log(𝑥𝑥)
 Keep this statement of the formula in mind as you progress through the next set of exercises.

E x e rc ise s 1 – 5 ( 6 m inute s)
Students may be confused by the fact that the formulas do not appear to be exact—for example, the table shows that
log(4) = 0.6021, and 2 log(2) = 0.6020. If this q uestion arises, remind students that since they have made
approximations to irrational numbers, there is some error in rounding off the decimal expansions to four decimal places.
Students should q uestion this discrepancy in part ( f) of Exercise 2 .

E x e rc ise s 1 – 5

1 . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to c om p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e . R ound th e l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s.

( ) ( )
.
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .

2 . Ca l c ul a te th e f ol l ow ing v a l ue s. D o th e y a p p e a r a ny w h e re e l se in th e ta bl e ?
a . ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

b. ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

c . ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

d . ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

e . ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

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f. ( )+ ( )
W e see that ( )+ ( )≈ . , w hic h is ap p rox im atel y ( ).

3 . W h a t p a tte rn( s) c a n y ou se e in E x e rc ise 2 a nd th e ta bl e f rom E x e rc ise 1 ? W rite th e m using l og a rith m ic nota tion.

I foun d the p attern ( )= ( )+ ( ).

4 . W h a t p a tte rn w oul d y ou e x p e c t to f ind f or ( )? M a k e a c onj e c ture , a nd te st it to se e w h e th e r or not it a p p e a rs

to be v a l id .

I w oul d ex p ec t that ( )= ( )+ ( )= ( ). T his is v erified b y the fac t that ( )≈ . ≈

( ), ( )≈ . ≈ ( ), ( )≈ . ≈ ( ), an d ( )≈ . ≈ ( ).

5 . M a k e a c onj e c ture f or a l og a rith m of th e f orm ( ), w h e re , , a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs. P rov id e

e v id e nc e th a t y our c onj e c ture is v a l id .

I t ap p ears that ( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( ). T his is d ue to ap p l yin g the p rop erty from Ex erc ise 3 tw ic e.
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= ( )+ ( )+ ( )

O R

I t ap p ears that ( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( ). W e c an see that

( )≈ . ≈ . + . + . ≈ ( )+ ( )+ ( ),
( )≈ . ≈ . + . + . ≈ ( )+ ( )+ ( ), an d
( )≈ . ≈ . + . + . ≈ ( )+ ( )+ ( ).

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Ask groups to share the patterns and conjectures they formed in Exercises 3 –5 with the class; emphasize that the
pattern discovered in Exercise 3 is the most important property of base- 10 logarithms. Ensure that all students have the
correct statements recorded in their notebooks or journals before continuing to the next example.

E x a m p l e 1 ( 5 m inute s)
Lead the class through these four logarithmic calculations, relying only on the values in the table from Exercise 1 . Notice
that since there is not a value for log(11) in the table, there is not enough information to calculate log(121). Allow
students to figure this out for themselves.

E x a m p le 1

U se th e l og a rith m ta bl e f rom E x e rc ise 1 to a p p rox im a te th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s.

a . ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . + . , so ( )≈ . .

b. ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . + . , so ( )≈ . .

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c . ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . + . , so ( )≈ . .

d . ( )
( )= ( )+ ( ), b ut w e d o n ot hav e a v al ue for ( ) in the tab l e, so w e c an n ot ev al uate
( ).

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

 Suppose we are building a logarithm table, and we have already approximated the values of log(2) and log(3).
What other values of log(𝑥𝑥) for 4 𝑥𝑥 20 can we approximate by applying the additive property developed
in Exercise 5 ?
S ince the table contains log(2) and log(3), we can figure out approximations of log(4), log(6), log(8),
log(9), log(12), and log(18) since the only factors of 4,
4 6,
6 8, 16 and 18 are 2 and 3.
8 9, 12, 16,
 In order to develop the entire logarithm table for all integers between 1 and 20, what is the smallest set of
logarithmic values that we need to know?
W e need to know the values of the logarithms for the prime numbers: 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.
 Why does the additive property make sense based on what we know about exponents?
W e know that when you multiply two powers of the same base together, the exponents are added. For
example, 104 10 = 104 = 10 , so log(104 10 ) = log(10 ) = 9.

E x e rc ise s 6 – 8 ( 7 m inute s)
Have students again work individually to complete the table in Exercise 6 and to check S caffolding:
their tables against each other before they proceed to discuss and answer Exercise 7 in Remind students to convert the
groups. Ensure that there is enough time for a volunteer to present justification for the fractions in the second table to
conjecture in Exercise 8. decimal values, or present the
table with the values as both
E x e rc ise s 6 – 8 fractions and decimals.
6 . U se y our c a l c ul a tor to c om p l e te th e f ol l ow ing ta bl e . R ound th e l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s.

( ) ( )

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

. − .

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7 . W h a t p a tte rn( s) c a n y ou se e in th e ta bl e f rom E x e rc ise 6 ? W rite a c onj e c ture using l og a rith m ic nota tion.

F or an y real n um b er > , � �=− ( ).

8 . U se th e d e f inition of l og a rith m to j ustif y th e c onj e c ture y ou f ound in E x e rc ise 7 .

If � �= for som e n um b er , then = . T hen , −

= , an d thus, ( ) = − . W e then hav e
� �=− ( ).

D isc ussion ( 3 m inute s)

Ask groups to share the conjecture they formed in Exercise 7 with the class. Ensure that all students have the correct
conjecture recorded in their notebooks or journals before continuing to the next example.

E x a m p l e 2 ( 5 m inute s)
Lead the class through these calculations. Let them work either alone or in groups on parts ( b) –( d) after leading them
through part ( a) .

E x a m p le 2

U se th e l og a rith m ta bl e s a nd th e rul e s w e h a v e d isc ov e re d to e stim a te th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s:

a . ( )
( )= ( )
= + ( )
= + ( )+ ( )
≈ + . + .
≈ .

b. ( . )
( . )= ( − )
=− + ( )
=− + ( )+ ( )
≈− + . + .
≈− .

c . ( )
( )= ( )
= + ( )
= + ( )+ ( )
≈ + . + .
≈ .

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d . � �

� �=− ( )

=− ( )
=− + ( )
=− + ( )+ ( )
≈ −( + . + . )
≈− .

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Ask students to summarize the important parts of the lesson, either in writing, to a partner, or as a class. U se this as an
opportunity to informally assess understanding of the lesson. The following are some important summary elements:

L e sson S um m a ry
 T h e nota tion ( ) is use d to re p re se nt ( ).
 T h e m ost im p orta nt p rop e rty of ba se - l og a rith m s is th a t f or p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd ,
( )= ( )+ ( ).
 F or p ositiv e re a l num be rs ,
� �=− ( ).

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 1 : T h e M ost I m p orta nt P rop e rty of L og a rith m s

E x it T ic k e t

1 . U se the table below to approximate the following logarithms to four decimal places. Do not use a calculator.
a. log(9)
( )
2 0.3010
3 0.4771
5 0.6990
7 0.8451

1
b. log � �
15

c. log(45000)

2 . Suppose that 𝑘𝑘 is an integer, 𝑎𝑎 is a positive real number, and you know the value of log(𝑎𝑎). Explain how to find the
value of log(10𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎2 ).

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . U se th e ta bl e be l ow to a p p rox im a te th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s. D o not use a c a l c ul a tor.

a . ( ) ( )
( )= ( )+ ( ) .
≈ . + . .
≈ .
.
.

b. � �

� �=− ( )

= −( ( )+ ( ))
≈ −( . + . )
≈− .

c . ( )
( )= ( )
= + ( )
= + ( )+ ( )
≈ + . + .
≈ .

2 . S up p ose th a t is a n inte g e r, is a p ositiv e re a l num be r, a nd y ou k now th e v a l ue of ( ). E x p l a in h ow to f ind th e

v a l ue of ( ).

Ap p l yin g the rul e for the l og arithm of a n um b er m ul tip l ied b y a p ow er of an d then the rul e for the l og arithm of a
p rod uc t, w e hav e

( )= + ( )
= + ( )+ ( )
= + ( ).

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P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
All of the exercises in this Problem Set should be completed without the use of a calculator.

1 . U se th e ta bl e of l og a rith m s to th e rig h t to e stim a te th e v a l ue of th e l og a rith m s in p a rts ( a ) – ( t) .

a . ( ) b. ( ) ( )
.
. .
.
c . ( ) d . ( ) .
. . .
.
e . ( ) f. ( ) .
. .

g . ( ) h . ( )
. .

i. ( ) j. ( . )

. − .

k . ( . ) l. ( )

− . .

m . ( . ) n. ( . )
. .

o. � � p . � �

− . − .

q . � � r. � �

− . − .

s. � � t. � �

− . − .

2 . R e d uc e e a c h e x p re ssion to a sing l e l og a rith m of th e f orm ( ).

a . ( )+ ( ) b. ( )+ ( )
( ) ( )

c . ( )− ( ) d . ( )+ � �

( ) ( )

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3 . U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions inv ol v ing l og a rith m s of onl y p rim e num be rs:

a . ( ) b. ( . )

+ ( ) − + ( )+ ( )

c . ( ) d . ( )
+ ( ) + ( )+ ( )

4 . U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to sh ow th a t ( )− � �= ( ).

( )− ( )− ( − )
� �=

= ( )+ ( )
= ( )

5 . U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to sh ow th a t ( )+ ( )+ ( )− ( )= .

T here are m ul tip l e w ays to sol v e this p rob l em .

( )+ ( )+ ( )− ( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ � �

= � �

= ( )
=
O R
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )
= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= + ( )
( )+ ( )+ ( )− ( )=

6 . U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to sh ow th a t � − �+ ( )=− ( ).

� − �+ ( )= � �+ ( )

=− ( )+ ( )
=− ( )+ ( ) + ( )
=− ( )

7 . U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to sh ow th a t � − �+ � �− � � =− ( ).

� − �+ � �− � � = � �+ � �− � �

=− ( )− ( )+ ( )
=− ( )+ ( ) − ( )+ ( )
=− ( )

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L e sson 1 2 : P rop e rtie s of L og a rith m s

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students justify properties of logarithms using the definition and properties already developed.

L e sson N ote s
In this lesson, students work exclusively with logarithms base 10; generalization of these results to a generic base 𝑏𝑏
occurs in the next lesson. The opening of this lesson, which echoes homework from Lesson 1 1 , is meant to launch a
consideration of some properties of the common logarithm function. The centerpiece of the lesson is the theoretical
approach to demonstrating six basic logarithm properties, as opposed to the numerical approach used in previous
lessons. In the Problem Set, students apply these properties to calculating logarithms, rewriting logarithmic expressions,
and solving base 10 exponential eq uations.

Cl a ssw ork S caffolding:

 Prompt students who are struggling
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 5 m inute s) with any part of the Opening
Students should work in groups of two or three on this Opening Exercise. This Exercise with a q uestion, such as
exercise serves to remind students of the “ most important property” of “ How is the number in parentheses
logarithms and prepare them for justifying the properties later in the lesson. related to 2? ” Follow that with the
Verify that students are using the property to break up the logarithm and q uestion, “ So, how might you find
evaluating the logarithm at known values ( e. g. , 0.1, 10, 100) . its logarithm given that you know
log(2)? ”
O p e ning E x e rc ise  Ask students to factor each number
U se th e a p p rox im a tion ( )≈ . to a p p rox im a te th e v a l ue s of e a c h of th e into powers of 10 and factors of 2
f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e x p re ssions. before splitting the factors using
a . ( )
log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦).
Students still struggling can be
( )= ( )
given additional products to break
= ( )+ ( )
down before finding the
≈ + .
approximations of their logarithms.
≈ .
4=2 2
40 = 101 2 2
b. ( . )
0.4 = 10−1 2 2
( . )= ( . ) 400 = 102 2 2
= ( . )+ ( ) 0.04 = 10−2 2 2
≈− + .
≈− . Challenge advanced students to
find a general formula for log(2𝑘𝑘 )
by looking for a pattern in log(24 ),
log(2 ), log(2 ), and so on.

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c . ( )
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ ( )
≈ ( . )
≈ .

D isc ussion ( 4 m inute s)

Discuss the properties of logarithms used in the Opening Exercise.
 In all three parts of the Opening Exercise, we used the property log(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦).
 What are some other properties we used?
W e also used log(10) = 1 and log(0.1) = −1.

