THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE AND

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP NOTES

THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL Assumptions of Structural Functionalism

CULTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP 1. Systems have the property of order and
NOTES interdependence of parts.
1. 2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining
THE SOCIAL SCIENCE THEORIES OF EDUCATION order, or equilibrium.
2. The system may be static or involved in an
Education and Society ordered process of change.
Education and schooling are found within the context 3. The nature of one part of the system has an impact
of society. Schools exist within social context and any change on the form that the other parts can take.
within schools in terms of educational aims, goals, and 4. Systems maintain boundaries with their
objectives including its contents are always in relation to environments.
societal changes. Society and schools are interdependent and 5. Allocation and integration are two fundamental
provide bi- directional influence to each other. Sociology as a processes necessary for a given state of
science provides theories, concepts and principles that help us equilibrium of a system.
better understand theories and principles that help shape and 6. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving
guide education. Education on the other hand through its the maintenance of the relationships of parts to the
curriculum trains and educate the people with the necessary whole, control of environmental variations, and
knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that are necessary for its control of tendencies to change the system from
continued maintenance, growth and development. within.

Structural Functionalism Parson’s conception of the social system begins at the micro-
Structural Functionalism states that society is made up of level with the interaction between the ego and alter ego which
various institutions that work together in cooperation. he identified as the most elementary form of the social system.
Institutions are viewed as Action Systems. A social system consists of the following:
1. Individual actors
Talcott Parsons’ Structural Functionalism includes 4 Functional 2. Interaction
Imperatives for all action systems. Those imperatives are: 3. Physical or environmental aspect
1. Adaptation. A system must cope with external 4. Motivation towards the optimization of
situational exigencies. It must adapt to its environment gratification
and adapt environment to its needs. 5. Relation to situation and each other is defined and
2. Goal Attainment. A system must define and achieve mediated by a system of culturally-structured and
its primary goals. shared symbols.
3. Integration. A system must regulate the
interrelationship of its component parts. It must also Parson was not only interested in the structural components of
manage the relationship among the other 3 functional the social system, but he was also interested in examining the
imperatives (adaptation, goal attainment, and latency). function of social systems. It is believed that systems exist
4. Latency or Pattern Maintenance. A system must because they are able to meet the needs of society in its
furnish, maintain and renew both the motivation of particular situations. Parsons listed the Functional Requisites of
individuals and the cultural patterns that create and a Social System:
sustain the motivation. 1. Social system must be structured so that they
operate compatibly with other systems.
The General Structure of Action System by George Ritz, (2000 2. To survive, the social system must have the
in Vega, et al. 2015, p.5) is presented below. requisites from other systems.
3. The system must meet a significant proportion of
Action System is the behavioral organism that handles the the needs of its actors.
adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the 4. The system must elicit adequate participation
external world. from its members.
5. It must have at least a minimum of control over
Personality System performs the goal-attainment function by potentially disruptive behavior.
defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain them. 6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must
be controlled.
Social System copes with the integration function by 7. A social system requires a language in order to
controlling its component parts. survive.

Cultural System performs the latency function by providing Functionalist explains that a society assumes a particular form
actors with the norms and values that motivate them for action. because that form works well for the society and develops

