HOW TO SOLVE INTEGRATION: A

COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE
Integration is a fundamental concept in calculus, serving as the inverse
operation to differentiation. While differentiation allows us to find the rate of
change of a function, integration enables us to find the accumulated quantity,
the total sum, or the area under a curve. It's a powerful tool with vast
applications in science, engineering, economics, and many other fields.

PAGE 1: INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATION

1.1 WHAT IS INTEGRATION?

At its core, integration can be understood in two main ways:

• Antidifferentiation: If we have a function f(x) , its antiderivative,

denoted as F(x) , is a function whose derivative is f(x) . In other
words, if F'(x) = f(x) , then F(x) is an antiderivative of f(x) .
Since the derivative of a constant is zero, any function F(x) + C
(where C is an arbitrary constant) is also an antiderivative. This is why we
always add a "+ C" (the constant of integration) for indefinite integrals.
• Area Under a Curve: For definite integrals, integration represents the
signed area between the graph of a function and the x-axis over a given
interval. This concept is crucial for understanding its applications.

1.2 NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

• Indefinite Integral: ∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + C

◦ ∫ : The integral symbol
◦ f(x) : The integrand (the function being integrated)
◦ dx : Indicates that x is the variable of integration
◦ F(x) : The antiderivative of f(x)
◦ C : The constant of integration
• Definite Integral: ∫b f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a)
a
◦ a : Lower limit of integration
◦ b : Upper limit of integration
This is known as the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Part 2).
1.3 BASIC INTEGRATION RULES

Just like differentiation, integration has fundamental rules. Here are some of
the most common ones:

1. Constant Rule: ∫ k dx = kx + C
2. Power Rule: ∫ xn dx = (xn+1)/(n+1) + C (for n ≠ -1
3. Constant Multiple Rule: ∫ k f(x) dx = k ∫ f(x) dx
4. Sum/Difference Rule: ∫ [f(x) ± g(x)] dx = ∫ f(x) dx ± ∫ g(
5. Logarithmic Rule: ∫ (1/x) dx = ln|x| + C
6. Exponential Rule: ∫ ex dx = ex + C
∫ ax dx = ax / ln(a) + C

Example: Basic Power Rule

Solve ∫ (3x2 - 5x + 7) dx

∫ 3x2 dx - ∫ 5x dx + ∫ 7 dx
= 3 * (x3/3) - 5 * (x2/2) + 7x + C
= x3 - (5/2)x2 + 7x + C

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PAGE 2: CORE INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES - PART 1

(BASIC & SUBSTITUTION)
Beyond the fundamental rules, solving more complex integrals requires
specific techniques. We'll start with a review of basic forms and then delve
into the powerful method of u-substitution.

2.1 REVIEW OF BASIC ANTIDERIVATIVES

It's essential to be familiar with the antiderivatives of common functions,

especially trigonometric and exponential functions, as they frequently appear
in more complex problems.

∫ cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C
∫ sin(x) dx = -cos(x) + C
 ∫ sec2(x) dx = tan(x) + C
∫ csc2(x) dx = -cot(x) + C
∫ sec(x)tan(x) dx = sec(x) + C
∫ csc(x)cot(x) dx = -csc(x) + C
∫ eax dx = (1/a)eax + C
∫ (1 / √(a2 - x2)) dx = arcsin(x/a) + C
∫ (1 / (a2 + x2)) dx = (1/a)arctan(x/a) + C

2.2 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION (U-SUBSTITUTION)

U-substitution is the inverse of the chain rule for differentiation. It's used
when the integrand contains a function and its derivative. The goal is to
simplify the integral into a basic form by changing the variable of integration.