E x a m p l e ( 6 m inute s)
Recall that, by definition, 𝐿𝐿 = log(𝑥𝑥) means 10𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥. Consider some possible values of 𝑥𝑥 and 𝐿𝐿, noting that 𝑥𝑥 cannot be
a negative number. What is 𝐿𝐿 …
 when 𝑥𝑥 = 1?
𝐿𝐿 = 0
 when 𝑥𝑥 = 0?
The logarithm 𝐿𝐿 is not defined. There is no exponent of 10 that yields a value of 0.
 when 𝑥𝑥 = 10 ?
𝐿𝐿 = 9
 when 𝑥𝑥 = 10𝑛𝑛 ?
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑛𝑛
3
 when 𝑥𝑥 = √
√10?
1
𝐿𝐿 =
3

E x e rc ise s 1 – 6 ( 1 5 m inute s)
Students should work in groups of two or three on each exercise. The first three should be straightforward in view of the
definition of base 10 logarithms. Exercise 4 may look somewhat odd, but it, too, follows directly from the definition and
presents an important property of logarithms. Exercises 5 and 6 are more difficult, which is why the hints are supplied.
When all properties have been established, groups might be asked to show their explanations to the rest of the class as
time permits.

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E x e rc ise s

F or E x e rc ise s 1 – 6 , e x p l a in w h y e a c h sta te m e nt be l ow is a p rop e rty of ba se - l og a rith m s. S caffolding:

1 . P rop e rty 1 : ( )= Establishing the logarithmic
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = . properties relies on the
exponential laws. Make sure
that students have access to
2 . P rop e rty 2 : ( )= .
the exponential laws either
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = . through a poster displayed in
the classroom or through notes
3 . P rop e rty 3 : F or a l l re a l num be rs , ( )= . in their notebooks.
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = .

S caffolding:
4 . P rop e rty 4 : F or a ny > , ( )
= .
Students in groups that
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then = ( )
. struggle with Exercises 3 –6
should be encouraged to check
5 . P rop e rty 5 : F or a ny p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd , ( )= ( )+ ( ). the property with numerical
H int: U se a n e x p one nt rul e a s w e l l a s p rop e rty 4 . values for 𝑘𝑘, 𝑥𝑥, , and 𝑛𝑛. The
B y the rul e = , ( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )
.
check may suggest a general
explanation.
( )
B y p rop erty 4 , ( )
= .
( ) ( ) ( )
T herefore, = . Ag ain , b y p rop erty 4 , = .
( ) ( ) ( )
T hen , = ; so, the ex p on en ts m ust b e eq ual , an d ( )= ( )+ ( ).

6 . P rop e rty 6 : F or a ny p ositiv e re a l num be r a nd a ny re a l num be r , ( )= ( ).

H int: U se a n e x p one nt rul e a s w e l l a s p rop e rty 4 .
( )
B y the rul e ( ) = , ( )
= .
( )
B y p rop erty 4 , = .

T herefore, = ( )
. Ag ain , b y p rop erty 4 , = ( )
.

T hen , ( )
= ( )
; so, the ex p on en ts m ust b e eq ual , an d ( )= ( ).

E x e rc ise s 7 – 1 0 ( 8 m inute s)
The next set of exercises bridges the gap between the abstract properties of logarithms and computational problems like
those in the Problem Set. Allow students to work alone, in pairs, or in small groups. Circulate to ensure that students
are applying the properties correctly. Calculators are not needed for these exercises and should not be used. In
Exercises 9 and 1 0 , students need to know that the logarithm is well defined; that is, for positive real numbers 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌, if
𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌, then log(𝑋𝑋) = log(𝑌𝑌). This is why we can “ take the log of both sides” of an eq uation in order to bring down an
exponent and solve the eq uation. In these last two exercises, students need to choose an appropriate base for the
logarithm to use to solve the eq uation. Any logarithm works to solve the eq uations if applied properly, so students may
find eq uivalent answers that appear to be different from those listed here.

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7 . A p p l y p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to re w rite th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions a s a sing l e l og a rith m or num be r.

a . ( )+ ( )
( )+ ( )= ( )

b. ( )+ ( )

( )+ ( )= ( )

c . ( )+ ( . )
( )+ ( . )= ( )=

8 . A p p l y p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion a s a sum of te rm s inv ol v ing num be rs, ( ), a nd ( ),
w h e re a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs.
a . ( )
( )+ ( )+ ( )

b. � �

( )+ ( )

9 . I n m a th e m a tic a l te rm inol og y , l og a rith m s a re w el l d efin ed be c a use if = , th e n ( )= ( ) f or , > .

T h is m e a ns th a t if y ou w a nt to sol v e a n e q ua tion inv ol v ing e x p one nts, y ou c a n a p p l y a l og a rith m to both sid e s of th e
e q ua tion, j ust a s y ou c a n ta k e th e sq ua re root of both sid e s w h e n sol v ing a q ua d ra tic e q ua tion. Y ou d o ne e d to be
c a re f ul not to ta k e th e l og a rith m of a ne g a tiv e num be r or z e ro.
U se th e p rop e rty sta te d a bov e to sol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions.
a . =
( )= ( )
=

b. −
= +

( − )=− ( )
− = −( + )
=
=

c . = −

( )= ( − )
( )=( − )
= −
=−

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1 0 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions.
a . =
( )= ( )
= ( )

b. =

= ( )
+ = ( )
=± ( )−

c . =
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
( )
=
( )

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Point out that for each property 1 –6, it has been established that the property holds, so these properties can be used in
future work with logarithms. The Lesson Summary might be posted in the classroom for at least the rest of the module.
Property 7 was established in Lesson 1 1 through numerical observation; students are now asked to verify both
properties 7 and 8 using properties 1 –6.

L e sson S um m a ry
W e h a v e e sta bl ish e d th e f ol l ow ing p rop e rtie s f or ba se - l og a rith m s, w h e re a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd
is a ny re a l num be r:
1 . ( )=
2 . ( )=
3 . ( )=
4 . ( )
=
5 . ( )= ( )+ ( )
6 . ( )= ( )
A d d itiona l p rop e rtie s not y e t e sta bl ish e d a re th e f ol l ow ing :

7 . � �=− ( )

8 . � �= ( )− ( )

A l so, l og a rith m s a re w e l l d e f ine d , m e a ning th a t f or , > , if = , th e n ( )= ( ).

E x it T ic k e t ( 5 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 2 : P rop e rtie s of L og a rith m s

E x it T ic k e t

In this lesson, we have established six logarithmic properties for positive real numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 and real numbers 𝑟𝑟.
1 . log(1) = 0
2 . log(10) = 1
3 . log(10𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑟
( )
4 . 10 = 𝑥𝑥
5 . log(𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦) = log(𝑥𝑥) + log(𝑦𝑦)
6. log(𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑟 log(𝑥𝑥)

1
1 . U se properties 1 –6 of logarithms to establish property 7: log � � = −log(𝑥𝑥) for all 𝑥𝑥 > 0.
𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥
2 . U se properties 1 –6 of logarithms to establish property 8: log � � = log(𝑥𝑥) − log(𝑦𝑦) for 𝑥𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦𝑦 > 0.
𝑦𝑦

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

I n th is l e sson, w e h a v e e sta bl ish e d six l og a rith m ic p rop e rtie s f or p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd a nd re a l num be rs .

1 . ( )=
2 . ( )=
3 . ( )=
4 . ( )
=
5 . ( )= ( )+ ( )
6 . ( )= ( )

1 . U se p rop e rtie s 1 – 6 of l og a rith m s to e sta bl ish p rop e rty 7 : � �=− ( ) f or a l l > .

B y p rop erty 6 , ( )= ( ).

L et = − ; then for > , ( − ) = (− ) ( ), w hic h is eq uiv al en t to � �=− ( ).

T hus, for an y > , � �=− ( ).

2 . U se p rop e rtie s 1 – 6 of l og a rith m s to e sta bl ish p rop e rty 8 : � �= ( )− ( ) f or > a nd > .

B y p rop erty 5 , ( )= ( )+ ( ).

B y P rob l em 1 ab ov e, for > , ( − ) = (− ) ( ).

T herefore,

� �= ( )+ � �

= ( ) + (− ) ( )
= ( )− ( ).

T hus, for an y > an d > , � �= ( )− ( ).

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
Problems 1 –7 give students an opportunity to practice using the properties they have established in this lesson. In the
remaining problems, students apply base- 10 logarithms to solve simple exponential eq uations.

1 . U se th e a p p rox im a te l og a rith m v a l ue s be l ow to e stim a te th e v a l ue of e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s. I nd ic a te

w h ic h p rop e rtie s y ou use d .
( )= . ( )= .
( )= . ( )= .
a . ( )
U sin g p rop erty 5 ,
( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . .

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b. ( )
U sin g p rop erty 5 ,
( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . .

c . ( )
U sin g p rop erties 5 an d 6 ,
( )= ( )+ ( )= ( )+ ( )≈ . .

d . ( )

U sin g p rop erty 3 ,

( )= .

e . � �

U sin g p rop erty 7 ,

� �=− ( )≈− . .

f. � �

U sin g p rop erty 8 ,

� �= ( )− ( )≈− . .

g . √ )
(√
U sin g p rop erty 6 ,

√ = � �= ( )≈ . .

2 . L e t ( )= , ( ) = , a nd ( ) = . E x p re ss e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing in te rm s of , , a nd .

a . � � b. ( )

− +

c . ( ) d . √

f. ( )
e .
+ +
−

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3 . U se th e p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in a n e q uiv a l e nt f orm c onta ining a sing l e l og a rith m .

a . � �+ � �

� �

b. � �− � �

� �

c . ( )+ ( )+ � �
( )

4 . U se th e p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in a n e q uiv a l e nt f orm c onta ining a sing l e l og a rith m .

a . √ + � �+ ( )

( )

b. √ + √

( )

c . ( )+ ( )− ( )

d . ( )− ( )+ ( )

e . ( ( )− ( )) + ( ( )− ( ))

� � + �� � �=

5 . I n e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing e x p re ssions, , , a nd re p re se nt p ositiv e re a l num be rs. U se p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to

re w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in a n e q uiv a l e nt f orm c onta ining onl y ( ), ( ), ( ), a nd num be rs.

a . � �
√

( )+ ( )+ ( )− ( )

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b.

( )− ( )+ ( )− ( )

c . � �

+ ( )− ( )

d .

( )+ ( )− − ( )

e . � �

− − ( )− ( )

6 . E x p re ss � − �+ � �− � � a s a sing l e l og a rith m f or p ositiv e num be rs .

+ +

� − �+ � �− � � = � �+ � �− � �
+ + ( + ) +
=− ( + ) − ( )+ ( + )
=− ( )− ( + )− ( )+ ( + )
=− ( )

7 . S h ow th a t +√ − + −√ − = f or ≥ .

� + − �+ � − − �= �� + − �� − − ��

= � −� − � �

= ( − + )
= ( )
=

8 . If = .
f or som e p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd , f ind th e v a l ue of ( )+ ( ).
.
=
. = ( )
( )= .
( )+ ( )= .

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9 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e q ua tions by ta k ing th e l og a rith m ba se of both sid e s. L e a v e y our a nsw e rs sta te d
in te rm s of l og a rith m ic e x p re ssions.
a . =

= ( )
= ( )
=± ( )

b. =

� �= ( )

= ( )

= + ( )

= + ( )

c . =
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
= + ( )

= + ( )

d . =
( )= ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )
+ ( )
=
( )
+ ( )
=
( )

e . = −

( )= ( − )
( ) = (− + ) ( )
( )+ ( )= ( )
( )+ ( ) = ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= = =
( )+ ( ) ( )+ ( ) ( )

( An y of the three eq uiv al en t form s g iv en ab ov e are ac c ep tab l e an sw ers. )

1 0 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e q ua tions.

a . =
= ( )

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b. =
= ( )

c . =
= ( )

d . U se th e p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to j ustif y w h y , , a nd f orm a n a rith m e tic se q ue nc e w h ose c onsta nt

d if f e re nc e is .

Sin c e = ( ), = ( )= + ( )= + .
Sim il arl y, = + ( )= + .

T hus, the seq uen c e , , is the seq uen c e ( ), + ( ), + ( ), an d these n um b ers form an
arithm etic seq uen c e w hose first term is ( ) w ith c on stan t d ifferen c e .

1 1 . W ith out using a c a l c ul a tor, e x p l a in w h y th e sol ution to e a c h e q ua tion m ust be a re a l num be r be tw e e n a nd .

a . =

is g reater than an d l ess than , so the sol ution is b etw een an d .

b. =

is g reater than an d l ess than , so the sol ution is b etw een an d .

c . =

= , so , is b etw een an d , so the sol ution is b etw een an d .

d . � � = .

is b etw een an d , so the sol ution is b etw een an d .

e . � � =

� � = , an d is b etw een an d , so the sol ution is b etw een an d .

f. =
= . Sin c e , is l ess than , an d g reater than , the sol ution is b etw een an d .