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certain characteristics because those characteristics meets the • acknowledges that conflict between groups exists,
needs of that society. The key principles of the functionalist functionalism believe that without a common
perspective as identified by Farley (in Vega et al. 2015, p.6): bond to unite groups, society will integrate
1. Interdependence. This is one of the most • Functionalism examines the social processes
important principles of the functionalist theory – necessary to the establishment and maintenance
society is made up of interdependent parts and that of social order, (Ballantine & Spade in Vega, et
every part of society is dependent to some extent al., 2015, p.8).
on other parts of society. What happens in one
affects the other parts. Structural Functionalism
2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. It is • Emphasizes social order and social stability and
assumed that each part of the social system exists not social conflict
because it serves some function. This idea is • Explains that society is made up of different
applied to both the social structure and culture. institutions or organizations that work together in
a. Social Structure refers to the cooperation – to achieve their orderly relationship
organization of society, including its and to maintain social order and social stability.
institutions, its social positions, and its The maintenance of society emanates from
distribution of resources. internal rules, norms, values, and regulations of
b. Culture refers to a set of beliefs, these various ordered institutions.
language, rules, values, and knowledge
held in common by members of a Modern Functionalist Theories of education have their origin
society. in the work of Talcott Parsons (Ballantine & Spade in Vega, et
3. Consensus and Cooperation. Societies have a al. 2015). Parsons believe that education is a vital part of a
tendency toward consensus, to have certain basic modern society. Schooling performs an important function in
values that nearly everyone in the society agrees the development and maintenance of a modern, democratic
upon. Societies tend toward consensus in order to society, especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all
achieve cooperation. Inability to cooperate will citizens. In modern societies, education is the key institution in
paralyze the society and people will have to a meritocratic selection process.
devote a great effort to fighting one another rather
than getting anything done. Functionalist and Conflict Theories have been criticized as
4. Equilibrium. Equilibrium is a characteristic of being highly abstract and whose emphases are on social
society that has achieved the form that is best structure and processes which are at a macro-level. Critics of
adapted to its situation. When society has reached conflict and functionalist theories argued that while those two
a state of balance or equilibrium, it will remain in levels of analysis helps us to understand education in the big
that condition until it is forced to change by some picture or at a macro level, they hardly provide us with an
new condition. interpretable snapshot of what schools are like on a day-to-day
basis, or what transpires in the classroom between teacher and
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM. students and between students and students. Thus a theory
The component parts of social structure are: which focuses on micro-level of analysis has emerged, (Vega,
1. Families et al. 2015).
2. Neighborhood
3. Associations Interactionist Theories attempt to make the commonplace,
4. Schools strange by noticing, focusing their attention and observing the
5. churches everyday-taken-for-granted behaviors and interactions between
6. banks students and students, and between teachers and students. It is
7. countries, etc. what conflict and functionalist theories do not notice, do not
focus their attention to, do not question that is most problematic
Functionalism to the interactionists.
• stresses interdependence of the social system
• examines how parts are integrated with each other Symbolic Interactionism
• compares society with a machine, where on part Interactionist Theory is traced back to the works of sociologists
articulates with another to produce the dynamic George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. They
energy required to make the society work examined the ways in which the individual is related to society
• stresses the processes that maintain social order through ongoing social interactions. This school of
by stressing consensus and agreement
• understands that change is inevitable and
underscores the evolutionary nature of change