Steps for U-Substitution:

1. Choose u : Select a part of the integrand to be u . Often, this is the

'inner function' of a composite function, or a term whose derivative also
appears in the integrand (possibly with a constant multiple).
2. Find du : Differentiate your chosen u with respect to x to find du/
dx , then rearrange to solve for dx in terms of du (i.e., dx = du /
(du/dx) ).
3. Substitute: Replace all instances of the original variable ( x ) and dx
with their u and du equivalents. The entire integrand should now be
in terms of u .
4. Integrate: Solve the new integral with respect to u . This should now be
a simpler, recognizable form.
5. Substitute Back: Replace u with its original expression in terms of x .
Don't forget the constant of integration, + C .
6. (For Definite Integrals) Change Limits: If it's a definite integral, you must
also change the limits of integration from x values to u values, or
substitute back to x before evaluating the limits. Changing limits is
generally more efficient.

Example: U-Substitution

Solve ∫ x √(1 + x2) dx

 1. Let u = 1 + x2
2. du/dx = 2x → dx = du / (2x)
3. Substitute:
∫ x √u (du / (2x))
= ∫ (1/2) √u du
= (1/2) ∫ u1/2 du
4. Integrate:
= (1/2) * (u(1/2)+1 / ((1/2)+1)) + C
= (1/2) * (u3/2 / (3/2)) + C
= (1/2) * (2/3) * u3/2 + C
= (1/3)u3/2 + C
5. Substitute back:
= (1/3)(1 + x2)3/2 + C

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PAGE 3: CORE INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES - PART 2

(PARTS & TRIG)
This page explores two more crucial techniques: Integration by Parts, which is
used for products of functions, and strategies for integrating various
trigonometric expressions.

3.1 INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Integration by Parts is derived from the product rule for differentiation and is
used to integrate products of two functions. The formula is:

∫ u dv = uv - ∫ v du

The key challenge is choosing which part of the integrand will be u and
which will be dv . A common mnemonic for choosing u is LIATE (or ILATE):

• Logarithmic functions (ln x, log x)

• Inverse trigonometric functions (arctan x, arcsin x)
• Algebraic functions (xn, polynomials)
• Trigonometric functions (sin x, cos x)
• Exponential functions (ex, ax)
You generally choose u to be the function that comes first in the LIATE order,
as these functions simplify when differentiated. The remaining part becomes
dv .

Steps for Integration by Parts:

1. Choose u and dv : Assign one part of the integrand to u and the rest
(including dx ) to dv . Use LIATE as a guide.
2. Find du and v : Differentiate u to find du , and integrate dv to
find v .
3. Apply the Formula: Substitute u, v, du, dv into the formula uv -
∫ v du .
4. Solve the New Integral: Integrate the ∫ v du part. This new integral
should be simpler than the original. Sometimes, you may need to apply
integration by parts multiple times, or even solve for the original
integral if it reappears on the right side.

Example: Integration by Parts

Solve ∫ x sin(x) dx

1. Choose u = x (Algebraic) and dv = sin(x) dx (Trigonometri

(A comes before T in LIATE)
2. Find du and v:
du = dx
v = ∫ sin(x) dx = -cos(x)
3. Apply formula ∫ u dv = uv - ∫ v du:
∫ x sin(x) dx = x(-cos(x)) - ∫ (-cos(x)) dx
= -x cos(x) + ∫ cos(x) dx
4. Solve the new integral:
= -x cos(x) + sin(x) + C

3.2 TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Integrating powers of trigonometric functions (like sinmx cosnx , tanmx

secnx , etc.) often requires using trigonometric identities to convert the
integrand into a form that can be solved with u-substitution or other basic
rules.
Common Strategies:

• For ∫ sinmx cosnx dx:

◦ If n is odd, save one cos x dx and convert the remaining
cosn-1x to powers of sin x using cos2x = 1 - sin2x . Let
u = sin x .
◦ If m is odd, save one sin x dx and convert the remaining
sinm-1x to powers of cos x using sin2x = 1 - cos2x . Let
u = cos x .
◦ If both m and n are even, use half-angle identities: sin2x = (1

- cos(2x))/2 cos2x = (1 + cos(2x))/2

• For ∫ tanmx secnx dx:
◦ If n is even (n ≥ 2), save sec2x dx and convert the remaining

secn-2x to powers of tan x using sec2x = 1 + tan2x . Let

u = tan x .
◦ If m is odd (m ≥ 1), save sec x tan x dx and convert the
remaining tanm-1x to powers of sec x using tan2x = sec2x
- 1 . Let u = sec x .