1 2 . E x p re ss th e e x a c t sol ution to e a c h e q ua tion a s a ba se - l og a rith m . U se a c a l c ul a tor to a p p rox im a te th e sol ution to

th e ne a re st .
a . =
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
( )
=
( )
≈ .

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b. =
( )
=
( )
≈ .

c . =
( )
=
( )
≈ .

d . � � = .

=−
� �
≈ .

e . � � =

� �
=
� �
≈ .

f. =
( )
=
( )
≈ .

1 3 . S h ow th a t f or a ny re a l num be r , th e sol ution to th e e q ua tion = is ( )+ .

Sub stitutin g = ( ) + in to an d usin g p rop erties of ex p on en ts an d l og arithm s g iv es

( )
=
( )
=
= .

T hus, = ( ) + is a sol ution to the eq uation = .

1 4 . S ol v e e a c h e q ua tion. I f th e re is no sol ution, e x p l a in w h y .

a . =
=
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
( )
=
( )

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b. −
=
( − )= ( )
= + ( )

c . + =
( + )=
=
=

d . − =
− =
=−

T here is n o sol ution b ec ause is al w ays p ositiv e for al l real .

1 5 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tion f or : = ( + ) .

= ( + )
( )= [( ( + ) ]
( )= ( )+ [( + ) ]
( )− ( )= ( + )
( )− ( )
=
( + )

� �
=
( + )

The remaining q uestions establish a property for the logarithm of a sum. Although this is an application of the logarithm
of a product, the formula does have some applications in information theory and can help with the calculations
necessary to use tables of logarithms, which are explored further in Lesson 1 5 .

1 6 . I n th is e x e rc ise , w e w il l e sta bl ish a f orm ul a f or th e l og a rith m of a sum . L e t = ( + ), w h e re , > .

a . S h ow ( )+ � + � = . S ta te a s a p rop e rty of l og a rith m s a f te r sh ow ing th is is a true sta te m e nt.

( )+ � + �= � + �

= � + �

= ( + )
=

T herefore, for , > , ( + )= ( )+ � + �.

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b. U se p a rt ( a ) a nd th e f a c t th a t ( )= to re w rite ( ) a s a sum .
( )= ( + )

= ( )+ � + �

= ( )+ ( . )
= + ( . )

c . R e w rite in sc ie ntif ic nota tion, a nd use p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to e x p re ss ( ) a s a sum of a n

inte g e r a nd a l og a rith m of a num be r be tw e e n a nd .

= . ×
( )= ( . × )
= ( . )+ ( )
= + ( . )

d . W h a t d o y ou notic e a bout y our a nsw e rs to ( b) a nd ( c ) ?

Sep aratin g in to + an d usin g the form ul a for the l og arithm of a sum is the sam e as w ritin g
in sc ien tific n otation an d usin g the form ul a for the l og arithm of a p rod uc t.

e . F ind tw o inte g e rs th a t a re up p e r a nd l ow e r e stim a te s of ( ).

Sin c e < . < , w e kn ow that < ( . ) < . T his tel l s us that < + ( . ) < , so
< ( )< .

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L e sson 1 3 : Ch a ng ing th e B a se

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students understand how to change logarithms from one base to another.
 Students calculate logarithms with any base using a calculator that computes only logarithms base 10 and
base 𝑒𝑒.
 Students justify properties of logarithms with any base.

L e sson N ote s
The first example in this lesson demonstrates how to use a base- 10 logarithm to calculate a base- 2 logarithm, leading to
the change of base formula for logarithms. The change of base formula allows students to generalize the properties of
base- 10 logarithms developed in the previous few lessons to logarithms with general base 𝑏𝑏. This lesson introduces the
natural logarithm ln(𝑥𝑥) = log (𝑥𝑥). Calculators are used briefly in this lesson to compute both common and natural
logarithms, and one of the goals of the lesson is to explain why the calculator only has a LOG and an LN key. Students
solve exponential eq uations by applying the appropriate logarithm.

M a te ria l s
Students need access either to graphing calculators or computer software capable of computing logarithms with base 10
and base 𝑒𝑒, such as the .

Cl a ssw ork
E x a m p l e 1 ( 5 m inute s)
S caffolding:
The purpose of this example is to show how to find log 2 (𝑥𝑥) using log(𝑥𝑥).  Students who struggle with the
 We have been working primarily with base- 10 logarithms, but in Lesson 7 first step of this example might
we defined logarithms for any base 𝑏𝑏. For example, the number 2 might be need to be reminded of the
the base. When logarithms have bases other than 10, it often helps to be definition of logarithm from
able to rewrite the logarithm in terms of base 10 logarithms. Let Lesson 7: 𝐿𝐿 = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) means
log(𝑥𝑥) 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥. Therefore,
𝐿𝐿 = log 2 (𝑥𝑥), and show that 𝐿𝐿 = .
log 2
𝐿𝐿 = log 2 (𝑥𝑥) means 2𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥.
Let 𝐿𝐿 = log 2 (𝑥𝑥).
 Advanced learners may want
Then 2𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥.
to immediately start with the
Taking the logarithm of each side, we get
second part of the example,
log(2𝐿𝐿 ) = log(𝑥𝑥) ( )
converting log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) into .
𝐿𝐿 log(2) = log(𝑥𝑥) (𝑏𝑏)
log(𝑥𝑥)
𝐿𝐿 = .
log(2)
log(𝑥𝑥)
Therefore, log 2 (𝑥𝑥) = .
log(2)

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Remember that log(2) is a number, so this shows that log 2 (𝑥𝑥) is a rescaling of log(𝑥𝑥).
 The example shows how we can convert log 2 (𝑥𝑥) to an expression involving log(𝑥𝑥). More generally, suppose
we are given a logarithm with base 𝑏𝑏. What is log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) in terms of log(𝑥𝑥)?
Let 𝐿𝐿 = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥).
Then 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥.
Taking the logarithm of each side, we get
log(𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 ) = log(𝑥𝑥)
𝐿𝐿 log(𝑏𝑏) = log(𝑥𝑥)
log(𝑥𝑥)
𝐿𝐿 = .
log(𝑏𝑏)
log(𝑥𝑥)
Therefore, log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) = .
log(𝑏𝑏)
 This eq uation not only allows us to change from log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) to log(𝑥𝑥) but to change the base in the other
direction as well: log(𝑥𝑥) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) log(𝑏𝑏).

E x e rc ise 1 ( 3 m inute s)
S caffolding:
The first exercise deals with the general formula for changing the base of a logarithm. It
If students have difficulty with
follows the same pattern as Example 1 . Take time for students to share their results from
Exercise 1 , they should review
Exercise 1 in a class discussion before moving on to Exercise 2 so that all students
the argument in Example 1 ,
understand how the base of a logarithm is changed. Ask students to work in pairs on this
noting that it deals with base
exercise.
10, whereas this exercise
generalizes that base to 𝑎𝑎.
E x e rc ise s
1 . A ssum e th a t , , a nd a re a l l p ositiv e re a l num be rs, so th a t ≠ a nd ≠ . W h a t is ( ) in te rm s of
( )? T h e re sul ting e q ua tion a l l ow s us to c h a ng e th e ba se of a l og a rith m f rom to .

L et = ( ). T hen = . T akin g the l og arithm b ase of eac h sid e, w e g et

( )= ( )
( )= ( )
( )
= .
( )

( )
T herefore, ( )= .
( )

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Ask a student to present the solution to Exercise 1 to the class to ensure that all students understand how to change the
base of a logarithm and how the formula comes from the definition of the logarithm as an exponential eq uation.
Be sure that students record the formula in their notebooks.

Change of Base Formula for Logarithms

If 𝑥𝑥, 𝑎𝑎, and 𝑏𝑏 are all positive real numbers with 𝑎𝑎 ≠ 1 and 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1, then
log (𝑥𝑥)
log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) = .
log (𝑏𝑏)

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E x e rc ise 2 ( 2 m inute s)
In the second exercise, students practice changing bases. They need a calculator with the ability to calculate logarithms
base 10. Later in the lesson, students need to calculate natural logarithms as well. Students should work in pairs on this
exercise, with one student using the calculator and the other keeping track of the computation. Students should share
their results for Exercise 2 in a class discussion before moving on to Exercise 3 .

2 . A p p rox im a te e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s. U se th e L O G k e y on y our c a l c ul a tor ra th e r

th a n l og a rith m ta bl e s, f irst c h a ng ing th e ba se of th e l og a rith m to if ne c e ssa ry .
a . ( )

( )= ( )≈ .
T herefore, ( )≈ . .
S caffolding:
O R
Students who are not familiar
( )= ( )≈ . ≈ .
with the LOG key on the
T herefore, ( )≈ . . calculator can check how it
works by evaluating the
b. ( ) following expressions:
( ) log(1),
( )= =
( )
log(10),
T herefore, ( )= . .
log(103 ).

c . ( )
( )
( )= ( )= ≈ .
( )

T herefore, ( )≈ . .

E x e rc ise 3 ( 8 m inute s)

3 . I n L e sson 1 2 , w e j ustif ie d a num be r of p rop e rtie s of ba se - l og a rith m s. W ork ing in p a irs, j ustif y th e f ol l ow ing
p rop e rtie s of ba se - l og a rith m s:
a . ( )=

B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = .

b. ( )=
S caffolding:
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = .
By working in pairs, students
should be able to reconstruct
c . ( )= the arguments they used in
B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then w hen = , = . Lesson 1 0 . If they have trouble,
they should be encouraged to
use the definition and
properties already justified.

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d . ( )
=

B ec ause = ( ) m ean s = , then = ( )

.

e . ( )= ( )+ ( )
( ) ( )
B y the rul e = , ( )
= ( )
.
( )
B y p rop erty 4 , ( )
= .
( ) ( ) ( )
T herefore, = . B y p rop erty 4 ag ain , = .

So, the ex p on en ts m ust b e eq ual , an d ( )= ( )+ ( ).

f. ( )= ( )
( )
B y the rul e ( ) = , ( )
= .
( )
B y p rop erty 4 , = .

T herefore, = ( )
. B y p rop erty 4 ag ain , = ( )
.

So, the ex p on en ts m ust b e eq ual , an d ( )= ( ).

g . � �=− ( )

B y p rop erty 6 , ( )= ( ).

L et = − ; then for ≠ , ( − ) = (− ) ( ).

T hus, � �=− ( ).

h . � �= ( )− ( )

B y p rop erty 5 , ( )= ( )+ ( ).

B y p rop erty 7 , for ≠ , ( − ) = (− ) ( ).

T herefore, � �= ( )− ( ).

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

Define the natural logarithm in this Discussion. Because students often misinterpret the symbol 𝑛𝑛 as the word in, take
the time to emphasize that the notation is an L followed by an N , which comes from the French for natural logarithm: le
logarithme naturel.
 Recall Euler’ s number 𝑒𝑒 from Lesson 5 , which is an irrational number approximated by 𝑒𝑒 ≈ 2.718 28 …. This
number plays an important role in many parts of mathematics, and it is freq uently used as the base of
logarithms. Because exponential functions with base 𝑒𝑒 are used to model growth and change of natural
phenomena, a logarithm with base 𝑒𝑒 is called a natural logarithm. The notation for the natural logarithm of a
positive number 𝑥𝑥 is ln(𝑥𝑥) = log (𝑥𝑥).
 What is the value of ln(1)?
ln(1) = 0

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 What is the value of ln(𝑒𝑒)? The value of ln(𝑒𝑒 2 )? Of ln(𝑒𝑒 3 )?

ln(𝑒𝑒) = 1, ln(𝑒𝑒 2 ) = 2, and ln(𝑒𝑒 3 ) = 3
 Because scientists primarily use logarithms base 10 and base 𝑒𝑒, calculators often only have two logarithm
buttons: LOG for calculating log(𝑥𝑥) and LN for calculating ln(𝑥𝑥). With the change of base formula, you can
use either the common logarithm ( base 10) or the natural logarithm ( base 𝑒𝑒) to calculate the value of a
logarithm with any allowable base 𝑏𝑏, so technically we only need one of those two buttons. However, each
base has important uses, so most calculators are able to calculate logarithms in either base.