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thought, known as Social Interactionism, views the self as Multiculturalism is also defined as a policy that
socially constructed in relation to social forces and structures emphasizes the unique characteristics of different cultures,
and the product of ongoing negotiations of meanings. Thus, the especially as they relate to one another in receiving nations.
social self is an active product of human agency rather than a Multiculturalism is a systematic and comprehensive response to
deterministic product of social structure. The social self is a cultural and ethnic diversity, with educational, linguistic,
result of social interaction mediated by symbols, in particular, economic and social components, and specific institutional
language. The distinctive attributes of human behavior is mechanisms. Multiculturalism is viewed as a model of
viewed as the result of individuals’ participation in varying democratic-policy- response to culture and ethnic diversity
types of social structures which in turn is dependent on the because it corresponds to the ideal of culture of peace based on
existence of language behavior. Symbolic Interactionism is not respect of diversity, as well as universally shared values and
only interested in socialization but also in interaction. norms.
Interaction is significant in terms of (a) development of one’s
ability to think, and (b) development of one’s ability to express Interrelated Referents of Multiculturalism
what s/he thinks. All types of interaction, not just interaction 1. Demographic-Descriptive when the word
during socialization, refine our ability to think which in turn multicultural refers to the existence of linguistically,
shapes the interaction process. culturally, and ethnically diverse segments in the
population of a society or state.
Principles of Symbolic Interactionism 2. Ideological-Normative when the word refers to the
1. Human beings, unlike lower animals, are management and organization of governmental
endowed with a capacity for thought. responses to ethnic diversity (assimilationism,
2. The capacity for thought is shaped by social differentialism and its extreme forms of exclusion,
interaction. apartheid, ethnic cleansing, and genocide).
3. Programmatic-Political when the word refers to the
3. In social interaction, people learn the meanings specific policies developed to respond to and manage
and symbols that allow them to exercise their ethnic diversity.
distinct capacity for human thought.
4. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on Multiculturalism and Multicultural Education
distinctively human action and interaction. Multiculturalism refers to the evolution of cultural
5. People are able to modify or alter the meanings diversity within a jurisdiction introduced by its selection
and symbols they use in action and interaction on policies and institutionalized by its settlement policies. With the
the basis of their interpretation of the situation. evolving and growing presence of diverse cultural groups in a
6. People are able to make these modifications and society, there arise the need for Multicultural Education which
alterations, because, in part, of their ability to is an emerging discipline whose aim is to create equal
interact with themselves, which allows them to educational opportunities from diverse racial, ethnic, social
examine possible courses of action, assess their class and cultural groups. It supports the idea that students and
relative advantages and disadvantages, and then their cultural backgrounds and experiences should be the center
choose one. of their education and that learning should occur in a familiar
7. The intertwined patterns of actions and contact that attends to multiple ways of thinking.
interactions make up groups and societies. Multicultural education is a tool for establishing pride
and confidence among students in their unique and special
Socio-Cultural Phenomenon Influencing Education backgrounds. This theory concentrates on the need of including
Multiculturalism notions of race, class and diversity while teaching. According
Multiculturalism is the phenomenon of multiple to James Banks (in Vega, et al. 2015), the goal of multicultural
groups of cultures existing within one society largely due to the education is to transform the school so that male and female
arrival of immigrants. The term is often used to describe students, exceptional students, and students from diverse
societies, especially nations, which have many distinct cultural cultural, social class, racial and ethnic groups experience an
groups resulting from immigration. The presence of many equal opportunity to learn. A key assumption of multicultural
cultural groups in a society can lead to anxiety about the education is that students are more likely to achieve when the
stability of national identity, but it can also lead to cultural total classroom climate is more consistent with their diverse
exchanges that can bring benefits to the cultural groups. When cultures and learning styles.
different cultural groups collaborate with each other, they can
accomplish many great works in literature, arts, philosophy, Other goals of Multicultural Education:
technology, fashion and all other human endeavors that  To help all students acquire knowledge, attitudes, and skills
celebrate the richness of the talents and intelligence of needed to function effectively in pluralistic democratic
humanity. society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with