Example: Trigonometric Integral

Solve ∫ sin3x cos2x dx

m is odd, save sin x dx:

∫ sin2x cos2x sin x dx
= ∫ (1 - cos2x) cos2x sin x dx
Let u = cos x → du = -sin x dx → sin x dx = -du
= ∫ (1 - u2) u2 (-du)
= ∫ (u2 - 1) u2 du
= ∫ (u4 - u2) du
= u5/5 - u3/3 + C
= (cos5x)/5 - (cos3x)/3 + C

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PAGE 4: ADVANCED INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES &
SPECIAL CASES
This section covers more specialized but highly effective integration
techniques used for particular forms of integrands, along with a brief
introduction to improper integrals.

4.1 TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION

Trigonometric substitution is used when the integrand contains expressions

of the form √(a2 ± x2) or √(x2 ± a2) . The idea is to substitute x with
a trigonometric function (e.g., a sin θ , a tan θ , or a sec θ ) to
eliminate the radical through trigonometric identities.

Common Substitutions:

• For √(a2 - x2) , let x = a sin θ , then dx = a cos θ dθ . The

radical becomes a cos θ .
• For √(a2 + x2) , let x = a tan θ , then dx = a sec2 θ dθ . The
radical becomes a sec θ .
• For √(x2 - a2) , let x = a sec θ , then
dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ . The radical becomes a tan θ .

After integrating with respect to θ , you must convert back to x using a

right triangle consistent with the initial substitution.

Example: Trigonometric Substitution

Solve ∫ dx / (x2 √(4 - x2))

Form √(a2 - x2) with a=2.

Let x = 2 sin θ → dx = 2 cos θ dθ
√(4 - x2) = √(4 - 4 sin2θ) = √(4 cos2θ) = 2 cos θ

Substitute:
∫ (2 cos θ dθ) / ((2 sin θ)2 (2 cos θ))
= ∫ (2 cos θ dθ) / (4 sin2θ * 2 cos θ)
= ∫ (1/4) * (1 / sin2θ) dθ
= (1/4) ∫ csc2θ dθ
 = (1/4) (-cot θ) + C
= -(1/4) cot θ + C

Convert back to x:
From x = 2 sin θ, we have sin θ = x/2.
Draw a right triangle: opposite = x, hypotenuse = 2.
Adjacent side = √(22 - x2) = √(4 - x2).
cot θ = adjacent / opposite = √(4 - x2) / x.

Result:
= -(1/4) * (√(4 - x2) / x) + C

4.2 PARTIAL FRACTION DECOMPOSITION

This technique is used to integrate rational functions (polynomials divided by

polynomials) where the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of
the denominator. The idea is to break down the complex rational function into
a sum of simpler fractions that are easier to integrate.

Steps:

1. Factor the Denominator: Factor the denominator into linear and

irreducible quadratic factors.
2. Set Up the Decomposition:
◦ For each linear factor (ax + b) , use a term A / (ax + b) .
◦ For each repeated linear factor (ax + b)k , use terms A /
1
(ax+b) + A2/(ax+b)2 + ... + Ak/(ax+b)k .
◦ For each irreducible quadratic factor (ax2 + bx + c) , use a

term (Ax + B) / (ax2 + bx + c) .

◦ For each repeated irreducible quadratic factor (ax2 + bx +

c)k , use terms

(A1x+B1)/(ax2+bx+c) + ... + (Akx+Bk)/(ax2+bx+c)k .
3. Solve for the Constants: Multiply both sides by the original denominator
and solve for the unknown constants (A, B, etc.) by equating coefficients
of like powers of x or by strategically choosing values for x.
4. Integrate the Simpler Fractions: Integrate each of the resulting simpler
fractions. These often involve logarithms or arctangents.
4.3 IMPROPER INTEGRALS

Improper integrals are definite integrals where either one or both of the
limits of integration are infinite, or the integrand has a discontinuity (like a
vertical asymptote) within the interval of integration. They are evaluated
using limits.