E x e rc ise s 4 – 6 ( 5 m inute s)
Exercises 4 –6 allow students to compare the values of ln(𝑥𝑥) to the more familiar values of log(𝑥𝑥) for a few values of 𝑥𝑥
and to conclude that for any 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 1, log(𝑥𝑥) ln(𝑥𝑥). Students need a calculator with an LN key. They should work in
pairs on these exercises, with one student using the calculator and the other recording the result. They should share
their results for Exercise 4 in a class discussion before moving on.
S caffolding:
4 . U se th e L N a nd L O G k e y s on y our c a l c ul a tor to f ind th e v a l ue of e a c h l og a rith m to f our Students who are not familiar
d e c im a l p l a c e s. with the LN key on the
a . ( ) . ( ) . calculator can check how it
b. ( ) . ( ) .
works by evaluating the
c . ( ) . ( ) .
d . ( ) . ( ) . following expressions:
e . ( ) . ( ) . ln(1),
ln(𝑒𝑒),
5 . M a k e a c onj e c ture th a t c om p a re s v a l ue s of ( ) to ( ) f or ≥ .
ln(𝑒𝑒 3 ).
I t ap p ears that for ≥ , ( ) ( ).

6 . J ustif y y our c onj e c ture in E x e rc ise 5 using th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a .

( )
B y the c han g e of b ase form ul a, ( )= . T hen ( ) ( )= ( ). Sin c e
( )≈ . , ( ) ( ) ( ), an d thus ( ) ( ).

E x a m p l e 2 ( 3 m inute s)
This example introduces more complicated expressions involving logarithms and showcases the power of logarithms in
rearranging logarithmic expressions. Students have done similar exercises in their homework in prior lessons for base-
10 logarithms, so this example and the following exercises demonstrate how the same procedures apply to natural
logarithms. Remind students that Exercise 3 established that the logarithm properties developed for base- 10 logarithms
apply for logarithms of any base, including base 𝑒𝑒.
1
 Write as an expression containing only one logarithm: ln(𝑘𝑘 2 ) + ln � 2� − ln √𝑘𝑘
√ .
𝑘𝑘
1 1 1
ln(𝑘𝑘 2 ) + ln � 2� − ln √𝑘𝑘
√ = 2 ln(𝑘𝑘) − 2 ln(𝑘𝑘) − 2 ln(𝑘𝑘) = − 2 ln(𝑘𝑘)
𝑘𝑘
2) 1 1
 Therefore, ln(𝑘𝑘 + ln � 2� − ln √𝑘𝑘
√ = − 2 ln(𝑘𝑘).
𝑘𝑘

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E x e rc ise s 7 – 8 ( 6 m inute s)
Exercise 7 follows Example 2 by asking students to simplify more complicated logarithmic expressions. In Exercise 7,
students condense a sum of logarithmic expressions to an expression containing only one logarithm, while in Exercise 8,
students take a single complicated logarithm and break it up into simpler parts. Students should work in pairs on these
exercises, sharing their results in a class discussion before the Closing.

7 . W rite a s a sing l e l og a rith m .

a . ( )− � �+ ( )

( )− � �+ ( )= ( )+ ( )+ ( )

= ( )
= ( )
= ( )
= ( )

An y of the l ast three ex p ression s is an ac c ep tab l e fin al an sw er.

b. ( )+ ( )− ( )

( )+ ( )− ( )= ( )+ � �− ( )

= ( )+ ( )− ( )
= ( )− ( )

= � �

= ( )

T herefore, ( )+ ( )− ( )= ( ).

8 . W rite e a c h e x p re ssion a s a sum or d if f e re nc e of c onsta nts a nd l og a rith m s of sim p l e r te rm s.

a .
𝒆𝒆

√
= √ + � �− (𝒆𝒆 )
𝒆𝒆
= ( )+ ( )−

( + )
b.
+

( + )
= ( + ) − ( + )
+
= ( + )− ( + )

T he p oin t of this sim p l ific ation is that n either of these term s c an b e sim p l ified further.

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Cl osing ( 4 m inute s)
Have students summarize the lesson by discussing the following q uestions and coming to a consensus before students
record the answers in their notebooks:
 What is the definition of the logarithm base 𝑏𝑏?
If there exist numbers 𝑏𝑏, 𝐿𝐿, and 𝑥𝑥 so that 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥,
𝑥𝑥 then 𝐿𝐿 = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥).
 What does ln(𝑥𝑥) represent?
The notation ln(𝑥𝑥) represents the logarithm of 𝑥𝑥 base 𝑒𝑒; that is, ln(𝑥𝑥) = log (𝑥𝑥).
 How can we use a calculator to approximate a logarithm to a base other than 10 or 𝑒𝑒?
U se the change of base formula to convert a logarithm with base 𝑏𝑏 to one with base 10 or base 𝑒𝑒; then,
use the appropriate calculator function.

L e sson S um m a ry
W e h a v e e sta bl ish e d a f orm ul a f or c h a ng ing th e ba se of l og a rith m s f rom to :
( )
( )= .
( )

I n p a rtic ul a r, th e f orm ul a a l l ow s us to c h a ng e l og a rith m s ba se to c om m on or na tura l l og a rith m s, w h ic h a re th e

onl y tw o k ind s of l og a rith m s th a t m ost c a l c ul a tors c om p ute :
( ) ( )
( )= = .
( ) ( )
W e h a v e a l so e sta bl ish e d th e f ol l ow ing p rop e rtie s f or ba se l og a rith m s. I f , , , a nd a re a l l p ositiv e re a l
num be rs w ith ≠ a nd ≠ a nd is a ny re a l num be r, th e n:

1 . ( )=

2 . ( )=

3 . ( )=

4 . ( )
=
5 . ( )= ( )+ ( )
6 . ( )= ( )

7 . � �=− ( )

8 . � �= ( )− ( ).

E x it T ic k e t ( 5 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 3 : Ch a ng ing th e B a se

E x it T ic k e t

1 . Are there any properties that hold for base- 10 logarithms that would not be valid for the logarithm base 𝑒𝑒? Why?
Are there any properties that hold for base- 10 logarithms that would not be valid for some positive base 𝑏𝑏, such
that 𝑏𝑏 ≠ 1?

2 . Write each logarithm as an eq uivalent expression involving only logarithms base 10.
a. log 3 (25)

b. log1 (𝑥𝑥 2 )

3 . Rewrite each expression as an eq uivalent expression containing only one logarithm.

a. 3 ln( + ) − 2 ln( ) − 7 ln( )

𝑥𝑥
b. ln(𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) − ln � �
𝑦𝑦

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . A re th e re a ny p rop e rtie s th a t h ol d f or ba se - l og a rith m s th a t w oul d not be v a l id f or th e l og a rith m ba se 𝒆𝒆? W h y ?

A re th e re a ny p rop e rtie s th a t h ol d f or ba se - l og a rith m s th a t w oul d not be v a l id f or som e p ositiv e ba se , suc h
th a t ≠ ?

N o. An y p rop erty that is true for a b ase- l og arithm w il l b e true for a b ase- 𝒆𝒆 l og arithm . T he on l y d ifferen c e
( )
b etw een a c om m on l og arithm an d a n atural l og arithm is a sc al e c han g e b ec ause ( )= , an d
( )
( )= (𝒆𝒆)
.

( )
Sin c e ( )= , w e w oul d on l y en c oun ter a p rob l em if ( ) = , b ut this on l y hap p en s w hen = , an d
is n ot a v al id b ase for l og arithm s.

2 . W rite e a c h l og a rith m a s a n e q uiv a l e nt e x p re ssion inv ol v ing onl y l og a rith m s ba se .

a . ( )
( )
( )=
( )

b. ( )
( )
( )=
( )
( )
=

= ( )

3 . R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion a s a n e q uiv a l e nt e x p re ssion c onta ining onl y one l og a rith m .

a . ( + )− ( )− ( )
( + )− ( )− ( )= (( + ) ) − ( )+ ( )
= (( + ) ) − ( )
( + )
=

b. ( )− � �

( )− � �= ( )+ ( )− ( )+ ( )

= ( )
= ( )

T herefore, ( )− � � is eq uiv al en t to b oth ( ) an d ( ).

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P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . E v a l ua te e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e x p re ssions, a p p rox im a ting to f our d e c im a l p l a c e s if ne c e ssa ry . U se th e

L N or L O G k e y on y our c a l c ul a tor ra th e r th a n a ta bl e .

a . ( )
( )
( )=
( )
( )
=
( )
( )
=
( )

T herefore, ( )= .

b. ( )
( )
( )=
( )
≈ .

T herefore, ( )≈ . .

c . ( )+ ( )
( ) ( )
( )+ ( )= +
( ) ( )
≈ .

T herefore, ( )+ ( )≈ . .

2 . U se l og a rith m ic p rop e rtie s a nd th e f a c t th a t ( ) ≈ . a nd ( )≈ . to a p p rox im a te th e v a l ue of e a c h of

th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e x p re ssions. D o not use a c a l c ul a tor.
a . (𝒆𝒆 )

(𝒆𝒆 ) = (𝒆𝒆)
=

T herefore, (𝒆𝒆 ) = .

b. ( )
( )= ( )+ ( )
≈ . + .
≈ .

T herefore, ( )≈ . .

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c . ( )
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
≈ ( )+ ( )
≈ . + .
≈ .

T herefore, ( )≈ . .

d . � �

� �= ( )− ( )

= ( )− ( )
≈ ( . )− .
≈ .

T herefore, � �≈ . .

3 . Com p a re th e v a l ue s of ( ) a nd � � w ith out using a c a l c ul a tor.

U sin g the c han g e of b ase form ul a,

( )
( )=
� �
( )
=
−
=− ( )

= � �.

T hus, ( )= � �.

4 . S h ow th a t f or a ny p ositiv e num be rs a nd w ith ≠ a nd ≠ , ( ) ( )= .

U sin g the c han g e of b ase form ul a,

( )
( )= = .
( ) ( )

T hus,

( ) ( )= ( )= .
( )

5 . E x p re ss in te rm s of , 𝒆𝒆, a nd if ( )− ( )= .
( )− ( )=

� �=

= 𝒆𝒆

= 𝒆𝒆

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6 . R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion in a n e q uiv a l e nt f orm th a t onl y c onta ins one ba se - l og a rith m .

a . ( )

� �+ +
( )= = = = + = +
( )

b. � �, f or p ositiv e re a l v a l ue s of ≠

� �
� �= =−
( ) ( )

c . ( )

� � � �+ � � +
( )= = = = +

d . ( . )

� � − −
( . )= = = = −
( ) ( )

7 . W rite e a c h num be r in te rm s of na tura l l og a rith m s, a nd th e n use th e p rop e rtie s of l og a rith m s to sh ow th a t it is a

ra tiona l num be r.
a . √

√ � � ( )
= = =
( ) ( ) ( )

b. ( )
( ) ( )
= =
( ) ( )

c . � �

� � ( − )
= =−
( ) ( )

8 . W rite e a c h e x p re ssion a s a n e q uiv a l e nt e x p re ssion w ith a sing l e l og a rith m . A ssum e , , a nd a re p ositiv e re a l

num be rs.
a . ( )+ ( )− ( )

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b. ( ( + )− ( ))

c . ( + )+ ( )
( + ) (𝒆𝒆) + ( )= (𝒆𝒆 )+ ( )= (𝒆𝒆 )

9 . R e w rite e a c h e x p re ssion a s sum s a nd d if f e re nc e s in te rm s of ( ), ( ), a nd ( ).

a . ( )
( )+ ( )+ ( )

𝒆𝒆
b. � �

− ( )− ( )− ( )

c . � �

( )− ( )

1 0 . U se ba se - l og a rith m s to re w rite e a c h e x p one ntia l e q ua tion a s a l og a rith m ic e q ua tion, a nd sol v e th e re sul ting
e q ua tion. U se th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a to c onv e rt to a ba se - l og a rith m th a t c a n be e v a l ua te d on a c a l c ul a tor.
G iv e e a c h a nsw e r to d e c im a l p l a c e s. I f a n e q ua tion h a s no sol ution, e x p l a in w h y .
a . =
= ( )

= ( )
( )
=
( )
≈ .

b. = −

−
. =
= ( . )+
( . )
= +
( )
≈ .

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c . − =
( − )=

= � �

� �
=
( )
( )− ( )
=
( )
≈− .

d . = .

= ( . )
( . )
=
( )
≈− .

T his eq uation has n o real sol ution b ec ause c an n ot b e n eg ativ e for an y real n um b er .

1 1 . I n L e sson 6 , y ou d isc ov e re d th a t ( )= + ( ) by l ook ing a t a ta bl e of l og a rith m s. U se th e p rop e rtie s

of l og a rith m s to j ustif y th is p rop e rty f or a n a rbitra ry ba se > w ith ≠ . T h a t is, sh ow th a t
( )= + ( ).