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peoples from diverse groups in order to create a civic and  Teachers must be prepared to effectively facilitate learning
moral community that works for the common good. for every individual student, no matter how culturally
 To help students acquire the knowledge and commitments similar or different form themselves.
needed to make reflective decisions and to take personal,  Schools must be active participants in ending oppression of
social, civic action to promote democracy and democratic all types, first, by ending oppression within their own
living. walls, then, by producing socially and critically active and
 Related goal, is to help all students develop more positive aware students.
attitudes towards different racial, ethnic, cultural, and  Education must become fully student-centered and
religious groups. inclusive of the voices and experiences of the students.
 Educators, activists and others must take a more active role
4 Approaches to accomplish the goals of Multicultural in reexamining all educational practices and how they
Education affect the learning of all students; testing methods, teaching
1. Contributions Approach. Ethnic heroes and holidays approaches, evaluation and assessment, school
are included in the curriculum. Heroes, holidays, and psychology, and counseling.
food become a special focus on a particular day;
recognizing the contributions of various groups. Dimensions of Multicultural Education, (Banks, 1997 in
2. Additive Approach. A unit or course in incorporated Vega, et al. 2015)
(a unit on women in history), but no substantial change 1. Content Integration – deals with the extent to which
is made to the curriculum as a whole. Special units and teachers sue examples and content from a variety of
topics about various groups are added to, but do not culture and groups to illustrate key concepts,
fundamentally alter the curriculum. generalizations, and issues within their subject area or
3. Transformation Approach. Students are taught to view disciplines.
events and issues from diverse ethnic and cultural 2. Knowledge Construction Process – describes how
perspectives. Curriculum is changed, so that students teachers help students understand, investigate and
see the world from the different perspective of various determine how the biases, frames of reference, and
groups. perspectives within a discipline influence the ways in
4. Social Action Approach. Going beyond which knowledge is constructed within it. Students
transformation approach, students not only learn to also learn how to build knowledge themselves in this
view issues from multiple perspectives but also dimension.
become directly involved in solving related problems; 3. Prejudice Reduction. It describes lessons and
promotes decision-making and social action in order activities used by teachers to help students develop
to achieve multicultural goals and a more vibrant positive attitudes toward different racial, ethnic, and
democracy, (Sadker & Sadker in Vega, et al. 2015). cultural groups. Lessons, units and teaching materials
that include content about different racial and ethnic
 Multicultural education is grounded on the ideals of social groups can help students develop more positive
justice, education equity, and a dedication to facilitating intergroup attitudes if certain conditions exist in the
educational experiences in which all students reach their teaching situation. These conditions include positive
full potential as learners and as socially aware and active images of the ethnic groups in the materials and the
beings, locally, nationally, and globally. use of the multiethnic materials in a consistent and
 Multicultural education acknowledges that schools are sequential way.
essential to laying the foundation for the transformation of 4. Equity Pedagogy exists when teachers modify their
society and the elimination of oppression and injustice. teaching in ways that will facilitate the academic
 Multicultural education is a progressive approach for achievement of students from diverse racial, cultural,
transforming education that holistically critiques and and social class groups.
addresses current shortcomings, failings and 5. Empowering School Culture and Social Structure.
discriminatory practices in education. This is created when the culture and organization of
 Interdisciplinary approach the school are transformed in ways that enable students
from diverse racial, ethnic, and gender groups to
Ideals Underpinning Multicultural Education experience equality and equal status.
 Every student must have an equal opportunity to achieve
his/her full potential. Culturally-Responsive Teaching acknowledges cultural
 Every student must be prepared to competently participate diversity in classrooms and accommodates this diversity in
in an increasingly intercultural society. instruction by: (1) recognizing and accepting student diversity,
it communicates that all students are welcome and valued as
human beings; (2) building on students’ cultural backgrounds,
culturally-responsive teaching communicates positive images
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about the students’ home cultures; and (3) being responsive to addresses the political interconnectedness of nations via global
different learning styles, culturally- responsive teaching, builds governance arrangements and expanding cultural exchange via
on students’ strengths and uses these to help students learn. the internet, mass media, travel, etc. As a process, globalization
affects all countries, some more favorably than others in terms
Culturally-responsive instruction covers areas related to: of economic growth, national sovereignty, and cultural identity.
1. Inclusive content in the curriculum that reflects the
diversity of society. Students from diverse Education Systems: Core of the Globalization Process
backgrounds see themselves and their experiences in
the curriculum. With the ever-increasing globalization, interconnected of
2. Students’ prior knowledge, including their culture and peoples of the world, education finds itself at the very center of
language. it. Global development as the direction of globalization,
3. The idea that culture is central to student learning education has become an inseparable tool. Rinne (in Vega, et
because there is no strong evidence that culture al., 2015) emphasizes that educational policy has become an
practices affect the thinking process. ever more important part of economic, trade, labor, and social
policy in western countries. One concrete global development
Culturally-responsive teaching encompasses the is the development of mega-universities, university networks
following elements: and virtual universities that can offer competitive training
1. Communication of high expectations programs for students recruited from all over the world.
2. Active teaching methods that promote student
engagement Globalization of higher education is becoming increasingly
3. Teacher as facilitator realized in the present times as credentials and proof of
4. Positive perspectives on parents and families of competency are being based more on global standards.
culturally and linguistically diverse students Countries embrace globalization as a movement and prompted
5. Cultural sensitivity them to get organized to facilitate the flow of economic,
6. Reshaping the curriculum so that it is culturally political, as well as socio-cultural activities among them.
responsive to the background of students
7. Culturally mediated instruction that is characterized by Global Education and Globalization
the use of culturally mediated cognition, culturally Globalization demands an education that develops higher-order
appropriate social situations for learning, and cognitive and interpersonal skills required for problem-finding,
culturally valued knowledge in curriculum content problem-solving, articulating arguments, and deploying
8. Small group instruction and academically-related verifiable facts or artifacts. Motivated by economic forces and
discourse driven by digital technologies and communications,
globalization links individuals and institutions across the world
GLOBALIZATION with interconnection. This resulted to democratization,
Globalization refers to the increasing intensification of interdependence, and creates new forms of
interconnectedness and convergence of activities and forms of local reaction and self-definition. However, some see
life among diverse cultures throughout the world. It is globalization as resulting to a universal economy and culture
fundamentally the closer integration of countries and peoples of that is rooted in North American and Western ideals and
the world which has been brought about interests. (Conflict Theories will interpret it as domination of
the Americans and Westerners over others; or a tool to
by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and subjugate weak economies by strong economies that will
communication and the breaking down of artificial barriers to further widen the gap between the rich and the poor).
the flows of goods, services, capital knowledge, and (to a lesser
extent) people across countries, (Stiglitz in Vega, et al, 2015). Global Education aims to extend students’ awareness of the
world in which they live by opening to the diverse heritage of
International forces are fuelling globalization and driving human thoughts and action, and creativity. It emphasizes the
tremendous developments in the world. It crystallizes (1) the changes in communication and relationships among people
hopes of that we will finally achieve a global society, and (2) throughout the world by highlighting issues like human
the fears of others that their lives and jobs are threatened by conflict, economic systems, human rights, and social justice,
forces beyond their control, (Chronicle of Higher Education in human commonality and diversity, literatures and cultures, and
Vega et al, 2015, p.117). the impact of technological revolution. In analyzing and finding
solutions to global-human problems, global education employs
Globalization as a theory seeks to explain the integration of interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary approach.
economies and societies around the world as they are knit
together by travel, language, values and ideas, trade, labor and Objectives of global education are to develop learners’:
financial flows, communication and technology. It also 1. Ability to think critically and ethically