• Infinite Limits: ∫∞ f(x) dx = lim ∫ta f(x) dx

a t→∞
• Discontinuities: If f(x) is discontinuous at b , then ∫b f(x) dx =
a
limt→b- ∫ta f(x) dx . Similar for discontinuities at the lower limit or
within the interval.

An improper integral converges if the limit exists and is a finite number;

otherwise, it diverges.

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PAGE 5: APPLICATIONS & SOLVING STRATEGIES &

CONCLUSION
Integration is not just an abstract mathematical concept; it has profound
practical applications across numerous disciplines. This final page will
highlight some of these applications and provide a general strategy for
tackling integration problems.

5.1 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

Integration is a cornerstone for solving real-world problems involving

accumulation and totals. Key applications include:

• Area: Finding the area of a region bounded by curves.

• Volume: Calculating the volume of solids of revolution (disk, washer,
shell methods).
• Arc Length: Determining the length of a curve.
• Surface Area: Calculating the surface area of a solid of revolution.
• Physics: Work done by a variable force, center of mass, moments of
inertia, fluid pressure.
• Probability: Calculating probabilities for continuous random variables
(probability density functions).
 • Economics: Consumer and producer surplus, total cost/revenue from
marginal functions.

5.2 GENERAL STRATEGY FOR SOLVING INTEGRALS

There's no single "magic bullet" for all integrals, but a systematic approach
can significantly improve your success rate:

1. Simplify the Integrand:

◦ Algebraic manipulation (expand, factor, combine fractions).
◦ Trigonometric identities (simplify expressions).
2. Check for Basic Forms: Can it be solved directly using power rule, log
rule, exponential rule, or basic trig antiderivatives?
3. Look for U-Substitution:
◦ Is there an 'inner function' whose derivative (or a multiple of it) is
also present?
◦ For example, ∫ f(g(x))g'(x) dx .
4. Consider Integration by Parts (LIATE):
◦ Is it a product of two different types of functions (e.g., algebraic
and exponential, logarithmic and algebraic)?
◦ Remember LIATE for choosing u .
5. Explore Trigonometric Integrals Strategies:
◦ For powers of sin/cos, tan/sec, etc., recall the identity-based
methods.
6. Think about Trigonometric Substitution:
◦ Does the integrand contain terms like √(a2 ± x2) or

√(x2 ± a2) ?
7. Is it a Rational Function? (Polynomial/Polynomial):
◦ If degree(numerator) ≥ degree(denominator), perform long
division first.
◦ Then, use Partial Fraction Decomposition on the proper rational
function.
8. Consider Other Advanced Techniques (Less Common in Introductory
Courses):
◦ Rationalizing substitution (for some integrals with radicals).
◦ Weierstrass substitution (for some complex trigonometric
integrals).
9. Don't Be Afraid to Try and Fail: Integration often involves trial and error.
If one method doesn't work, try another.
 10. Practice, Practice, Practice: The more integrals you solve, the better
you'll become at recognizing patterns and choosing the appropriate
technique.

5.3 COMMON PITFALLS AND TIPS

• Forgetting '+ C': Always include the constant of integration for indefinite
integrals.
• Algebra Errors: Be meticulous with algebraic manipulations.
• Incorrect du or dv : In u-substitution or integration by parts, ensure
your derivatives and integrals are correct.
• Not Changing Limits (Definite Integrals): If using u-substitution for
definite integrals, remember to change the limits of integration.
• Misapplying Identities: Ensure you are using trigonometric identities
correctly.
• Check Your Answer: Differentiate your final answer. If it matches the
original integrand, your solution is correct.

CONCLUSION

Integration is a cornerstone of higher mathematics and an indispensable tool

for problem-solving in numerous fields. While it can seem daunting at first
due to the variety of techniques, mastering integration is primarily a matter
of understanding the core methods, recognizing the appropriate context for
each, and consistent practice. By systematically approaching problems and
building a strong foundation in these techniques, you'll be well-equipped to
tackle a wide range of integration challenges.

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