( )= ( )+ ( )
= + ( )

1 2 . L a rissa a rg ue d th a t sinc e ( )= a nd ( ) = , th e n it m ust be true th a t ( ) = . . I s sh e c orre c t?

E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

L arissa is n ot c orrec t. I f ( ) = . , then .

= , so = = √ . Sin c e ≠ √ , L arissa’ s c al c ul ation is n ot
c orrec t.

1 3 . E x te nsion: S up p ose th a t th e re is som e p ositiv e num be r so th a t

( )= .
( )= .
( )= . .

a . U se th e g iv e n v a l ue s of ( ), ( ), a nd ( ) to e v a l ua te th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m s.

i. ( )
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= . + .
= .

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ii. ( )

( )= ( )
= ( )
= .
= .

iii. ( )
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= . + .
= .

iv . ( )
( )= ( )
= ( )+ ( )
= . + ( )
= . + ( . )
= . + .
= .

b. U se th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a to c onv e rt ( ) to ba se , a nd sol v e f or . G iv e y our a nsw e r to f our

d e c im a l p l a c e s.

F rom p art ( iii) ab ov e, ( )= . . T hen ,

. = ( )
( )
. =
( )

. =
( )

= ( )
.
= .

≈ . .

1 4 . U se a l og a rith m w ith a n a p p rop ria te ba se to sol v e th e f ol l ow ing e x p one ntia l e q ua tions.

a . =
( )= ( )
=

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b. =
( )= ( )
+ = ( )
+ =
=

c . −
=
( − )= ( )
( − ) ( )=( + ) ( )
− = ( + )
− = +
=

d . =� �

( )= � �

( )= � �

= (− )
=
=

e . .
=
( . )= ( )
( . + ) ( )= ( )
. + =
. =
=

1 5 . S ol v e e a c h e x p one ntia l e q ua tion.

a . = b. =
= =

c . = d . −
=

= =

e . −
= f. =

= =−

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h . =
g . =
( )
= =
( )

i. = j. =
( ) ( )
= =− +
( ) ( )

k . = l. = −

=− + ( ) ( )− ( )
=
( )+ ( )

m . −
= n. 𝒆𝒆 =
( )+ ( ) ( )
= =
( )− ( )

o. 𝒆𝒆 −
=

= + ( )

1 6 . I n P robl e m 9 ( e ) of L e sson 1 2 , y ou sol v e d th e e q ua tion = −

using th e l og a rith m ba se .
a . S ol v e = −
using th e l og a rith m ba se .
( )= ( − )
= (− + ) ( )
=− ( )+ ( )
+ ( )= ( )
+ ( ) = ( )
( )
=
+ ( )

b. A p p l y th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a to sh ow th a t y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( a ) a g re e s w ith y our a nsw e r to P robl e m

9 ( e ) of L e sson 1 2 .
C han g in g from b ase to b ase , w e see that
( )
( )= .
( )
T hen ,
( )
( ) � �
( )
=
+ ( ) ( )
+ � �
( )
( )
= ,
( )+ ( )
w hic h w as the an sw er from P rob l em 9 ( e) of L esson 1 2 .

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c . S ol v e = −
using th e l og a rith m ba se .
( )= ( − )
( )=− +
+ ( )=
+ ( ) =

=
+ ( )

d . A p p l y th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a to sh ow th a t y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( c ) a l so a g re e s w ith y our a nsw e r to

P robl e m 9 ( e ) of L e sson 1 2 .
C han g in g from b ase to b ase , w e see that
( )
( )= .
( )
T hen ,

=
+ ( ) ( )
+
( )
( )
= ,
( )+ ( )

w hic h w as the an sw er from P rob l em 9 ( e) of L esson 1 2 .

1 7 . P e a rl sol v e d th e e q ua tion = a s f ol l ow s:
( )= ( )
( )=

= .
( )
J e ss sol v e d th e e q ua tion = a s f ol l ow s:
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
= ( ).

I s P e a rl c orre c t? I s J e ss c orre c t? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

B oth P earl an d J ess are c orrec t. I f w e take J ess’ s sol ution an d ap p l y the c han g e of b ase form ul a, w e hav e

= ( )
( )
=
( )

= .
( )

T hus, the tw o sol ution s are eq uiv al en t, an d b oth stud en ts are c orrec t.

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L e sson 1 4 : S ol v ing L og a rith m ic E q ua tions

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students solve simple logarithmic eq uations using the definition of logarithm and logarithmic properties.

L e sson N ote s
In this lesson, students solve simple logarithmic eq uations by first putting them into the form log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = 𝐿𝐿, where 𝑏𝑏 is
either 2, 10, or 𝑒𝑒, 𝑌𝑌 is an expression, and 𝐿𝐿 is a number, and then using the definition of logarithm to rewrite the
eq uation in the form 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑌𝑌.
𝑌𝑌 Students are able to evaluate logarithms without technology by selecting an appropriate
base; solutions are provided with this in mind. In Lesson 1 5 , students learn the techniq ue of solving exponential
eq uations using logarithms of any base without relying on the definition. Students need to use the properties of
logarithms developed in prior lessons to rewrite the eq uations in an appropriate form before solving . The lesson
starts with a few fluency exercises to reinforce the logarithmic properties before moving on to solving eq uations.

Cl a ssw ork
O p e ning E x e rc ise ( 3 m inute s) S caffolding:
 Remind students of the main properties
The following exercises provide practice with the definition of the logarithm
that they use by writing the following
and prepare students to solve logarithmic eq uations using the methods
on the board:
outlined later in the lesson. Encourage students to work alone on these
exercises, but allow students to work in pairs if necessary. log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) = 𝐿𝐿 means 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑥𝑥;
log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) + log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑦𝑦);
𝑥𝑥
O p e ning E x e rc ise log 𝑏𝑏 � � = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥) − log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑦𝑦) ;
𝑦𝑦
Conv e rt th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e q ua tions to e q uiv a l e nt e x p one ntia l e q ua tions
log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑟 log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥);
a . ( , )= = , 1
log 𝑏𝑏 � � = −log(𝑥𝑥).
𝑥𝑥
b. √ = =√  Consistently using a visual display of
these properties throughout the module
is helpful.
c . ( )= =

d . ( )= =

e . ( )= =

f. ( + )= + =

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E x a m p l e s ( 6 m inute s)
Students should be ready to take the next step from converting logarithmic eq uations to an eq uivalent exponential
expression to solving the resulting eq uation. Decide whether or not students need to see a teacher- led example or can
attempt to solve these eq uations in pairs. Anticipate that students neglect to check for extraneous solutions in these
examples. After the examples, lead the discussion to the existence of an extraneous solution in Example 3 .

E x a m p le s

W rite e a c h of th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions a s a n e q uiv a l e nt e x p one ntia l e q ua tion, a nd sol v e f or .

1 . ( + )=
( + )=
= +
= +
=−

2 . ( + )=
( + )=
= +
= +
=

3 . ( + )+ ( + )=
( + )+ ( + )=
( + )( + ) =
( + )( + ) =
+ + =
+ =
( + )=
= or =−

H ow ev er, if = − , then ( + ) = − , an d ( + ) = − , so b oth l og arithm s in the eq uation are un d efin ed .

T hus, − is an ex tran eous sol ution , an d on l y is a v al id sol ution to the eq uation .

D isc ussion ( 4 m inute s)

Ask students to volunteer their solutions to the eq uations in the Opening Exercise. This line of q uestioning is designed to
allow students to determine that there is an extraneous solution to Example 3 . If the class has already discovered this
fact, opt to accelerate or skip this discussion.
 What is the solution to the eq uation in Example 1 ?
−2
 What is the result if you evaluate log(3𝑥𝑥 + 7) at 𝑥𝑥 = −2? Did you find a solution?
log(3(−2) + 7) = log(1) = 0, so −2 is a solution to log(3𝑥𝑥 + 7) = 0.

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 What is the solution to the eq uation in Example 2 ?

11
 What is the result if you evaluate log 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 5) at 𝑥𝑥 = 11? Did you find a solution?
log 2 (11 + 5) = log 2 (16) = 4, so 11 is a solution to log 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 5) = 4.
 What is the solution to the eq uation in Example 3 ?
There were two solutions: 0 and −7.
 What is the result if you evaluate log(𝑥𝑥 + 2) + log(𝑥𝑥 + 5) at 𝑥𝑥 = 0? Did you find a solution?
log(2) + log(5) = log(2 5) = log(10) = 1, so 0 is a solution to log(𝑥𝑥 + 2) + log(𝑥𝑥 + 5) = 1.
 What is the result if you evaluate log(𝑥𝑥 + 2) + log(𝑥𝑥 + 5) at 𝑥𝑥 = −7? Did you find a solution?
log(−7 + 2) and log(−7 + 5) are not defined because −7 + 2 and −7 + 5 are negative. Thus, −7 is
not a solution to the original equation.
 What is the term we use for an apparent solution to an eq uation that fails to solve the original eq uation?
It is called an extraneous solution.
 Remember to look for extraneous solutions and to exclude them when you find them.

E x e rc ise 1 ( 4 m inute s)
Allow students to work in pairs or small groups to think about the exponential eq uation below. This eq uation can be
solved rather simply by an application of the logarithmic property log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥 𝑟𝑟 ) = 𝑟𝑟 log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑥𝑥). However, if students do not
see to apply this logarithmic property, it can become algebraically difficult.

E x e rc ise s

1 . D re w sa id th a t th e e q ua tion [( + ) ] = c a nnot be sol v e d be c a use h e e x p a nd e d

( + ) = + + + + a nd re a l iz e d th a t h e c a nnot sol v e th e e q ua tion
+ + + + = . I s h e c orre c t? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

I f w e ap p l y the l og arithm ic p rop erties, this eq uation is sol v ab l e.

[( + ) ] =
( + )=
( + )=
+ =
=

C hec k: I f = , then [( + ) ] = ( )= = , so is a sol ution to the orig in al eq uation .

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E x e rc ise s 2 – 4 ( 6 m inute s)
Students should work on these three exercises independently or in pairs to help develop fluency with these types of
problems. Circulate around the room, and remind students to check for extraneous solutions as necessary.

S ol v e th e e q ua tions in E x e rc ise s 2 – 4 f or .

2 . (( ) )=
( )=
( )=
𝒆𝒆 =
𝒆𝒆
=

𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆
C hec k: Sin c e � � > , w e kn ow that � � is d efin ed . T hus, is the sol ution to the eq uation .

3 . (( + ) )=
( + )=
( + )=
= +
= +
=

C hec k: Sin c e � �+ ≠ , w e kn ow that �� + � � is d efin ed .

T hus, is the sol ution to the eq uation .

4 . (( + ) )=
( + )=
( + )=
= +
= +
=

C hec k: Sin c e � � + > , w e kn ow that � + � is d efin ed .

T hus, is the sol ution to this eq uation .

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E x a m p l e 4 ( 4 m inute s)
Students encountered the first extraneous solution in Example 3 , but there were no extraneous solutions in Exercises 2 –4 .
After working through Example 4 , debrief students to informally assess their understanding, and provide guidance to align
their understanding with the concepts. Remind students that they generally need to apply logarithmic properties before
being able to solve a logarithmic eq uation. Some sample q uestions are included with likely student responses. Remember
to have students check for extraneous solutions in all cases.
log(𝑥𝑥 + 10) − log(𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 2
𝑥𝑥 + 10
log � �=2
𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑥𝑥 + 10
= 102
𝑥𝑥 − 1
𝑥𝑥 + 10 = 100(𝑥𝑥 − 1)
99𝑥𝑥 = 110
10
𝑥𝑥 =
9
1
 Is a valid solution? Explain how you know.
10 10 1
Y es; log � + 10� and log � − 1� are both defined, so is a valid solution.
9 9
 Why could we not rewrite the original eq uation in exponential form using the definition of the logarithm
immediately?
The equation needs to be in the form log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = 𝐿𝐿 before using the definition of a logarithm to rewrite
it in exponential form, so we had to use the logarithmic properties to combine terms first.

E x a m p l e 5 ( 3 m inute s)
Make sure students verify the solutions in Example 5 because there is an extraneous solution.
log 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 1) + log 2 (𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 3
log 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 3
log 2 (𝑥𝑥 2 − 1) = 3
23 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
0 = 𝑥𝑥 2 − 9
0 = (𝑥𝑥 − 3)(𝑥𝑥 + 3)

Thus, 𝑥𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥𝑥 = −3. These solutions need to be checked to see if they are valid.
 Is 3 a valid solution?
log 2 (3 + 1) + log 2 (3 − 1) = log 2 (4) + log 2 (2) = 2 + 1 = 3, so 3 is a valid solution.