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2. Ability to effectively access, interpret, evaluate with similar aims and purposes, and explore all
and apply information avenues for even closer cooperation among
 essential for facing a constantly changing work themselves.
environment
 for continuing self-education ASEAN Fundamental Principles (Contained in the 1976
 for participation as an ethical and responsible member of a Treaty of Amity and Cooperation)
global society. 1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty,
equality, territorial integrity, and national identity
ASEAN INTEGRATION of all nations;
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) The 2. The right of every State to lead its national
Member Countries existence free from external interference,
1. Brunei Darussalam, subversion, and coercion;
2. the Kingdom of Cambodia, 3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one
3. the Republic of Indonesia, another;
4. the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 4. Settlement of differences by peaceful manner;
5. Malaysia, 5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and
6. the Union of Myanmar, 6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
7. the Republic of the Philippines,
8. the Republic of Singapore The Pillars of ASEAN Community
9. the Kingdom of Thailand
10. the Socialist Republic of Vietnam The ASEAN Heads of States indicate that the member states
acknowledge that an integrated , stable, knowledgeable and
ASEAN was created as an organization in 1967 with the aim of caring community will help ASEAN nations to strengthen their
helping to bring about a Southeast Asian region of peace, economic competitiveness and attractiveness to investors, in
freedom, and prosperity for their peoples. particular, during economic downturn.