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 Is −3 a valid solution?
Because −3 + 1 = −2, log 2 (−3 + 1) = log 2 (−2) is undefined, so −3 not a valid solution. The value
−3 is an extraneous solution, and this equation has only one solution: 3.
 What should we look for when determining whether or not a solution to a logarithmic eq uation is extraneous?
W e cannot take the logarithm of a negative number or 0, so any solution that would result in the input
to a logarithm being negative or 0 cannot be included in the solution set for the equation.

E x e rc ise s 5 – 9 ( 8 m inute s)
Have students work on these exercises individually to develop fluency with solving logarithmic eq uations. Circulate
throughout the classroom to informally assess understanding and provide assistance as needed.

S ol v e th e l og a rith m ic e q ua tions in E x e rc ise s 5 – 9 , a nd id e ntif y a ny e x tra ne ous sol utions.

5 . ( + + )− ( + )=

+ +
=
+
+ +
=
+
+ +
=
+
+ + = +
= + +
= ( + )( + )
= − or =−

C hec k: I f = − , then ( + )= ( ), w hic h is un d efin ed . T hus, − is an ex tran eous sol ution .

T herefore, the on l y sol ution is − .

6 . ( )+ ( )=
( )+ =
( )=
=
=

C hec k: Sin c e > , � � is d efin ed .

T herefore, is a v al id sol ution .

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7 . ( + )− (− ) =
(( + ) ) − (− ) =
( + )
=
−
( + )
=
−
− = + +
= + +
= ( + )( + )
= − or =−
C hec k: T hus, w e g et = − or = − as sol ution s to the q uad ratic eq uation . H ow ev er, if = − , then
( + ) = (− ), so − is an ex tran eous sol ution . T herefore, the on l y sol ution is − .

8 . ( )= − ( )
( )+ ( )=
( )=
( )=
=
C hec k: Sin c e > , ( ) is d efin ed .
T herefore, is a v al id sol ution to this eq uation .

9 . ( + )= ( )− ( + )
( + )+ ( + )= ( )
( + )( + ) = ( )
( + )( + ) =
+ + =
+ − =
( − )( + ) =
= or =−

C hec k: I f = − , then the ex p ression s ( + ) an d ( + ) are un d efin ed .

T herefore, the on l y v al id sol ution to the orig in al eq uation is .

Cl osing ( 3 m inute s)
Have students summarize the process they use to solve logarithmic eq uations in writing. Circulate around the classroom
to informally assess student understanding.
If an equation can be rewritten in the form log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = 𝐿𝐿 for an expression 𝑌𝑌 and a number 𝐿𝐿, then
apply the definition of the logarithm to rewrite as 𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑌𝑌. S olve the resulting exponential equation,
and check for extraneous solutions.
If an equation can be rewritten in the form log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = log 𝑏𝑏 ( ) for expressions 𝑌𝑌 and , then the fact
that the logarithmic functions are one-to-one gives 𝑌𝑌 = . S olve this resulting equation, and check for
extraneous solutions.

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 4 : S ol v ing L og a rith m ic E q ua tions

E x it T ic k e t

Find all solutions to the following eq uations. Remember to check for extraneous solutions.
1 . log 2 (3𝑥𝑥 + 7) = 4

2 . log(𝑥𝑥 − 1) + log(𝑥𝑥 − 4) = 1

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

F ind a l l sol utions to th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions. R e m e m be r to c h e c k f or e x tra ne ous sol utions.

1 . ( + )=
( + )=
+ =
= −
=

Sin c e ( ) + > , w e kn ow is a v al id sol ution to the eq uation .

2 . ( − )+ ( − )=

( − )( − ) =
( − + )=
− + =
− − =
( − )( + ) =
= or =−

C hec k: Sin c e the l eft sid e of the eq uation is n ot d efin ed for = − , this is an ex tran eous sol ution .

T herefore, the on l y v al id sol ution is .

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions

1 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e q ua tions.

a . ( )=

( )=

=
= √

C hec k: Sin c e √ > , w e kn ow √ is d efin ed .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is √ .

b. ( + )=
( + )=
+ =
+ =
=

C hec k: Sin c e + > , w e kn ow ( + ) is d efin ed .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is .

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c . ( − )=

− =
=−

C hec k: Sin c e − (− ) > , w e kn ow − (− ) is d efin ed .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is − .

d . ( )=

[( ) ]=
( )=
( )=
=

C hec k: Sin c e � � > , w e kn ow � � � � is d efin ed .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is .

e . ( + + )=

[( + ) ]=
( + )=
( + )=
+ =
+ =
=

C hec k: Sin c e � � + � �+ = , an d > , � � � + � �+ � is d efin ed .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is .

2 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e q ua tions.

a . ( )=
( )=
( )=
= 𝒆𝒆

C hec k: Sin c e 𝒆𝒆 > , w e kn ow ((𝒆𝒆 ) ) is d efin ed .

T herefore, the on l y sol ution to this eq uation is 𝒆𝒆 .

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b. [( + − ) ]=

( + − )=
( + − )=
+ − =
+ − =
+ − − =
( + )− ( + )=
( − )( + )=

C hec k: Sin c e + − > for b oth =− an d = , w e kn ow the l eft sid e of the orig in al
eq uation is d efin ed at these v al ues.

T herefore, the tw o sol ution s to this eq uation are − an d .

c . [( + − ) ]=
( + − )=
( + − )=
+ − =
+ − =
+ − =

− ±√ +
=

=− ±√

C hec k: Sin c e + − = w hen = − + √ or = − − √ , w e kn ow the l og arithm is d efin ed for

these v al ues of .

T herefore, the tw o sol ution s to the eq uation are − + √ an d − − √ .

3 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e q ua tions.

a . ( )+ ( − )= ( + )
( )+ ( − )= ( + )
( − ) = ( + )
( − )= +
− − =
( + )( − ) =

C hec k: Sin c e (− ) is un d efin ed , − is an ex tran eous sol ution .

T herefore, the on l y sol ution to this eq uation is .

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b. ( )− ( )=

( )− ( )=

= 𝒆𝒆
𝒆𝒆
=
√𝒆𝒆 √𝒆𝒆
= or =−

C hec k: Sin c e the v al ue of in the l og arithm ic ex p ression is sq uared , ( ) is d efin ed for an y n on z ero
v al ue of .

𝒆𝒆 𝒆𝒆
T herefore, b oth an d − are v al id sol ution s to this eq uation .

c . ( )+ (− ) =

(− ) =
(− )=
− =
=−

Sin c e there is n o real n um b er so that = − , there is n o sol ution to this eq uation .

d . ( + )+ ( + )=

( + )( + ) =
( + )( + ) =
+ + − =
+ − =

− ±√ +
=

=− ±√

C hec k: T he l eft sid e of the eq uation is n ot d efin ed for =− −√ , b ut it is for =− +√ .

T herefore, the on l y sol ution to this eq uation is =− +√ .

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e . ( + )− = ( − )
( + )− ( − )=
+
� �=
−
+
=
−
+
=
−
+ = −
=

C hec k: B oth sid es of the eq uation are d efin ed for = .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is .

f. ( )+ ( )+ ( )+ ( )=
( )=
( )=
[( ) ]=
( )=
( )=
=

C hec k: Sin c e > , al l l og arithm ic ex p ression s in this eq uation are d efin ed for = .

T herefore, the sol ution to this eq uation is .

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4 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions.

a . ( )= b. ( )=

c . ( )=− d . √ ( )=

e . √ ( )= f. ( )=

√ ,−

g . ( − )= h . ( + )=

i. = ( − ) j. ( − )=

k . ( )= l. ( − + )=
𝒆𝒆 ,−

m . (( + ) )= n. ( )+ ( + )=

√ ,− √

o. ( − )+ ( )= p . ( )− ( + )=−

q . ( + )− ( − )= r. ( )+ = ( + )

s. ( − )− ( + )= t. − ( − )= ( )

u. ( − )− ( − )= v . � ( + ) �=
N o sol ution

w . ( − )= x . ( + )− ( )=

√ √ 𝒆𝒆 −
,−

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L e sson 1 5 : W h y W e re L og a rith m s D e v e l op e d ?

S tud e nt O utc om e s
 Students use logarithm tables to calculate products and q uotients of multi- digit numbers without technology.
 Students understand that logarithms were developed to speed up arithmetic calculations by reducing
multiplication and division to the simpler operations of addition and subtraction.
 Students solve logarithmic eq uations of the form log(𝑋𝑋) = log(𝑌𝑌) by eq uating 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌.

L e sson N ote s
This final lesson in Topic B includes two procedures that appear to be different but are closely related mathematically.
First, students work with logarithm tables to see how applying logarithms simplified calculations in the days before
computing machines and electronic technology. They also learn a bit of the history of how and why logarithms first
appeared—a history often obscured when logarithmic functions are introduced as inverses of exponential functions.
The last two pages of this document contain a base 10 table of logarithms that can be copied and distributed; such
tables are also available on the Internet.
Second, students learn to solve the final type of logarithmic eq uation, log(𝑋𝑋) = log(𝑌𝑌), where 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 are
either real numbers or expressions that take on positive real values. U sing either techniq ue req uires knowing
that the logarithm is a one- to- one function; that is, if log(𝑋𝑋) = log(𝑌𝑌), then 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌. Students do not yet have the
vocabulary to be told this directly, but it is stated as a fact in this lesson, and they further explore the idea of one- to- one
functions in Precalculus and Advanced Topics. As with Lessons 1 0 and 1 2 , this lesson involves only base- 10 logarithms,
but the Problem Set does req uire that students do some work with logarithms base 𝑒𝑒 and base 2. Remind students to
check for extraneous solutions when solving logarithmic eq uations.

Cl a ssw ork
D isc ussion ( 4 m inute s) : H ow to R e a d a T a bl e of L og a rith m s
 For this lesson, we will pretend that we live in the time when logarithms were discovered, before there were
calculators or computing machines. In this time, scientists, merchants, and sailors needed to make
calculations for both astronomical observation and navigation. Logarithms made these calculations much
easier, faster, and more accurate than calculation with large numbers. In fact, noted mathematician Pierre-
Simon LaPlace ( France, circa 1 80 0 ) said that “ [ logarithms are an] admirable artifice which, by reducing to a few
days the labour of many months, doubles the life of the astronomer, and spares him the errors and disgust
inseparable from long calculations. ”
 A typical table of common logarithms, like the table at the end of this document, has many rows of numbers
arranged in ten columns. The numbers in the table are decimals. In our table, they are given to four decimal
places, and there are 90 rows of them ( some tables of logarithms have 900 rows) . Down the left- hand side of
the table are the numbers from 1.0 to 9.9. Across the top of the table are the numbers from 0 to 9. To read
the table, you locate the number whose logarithm you want using the numbers down the left of the table
followed by the numbers across the top.

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 What does the number in the third row and second column represent ( the entry for 1.21) ?
The logarithm of 1.21, which is approximately 0.0828
 The logarithm of numbers larger than 9.9 and smaller than 1.0 can also be found using this table. Suppose you
want to find log(365). Is there any way we can rewrite 365 to include a number between 1.0 and 9.9?
Rewrite 365 in scientific notation: 3.65 × 102 .
 Can we simplify log(3.65 × 102 )?
W e can apply the formula for the logarithm of a product. Then, we have
log(102 ) + log(3.65) = 2 + log(3.65).
 Now, all that is left is to find the value of log(3.65) using the table. What is the value of log(365)?
The table entry is 0.5623. That means log(365) ≈ 2 + 0.5623, so log(365) ≈ 2.5623.
 How would you find log(0.365)?
In scientific notation, 0.365 = 3.65 × 10−1 . S o, once again, you would find the row for 3.6 and the
column for 5, and you would again find the number 0.5623. But this time, you would have
log(0.365) ≈ −1 + 0.5623, so log(0.365) ≈ 0.4377.

E x a m p l e 1 ( 7 m inute s)
Students multiply multi- digit numbers without technology and then use a table of S caffolding:
logarithms to find the same product using logarithms.
 Students may need to be
 Find the product 3.42 × 2.47 without using a calculator. reminded that if the
U sing paper and pencil, and without any rounding, students should get logarithm is greater than
8.4474. The point is to show how much time the multiplication of multi- 1, a power of 10 greater
digit numbers can take. than 1 is involved, and
only the decimal part of
 How could we use logarithms to find this product?
the number is found in the
If we take the logarithm of the product, we can rewrite the product as a table.
sum of logarithms.
 Struggling students should
 Rewrite the logarithm of the product as the sum of logarithms. attempt a simpler product
log(3.42 × 2.47) = log(3.42) + log(2.47) such as 1.20 × 6.00 to
 U se the table of logarithms to look up the values of log(3.42) and log(2.47). illustrate the process.
According to the table, log(3.42) ≈ 0.5340, and log(2.47) ≈ 0.3927.  Advanced students may
 Approximate the logarithm log(3.42 × 2.47). use larger or more precise
numbers as a challenge.
The approximate sum is
To multiply a product such
log(3.42 × 2.47) ≈ 0.5340 + 0.3927 as 34.293 × 107.9821,
≈ 0.9267. students have to employ
scientific notation and the
 What if there is more than one number that has a logarithm of 0.9267?
property for the logarithm
Suppose that there are two numbers 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 that satisfy log(𝑋𝑋) = 0.9267 and
of a product.
log(𝑌𝑌) = 0.9267. Then 10 . 2 = 𝑋𝑋, and 10 . 2 = 𝑌𝑌, so that 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌. This
means that there is only one number that has the logarithm 0.9267. So, what is
that number?

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 Can we find the exact number that has logarithm 0.9267 using the table?
The table says that log(8.44) ≈ 0.9263, and log(8.45) ≈ 0.9269.
 Which is closer?
log(8.45) ≈ 0.9267
 Since log(3.42 × 2.47) ≈ log(8.45), what can we conclude is an approximate value for 3.42 × 2.47?
S ince log(3.42 × 2.47) ≈ log(8.45), we know that 3.42 × 2.47 ≈ 8.45.
 Does this agree with the product you found when you did the calculation by hand?
Y es. By hand, we found that the product is 8.4474,
8.4474 which is approximately 8.45.

D isc ussion ( 2 m inute s)

In Example 1 , we showed that there was only one number that had logarithm 0.9267. This result generalizes to any
number and any base of the logarithm: If log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑋𝑋) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌), then 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌. We need to know this property both to use a
logarithm table to look up values that produce a certain logarithmic value and to solve logarithmic eq uations later in the
lesson.

If 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 are positive real numbers, or expressions that take on the value of positive real
numbers, and log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑋𝑋) = log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌), then 𝑋𝑋 = 𝑌𝑌.

E x a m p l e 2 ( 4 m inute s)
This example is a continuation of the first example, with the addition of scientific notation to further explain the power
of logarithms. Because much of the reasoning was explained in Example 1 , this should take much less time to work
through.
 Now, what if we needed to calculate (3.42 × 1014 ) × (5.76 × 1012 )?
 Take the logarithm of this product, and find its approximate value using the logarithm table.
log (3.42 × 1014 ) × (5.76 × 1012 ) = log(3.42) + log(1014 ) + log(5.76) + log(1012 )
= log(3.42) + log(5.76) + 14 + 12
≈ 0.5340 + 0.7604 + 26
≈ 27.2944
 Look up 0.2944 in the logarithm table.
S ince log(1.97) ≈ 0.2945, we can say that 0.2944 ≈ log(1.97).
 How does that tell us which number has a logarithm approximately eq ual to 27.2944?
log(1.97 × 102 ) = 27 + log(1.97), so log(1.97 × 102 ) ≈ 27.2944.
 Finally, what is an approximate value of the product (3.42 × 1014 ) × (5.76 × 1012 )?
(3.42 × 1014 ) × (5.76 × 1012 ) ≈ 1.97 × 102

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E x a m p l e 3 ( 6 m inute s)

 According to one estimate, the mass of the earth is roughly 5.28 × 1024 kg, and the mass of the moon is about
7.35 × 1022 kg. Without using a calculator but using the table of logarithms, find how many times greater
the mass of Earth is than the mass of the moon.
24
5.28 × 10 5.28
Let 𝐼𝐼 be the ratio of the two masses. Then 𝐼𝐼 = 22 = 102 .
7.35 × 10 7.35
Taking the logarithm of each side,
5.28
log(𝐼𝐼) = log � 102 �
7.35
5.28
= 2 + log � �
7.35
= 2 + log(5.28) − log(7.35)
≈ 2 + 0.7226 − 0.8663
≈ 1.8563.

 Find 0.8563 in the table entries to estimate 𝐼𝐼.

In the table, 0.8563 is closest to log(7.18).
S o, log(71.8) ≈ 1.8563, and therefore, the mass of Earth is approximately 71.8 times that of the
moon.
 Logarithms turn out to be very useful in dealing with especially large or especially small numbers. How does it
help to have those numbers expressed in scientific notation if we are going to use a logarithm table to perform
multiplication or division?
Again, answers will differ, but students should at least recognize that scientific notation is helpful in
working with very large or very small numbers. U sing scientific notation, we can express each number
as the product of a number between 1 and 10, and a power of 10. Taking the logarithm of the number
allows us to use properties of logarithms base 10 to handle more easily any number 𝑛𝑛 where 0 < 𝑛𝑛 < 1
or 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 10. The logarithm of the number between 1 and 10 can be read from the table, and the
exponent of the power of 10 can then be added to it.
 Whenever we have a number of the form 𝑘𝑘 × 10𝑛𝑛 where 𝑛𝑛 is an integer and 𝑘𝑘 is a number between 1.0 and
9.9, the logarithm of this number will always be 𝑛𝑛 + log(𝑘𝑘) and can be evaluated using a table of logarithms
like the one included in this lesson.

D isc ussion ( 4 m inute s)

Logarithms were devised by the Scottish mathematician John Napier ( 1550–1617) with the help of the English
mathematician Henry Briggs ( 1561–1630) to simplify arithmetic computations with multi- digit numbers by turning
multiplication and division into addition and subtraction. The basic idea is that while a seq uence of powers like
2 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 2 , … is increasing multiplicatively, the seq uence of its exponents is increasing additively. If numbers
can be represented as the powers of a base, they can be multiplied by adding their exponents and divided by subtracting
their exponents. Napier and Briggs published the first tables of what came to be called base- 10 or common logarithms.

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 It was Briggs’ s idea to base the logarithms on the number 10. Why do you think he made that choice?
The number 10 is the base of our number system. S o, taking 10 as the base of common logarithms
makes hand calculations with logarithms easier. It is really the same argument that makes scientific
notation helpful: P owers of 10 are easy to use in calculations.

E x e rc ise s ( 1 2 m inute s)
Now that students know that if two logarithmic expressions with the same base are eq ual, then the arguments inside of
the logarithms are eq ual, and students can solve a wider variety of logarithmic eq uations without invoking the definition
each time. Due to the many logarithmic properties that students now know, there are multiple approaches to solving
these eq uations. Discuss different approaches with students and their responses to Exercise 2 .

E x e rc ise s

1 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions. R e m e m be r to c h e c k f or e x tra ne ous sol utions be c a use l og a rith m s a re onl y d e f ine d f or
p ositiv e re a l num be rs.
a . ( )= ( )

=
= or =−
C hec k: B oth sol ution s are v al id sin c e an d (− ) are b oth p ositiv e n um b ers.

T he tw o sol ution s are an d − .

S caffolding:
b. ( + )+ ( + )= ( − ) If the class seems to be struggling with the
process to solve logarithmic eq uations, then
( + )( − ) = ( − )
either encourage them to create a graphic
( + )( − ) = −
organizer that summarizes the types of
− − = −
problems and approaches that they should
− + =
use in each case, or hang one on the board
( − )( − ) =
for reference. A sample graphic organizer is
= or =
included.
C hec k: Sin c e + , − , an d − are al l p ositiv e for either
= or = , b oth sol ution s are v al id . R e w rite P robl e m in th e F orm …
T hus, the sol ution s to this eq uation are an d 5 . log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = 𝐿𝐿 log 𝑏𝑏 (𝑌𝑌) = log 𝑏𝑏 ( )
T h e n…
𝑏𝑏 𝐿𝐿 = 𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌 =
c . ( + )= ( − )

+ = ( − )
= −
=−

=−

C hec k: B oth �− � + > an d − (− − ) > , so the sol ution − is v al id .

T hus, − is the on l y v al id sol ution to this eq uation .

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d . ( + )+ ( − )= ( )

( + )( − ) = ( )
( + )( − ) =
+ − =
− =
= or =−

C hec k: Sin c e ( ) is un d efin ed w hen = − , there is an ex tran eous sol ution of =− .

T he on l y v al id sol ution to this eq uation is .

e . ( − )− ( − )= ( − )

( − )+ ( − )= ( − )
( − )( − ) = ( − )
( − )( − ) = −
− + = −
=

C hec k: W hen = , w e hav e − < , so ( − ), ( − ), an d ( − ) are al l un d efin ed . So,

the sol ution = is ex tran eous.

T here are n o v al id sol ution s to this eq uation .

f. ( )+ ( − )+ ( + )= ( )
( − )( + ) = ( )
( − )= ( )
− =
=

Sin c e ( ) is un d efin ed , = is an ex tran eous sol ution .

T here are n o v al id sol ution s to this eq uation .

g . ( − )=− ( − )
T w o p ossib l e ap p roac hes to sol v in g this eq uation are show n .

( − )= � � ( − )+ ( − )=
−
( − )( − ) = ( )
− =
− ( − )( − ) =
( − )( − ) = − + =
− + = − + =
− + = = ±√
= ±√

C hec k: I f = − √ , then < , so ( − ) is un d efin ed . T hus, − √ is an ex tran eous sol ution .

T he on l y v al id sol ution to this eq uation is +√ .

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2 . H ow d o y ou k now if y ou ne e d to use th e d e f inition of l og a rith m to sol v e a n e q ua tion inv ol v ing l og a rith m s a s w e d id

in L e sson 1 5 or if y ou c a n use th e m e th od s of th is l e sson?

I f the eq uation in v ol v es on l y l og arithm ic ex p ression s, then it c an b e reorg an iz ed to b e of the form ( )= ( )

an d then sol v ed b y eq uatin g = . I f there are c on stan ts in v ol v ed , then the eq uation c an b e sol v ed usin g the
d efin ition an d p rop erties of l og arithm s.

Cl osing ( 2 m inute s)
Ask students the following q uestions, and after coming to a consensus, have students record the answers in their
notebooks:
 How do we use a table of logarithms to compute a product of two numbers 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦?
W e look up approximations to log(𝑥𝑥) and log(𝑦𝑦) in the table, add those logarithms, and then look up
the sum in the table to extract the approximate product.
 Does this process provide an exact answer? Explain how you know.
It is only an approximation because the table only allows us to look up 𝑥𝑥 to two decimal places and
log(𝑥𝑥) to four decimal places.
 How do we solve an eq uation in which every term contains a logarithm?
W e rearrange the terms to get an equation of the form log(𝑋𝑋) = log(𝑌𝑌), then equate 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌,
𝑌𝑌 and
solve from there.
 How does that differ from solving an eq uation that contains constant terms?
If an equation has constant terms, then we rearrange the equation to the form log(𝑋𝑋) = 𝑐𝑐, apply the
definition of the logarithm, and solve from there.

L e sson S um m a ry
A ta bl e of ba se - l og a rith m s c a n be use d to sim p l if y m ul tip l ic a tion of m ul ti- d ig it num be rs:
1 . T o c om p ute f or p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd , l ook up ( ) a nd ( ) in th e l og a rith m ta bl e .
2 . A d d ( ) a nd ( ). T h e sum c a n be w ritte n a s + , w h e re is a n inte g e r a nd < is th e
d e c im a l p a rt.
3 . L ook ba c k a t th e ta bl e , a nd f ind th e e ntry c l ose st to th e d e c im a l p a rt, .
4 . T h e p rod uc t of th a t e ntry a nd is a n a p p rox im a tion to .

A sim il a r p roc e ss sim p l if ie s d iv ision of m ul ti- d ig it num be rs:

1 . T o c om p ute f or p ositiv e re a l num be rs a nd , l ook up ( ) a nd ( ) in th e l og a rith m ta bl e .

2 . Ca l c ul a te ( )− ( ). T h e d if f e re nc e c a n be w ritte n a s + , w h e re is a n inte g e r a nd < is

th e d e c im a l p a rt.
3 . L ook ba c k a t th e ta bl e to f ind th e e ntry c l ose st to th e d e c im a l p a rt, .

4 . T h e p rod uc t of th a t e ntry a nd is a n a p p rox im a tion to .