Aims and Purposes: The integration is a tripartite course of action highlighting

1. To accelerate the economic growth, social economic progress, political security, and socio-cultural
progress, and cultural development in the region community. This is known as the three pillars of the ASEAN
through joint endeavors in the spirit of equality Community, namely:
and partnership in order to strengthen the 1. ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
foundation for a prosperous and peaceful 2. ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC)
community of Southeast Asian Nations; 3. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC)
2. To promote regional peace and stability through
abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in The First Pillar: ASEAN Economic Community (AEC)
the relationship among countries of the region and ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) is a blueprint, a vision
adherence to the principles of the United Nations towards integrating the ASEAN resource markets. This AEC
Charter; primarily targets the creation of a single market and production
3. To promote active collaboration and mutual base, which allows the free flow of goods, services,
assistance on matters of common interest in the investments, and skilled labor, and the freer movement of
economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific capital across the region. This means less restrictions and
and administrative fields; qualifications on imports and skilled workers.
4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of
training and research facilities in the educational, The Second Pillar: ASEAN Political-Security Community
professional, technical, and administrative (APSC)
spheres; The ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC) oversees
5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater that the ASEAN community continues to live in peace, stability,
utilization of their agriculture and industries, the resilience, and in concord. Through the APSC, the member
expansion of their trade, including the study of the countries have established a rule-based community of mutually
problems of international commodity trade, the shared norms and values.
improvement of their transportation and
communication facilities and the raising of the With APSC, all ASEAN member countries agree to rely
living standards of their peoples; exclusively on scholarly and peaceful processes of settling
6. To promote Southeast Asian Studies, and intra-regional conflicts about matters of security and cultural
7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with differences. APSC has the following components:
existing international and regional organizations 1. Political development

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2. Shaping and sharing of norms

3. Conflict prevention Internauts a term used to apply to students and teachers
4. Conflict resolution exploring the internet’s educational possibilities.
5. Post-conflict peace building
6. Implementing mechanisms Gender and Development
Gender is one of the universal dimensions on which status
The Third Pillar: ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community difference are based. The term gender is often mistakenly
(ASCC) interchanged with the term sex. Sex is a biological concept,
The ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community (ASCC) aims to while gender is a social construct specifying the socially-
promote a caring and sharing society which stems from the fact culturally- prescribed roles that men and women are to follow.

Information and Communication Technology Gender shapes the lives of all people in all societies. It
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in influences all aspects of our lives, the schooling we receive, the
education consists of the hardware, software, network media for social roles we play, and the power and authority we command.
the collection, storage, processing, transmission, and Population processes – where women and men live, how they
presentation of information (via text and images) as well as bear and rear children, and how they die – are shaped by gender
related services, (World Bank). as well, (Riley in Vega, et al. 2015).