F or a ny p ositiv e v a l ue s a nd , if ( )= ( ), w e c a n c onc l ud e th a t = . T h is p rop e rty is th e e sse nc e of

h ow a l og a rith m ta bl e w ork s, a nd it a l l ow s us to sol v e e q ua tions w ith l og a rith m ic e x p re ssions on both sid e s of th e
e q ua tion.

E x it T ic k e t ( 4 m inute s)

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Name Date

L e sson 1 5 : W h y W e re L og a rith m s D e v e l op e d ?

E x it T ic k e t

The surface area of Jupiter is 6.14 × 101 km2 , and the surface area of Earth is 5.10 × 10 km². Without using a
calculator but using the table of logarithms, find how many times greater the surface area of Jupiter is than the surface
area of Earth.

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E x it T ic k e t S a m p l e S ol utions

T h e surf a c e a re a of J up ite r is . × , a nd th e surf a c e a re a of E a rth is . × ². W ith out using a

c a l c ul a tor but using th e ta bl e of l og a rith m s, f ind h ow m a ny tim e s g re a te r th e surf a c e a re a of J up ite r is th a n th e surf a c e
a re a of E a rth .

. × .
L et b e the ratio of the tw o surfac e areas. T hen = = .
. × .

T akin g the l og arithm of eac h sid e,

.
( )= � �
.
.
= + � �
.
= + ( . )− ( . )
≈ + . − .
≈ . .

F in d . in the tab l e en tries to estim ate .

L ook up . , w hic h is c l osest to ( . ). N ote that + . ≈ ( )+ ( . ), so

( )≈ . . T herefore, the surfac e area of J up iter is ap p rox im atel y tim es that of Earth.

P robl e m S e t S a m p l e S ol utions
These problems give students additional practice using base- 10 logarithms to perform arithmetic calculations and solve
eq uations.

1 . U se th e ta bl e of l og a rith m s to a p p rox im a te sol utions to th e f ol l ow ing l og a rith m ic e q ua tions:

a . ( )= .

I n the tab l e, . is c l osest to ( . ), so ( )≈ ( . ).

T herefore, ≈ . .

b. ( )=− . ( H int: B e g in by w riting − . a s [(− . )+ ]− .)

( ) = [(− . )+ ]−
= . −

I n the tab l e, . is c l osest to ( . ), so

( )≈ ( . )−
≈ ( . )− ( )
.
≈ � �

≈ ( . ).

T herefore, ≈ . .

Al tern ativ el y, − . is the op p osite of . , so is the rec ip roc al of the an sw er in p art ( a) . T hus,
≈ . − ≈ . .

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c . ( )= .
( )= + .
= ( )+ .
≈ ( )+ ( . )
≈ ( . × )

T herefore, ≈ . × .

d . ( )= .
( )= + .
= ( )+ .
≈ ( )+ ( . )
≈ ( . × )

T h e re f ore , ≈ .

2 . U se l og a rith m s a nd th e l og a rith m ta bl e to e v a l ua te e a c h e x p re ssion.

a . √ .

�( . ) �= ( . )≈ ( . )≈ .

T hus, √ . ≈ . , an d l oc atin g . in the l og arithm tab l e g iv es a v al ue of ap p rox im atel y

. . T herefore, √ . ≈ . .

b.
( . . )= ( . )+ ( . )+ +
≈ . + . +
≈ .

T hus, ( )≈ . . L oc atin g . in the l og arithm tab l e g iv es a v al ue of . .

T herefore, the p rod uc t is ap p rox im atel y . × .

. ×
c .
. ×
( . )+ ( )− ( . )− ( )≈ . + − . − ≈ .

L oc atin g . in the l og arithm tab l e g iv es . . So, the q uotien t is ap p rox im atel y . × .

3 . S ol v e f or : ( )+ ( )= ( ).

( )+ ( )= ( )
( )+ ( )= ( )
( )= ( )
=
=
=±

B ec ause ( ) is on l y d efin ed for p ositiv e real n um b ers , the on l y sol ution to the eq uation is .

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4 . S ol v e f or : ( )+ ( + )= ( ).

( + )= ( )
+ =
+ − =
+ − − =
( + )− ( + )=
( − )( + ) =

T hus, an d − sol v e the q uad ratic eq uation , b ut − is an ex tran eous sol ution to the l og arithm ic eq uation . H en c e,
is the on l y sol ution .

5 . S ol v e f or .
a . ( )= ( + )+ ( − )
( )= ( + )+ ( − )
( )= ( + )( − )
( )= ( − )
= −

b. ( )= ( )+ ( ) + ( )− ( )

( )= ( )+ ( ) + ( )− ( )
( )= ( )
( )= ( )
=

6 . If a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs, a nd ( )= + ( ), e x p re ss in te rm s of .

Sin c e ( )= + ( ), w e see that ( )= ( ). T hen = .

7 . If , , a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs, a nd ( )− ( )= ( )− ( ), e x p re ss in te rm s of a nd .

( )− ( )= ( )− ( )
( )+ ( )= ( )
( )= ( )
=
=√

8 . If a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs, a nd ( )= ( + )− ( ) , e x p re ss in te rm s of .

( )= ( + )− ( )
+
( )= � �

+
( )= � �
+
=� �

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9 . If a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs, a nd ( )= + ( ), e x p re ss in te rm s of .

Sin c e ( )= + ( )= + ( ), w e see that ( )= ( ). T hus, = .

1 0 . If , , a nd a re p ositiv e re a l num be rs, a nd ( )= ( )+ ( ) − , e x p re ss in te rm s of a nd .

Sin c e � �= ( )+ ( ) − , w e see that ( )= � �. T hus, = .

1 1 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions.
a . ( )− ( − )= ( )

� �= ( )
−
=
−
= ( − )
− + =
( − )( − ) =
= or =

C hec k: I f = or = , then the ex p ression s an d − are p ositiv e.

T hus, b oth an d are v al id sol ution s to this eq uation .

b. ( + )+ ( − )= ( − )

( + )( − ) = ( − )
− = −
− + =
( − )( − ) =
= or =

C hec k: I f = or = , then the ex p ression s + , − , an d − are al l p ositiv e.

T hus, b oth an d are v al id sol ution s to this eq uation .

c . ( + )+ ( − )= (− − )
( + )( − ) = (− − )
( − )= (− − )
− =− −
+ − =
( + )( − ) =
= − or =

So, = − or = , b ut = − m akes the in p ut to b oth l og arithm s on the l eft- han d sid e n eg ativ e, an d =
m akes the in p ut to the sec on d an d third l og arithm s n eg ativ e. T hus, there are n o sol ution s to the orig in al
eq uation .

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1 2 . S up p ose th e f orm ul a = ( + ) g iv e s th e p op ul a tion of a c ity g row ing a t a n a nnua l p e rc e nt ra te , w h e re

is th e p op ul a tion y e a rs a g o.
a . F ind th e tim e it ta k e s th is p op ul a tion to d oubl e .

L et = .

T hen ,

= ( + )
=( + )
( )= ( + )
( )= ( + )
( )
= .
( + )

b. U se th e struc ture of th e e x p re ssion to e x p l a in w h y p op ul a tions w ith l ow e r g row th ra te s ta k e a l ong e r tim e to

d oubl e .

I f is a d ec im al b etw een an d , then the d en om in ator w il l b e a n um b er b etw een an d ( ). T hus, the

v al ue of w il l b e l arg e for sm al l v al ues of an d g ettin g c l oser to as in c reases.

c . U se th e struc ture of th e e x p re ssion to e x p l a in w h y th e onl y w a y to d oubl e th e p op ul a tion in one y e a r is if

th e re is a p e rc e nt g row th ra te .

F or the p op ul ation to d oub l e, w e n eed to hav e = . T his hap p en s if ( )= ( + ), an d then w e hav e

= + an d = .

1 3 . If > , + > , > , a nd ( )= ( + )+ ( − ), f ind in te rm s of a nd .

Ap p l yin g p rop erties of l og arithm s, w e hav e

( )= ( + )+ ( − )
= ( + )( − )
= ( − ).

So, = − .

1 4 . J e nn c l a im s th a t be c a use ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( ), th e n ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( ).
a . I s sh e c orre c t? E x p l a in h ow y ou k now .

J en n is n ot c orrec t. Ev en thoug h ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )= ( ), the l og arithm

p rop erties g iv e ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( )= ( ). Sin c e ≠ , w e kn ow that
( )≠ ( ).

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b. If ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( + + ), e x p re ss in te rm s of a nd . E x p l a in h ow th is re sul t re l a te s
to y our a nsw e r to p a rt ( a ) .
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( + + )
( )= ( + + )
= + +
− = +
( − )= +
+
=
−
+
If ( )+ ( )+ ( ) w ere eq ual to ( ), then w e w oul d hav e = . H ow ev er,
−
= = ≠ , so w e kn ow that ( )+ ( )+ ( )≠ ( ).
−

c . F ind oth e r v a l ue s of , , a nd so th a t ( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( + + ).
+
Man y an sw ers are p ossib l e; in fac t, an y p ositiv e v al ues of an d w here ≠ an d = w il l satisfy
−
( )+ ( )+ ( )= ( + + ). O n e suc h an sw er is = , = , an d = .

1 5 . I n P robl e m 7 of th e L e sson 1 2 P robl e m S e t, y ou sh ow e d th a t f or ≥ , +√ − + −√ − = .

I t f ol l ow s th a t +√ − =− −√ − . W h a t d oe s th is te l l us a bout th e re l a tionsh ip be tw e e n th e
e x p re ssions +√ − a nd −√ − ?

Sin c e w e kn ow +√ − =− −√ − , an d − −√ − = , w e kn ow
− −

that +√ − = . T hen +√ − = W e c an v erify that these ex p ression s

− − − −
are rec ip roc al s b y m ul tip l yin g them tog ether:

� + − �� − − �= + − − − −� − �
= −( − )
= .

1 6 . U se th e c h a ng e of ba se f orm ul a to sol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tions.

a . ( )= ( − + )
( − + )
( )=
( )

( )= ( − + )
( )= ( − + )
( )= ( − + )
= − +
=
=

Sin c e b oth sid es of the eq uation are d efin ed for = , the on l y sol ution to this eq uation is .

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b. ( − )= ( − )
( − )
( − )=
( )

( − )= ( − )
( − )= ( − )
(( − ) ) = ( − )
( − ) = −
− + = −
− − =
( − )( + ) =

T hus, either = or = − . Sin c e the l eft sid e of the eq uation is un d efin ed w hen = − , b ut b oth sid es
are d efin ed for = , the on l y sol ution to the eq uation is .

c . ( + )= ( + + )
( + )= ( + + )
( + + )
( + )=
( )
( + )= ( + + )
(( + ) ) = ( + + )
( + ) = + +
+ + = + +
+ = +
=−

Sin c e the l eft sid e of the eq uation is un d efin ed for = − , there is n o sol ution to this eq uation .

d . ( − )= ( − − + )
( − − + )
( − )=
( )
( − )= ( − − + )
(( − ) ) = ( − − + )
( − ) = − − +
− + − = − − +
− + =
( − )( − ) =

Sin c e b oth sid es of the eq uation are d efin ed for = an d = , an d are b oth v al id sol ution s to this
eq uation .

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+ ( )
1 7 . S ol v e th e f ol l ow ing e q ua tion: ( )= .

Rew rite the l eft- han d sid e usin g the c han g e of b ase form ul a:
( )
( )=
( )
( )+ ( )
=
( )
( )+ ( )
= .
( )

T hus, the eq uation is true for al l > .

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Name Date

1 . U se properties of exponents to explain why it makes sense to define 16 as √16

√ .

2 . U se properties of exponents to rewrite each expression as either an integer or as a q uotient of integers

to show the expression is a rational number.

a. √ √8
√2 √

3
√ 4
b. 3
√2

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3
1 3
c. 16 �27�

3 . U se properties of exponents to rewrite each expression with only positive, rational exponents. Then find
the numerical value of each expression when 𝑥𝑥 = 9, 𝑦𝑦 = 8, and = 16. In each case, the expression
evaluates to a rational number.

𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦2
a. 1
𝑥𝑥3 2

b. 𝑦𝑦 2 4

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3 3
c. 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑦𝑦 3 −

4 . We can use finite approximations of the decimal expansion of = 3.141519 … to find an approximate
value of the number 3𝜋𝜋 .

a. Fill in the missing exponents in the following seq uence of ineq ualities that represents the recursive
process of finding the value of 3𝜋𝜋 :

33 < 3𝜋𝜋 < 34

33.1 < 3𝜋𝜋 < 33.2
33.14 < 3𝜋𝜋 < 33.1
3( )
< 3𝜋𝜋 < 3( )

3( )