ICT has become a personalized commodity, and the Theories of Gender Development
environment we are operating is becoming more and more Social Learning Theory believes that parents, as distributors
based on information and communication technology. The of reinforcement, reinforce appropriate gender role behaviors.
commercialization of the Internet through the World Wide Web By their choice of toys, by urging “boy” or “girl” behavior, and
(www) service has the advantages of bringing ICT to the by reinforcing such behavior, parents encourage their children
ordinary people and to education. This affordability and to engage in gender-appropriate behavior. If the parents have
availability has triggered the new generation’s techno- good relationships with their children, they become models for
economic innovations in our society, (Castells, 1996). their children to imitate, encouraging them to acquire gender-
related behavior. Thus, children are reinforced or punished for
ICT is a driving force in globalization. While ICT enables the different kinds of behavior. They also learn appropriate gender
interconnectedness of peoples and societies and levels the behavior from other male or female models.
playing fields in access to information, it also highlights the
division in the world between haves and the have-nots, between Cognitive-Developmental Theory explains gender
the information rich and the information poor. The digital development in conjunction with the cognitive development of
divide is not only dividing the people in terms of the availability children as speculated by Lawrence Kohlberg based on the
of ICT but also in terms of the availability of education and original theory of Jean Piaget about how children develop their
wealth. Given this scenario, education is at the forefront of ability to think and reason. Piaget theorized that from about
minimizing the gap if not totally closing the gap. two-seven years old (corresponding to preschool years),
children’s intelligence is intuitive in nature. This is the Pre-
Farrel (119) expressed the view that ICT in education is Operational Stage. At this stage, children can make mental
concerned with issues like: representations and is able to pretend, imagine, and ever closer
• equity of access (educational policy), to the use of symbols (language). A sub- stage is called
• curriculum relevance in technology Symbolic Sub-stage where children show progress in their
(technology education as a subject), cognitive abilities by being able to draw objects that are not
• methodological development in present because of the dramatic increase in their language and
technology (ICT and learning), and make-believe play. This is also termed as symbolic function of
• cultural sensitivity (cultural the child’s ability to represent objects and events through
globalization) symbols. Kohlberg used this description of children during this
stage as a background for the speculation on how gender or
ICT and Education Initiatives, and Their Contributions to understanding of his/her role in a social context is developed.
Millenium Development Goals For Kohlberg, this is the beginning of the process of acquiring
1. increasing access through distance learning gender- appropriate behavior.
2. Enabling a knowledge network for students
3. Training teachers Gender Schema Theory explains gender development based
4. Broadening the availability of quality education on a schema. A schema, in general, is a mental blueprint for
materials organizing information. A gender schema is a blueprint for
5. Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of organizing information about the different social roles men and
educational administration and policy women play, and information about what society expects of

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men and women. Such a schema helps a child to develop gender THE TEACHER IN THE 21ST CENTURY SOCIETY
identity and formulate an appropriate gender role.
Consequently, children develop an integrated schema or picture The buzzword in education is lifelong learning. The term
of what gender is and should be, (Elliott et al., 1996 in Vega et evolved from a human society that is becoming even more
al. 2015). complex characterized by technological innovations, free
movement of people, goods, and services, and an information-
Gender Stereotyping driven-society. It assumes that with the right knowledge, skills
Gender roles are primarily socialized in the family and and attitudes, one will successfully adapt to such an
reinforced by other social institutions. Gender stereotyping is environment without being dependent on formal schools and
defined as the beliefs humans hold about the characteristics teachers. Lifelong learning is a continuous process by which
associated with males and females. From an early age, people one equips oneself to seize learning opportunities throughout
form ideas about what and how males and females are or should life, and through which s/he broadens his/her knowledge, skills
be. Based on their formed ideas about males and females, they and attitudes, and enables him/her adapt to a changing,
assign labels, develop attitudes, and expectations that could complex, interdependent world, (Learning the Treasure Within,
either be favorable or unfavorable; facilitates or hinders the International Commission on Education. UNESCO, 1996 in
development of full human potentials of any of the two Vega, et al., 2015).
categories. Problems occur when beliefs, attitudes, and
expectations associated with a particular gender has a negative The International Commission on Education envisions
image; when an individual (based on gender) is assumed to have education in the 21st Century as anchored on the Four Pillars:
all the characteristics associated with his/her gender. For 1. Learning to Know
example: Girls are good in English. Boys are good in Math. 2. Learning to Do
Girls are emotional and indecisive. Boys don’t cry, they are 3. Learning to Live Together
brave, strong, and can be depended on. Schools may also be 4. Learning to Be
responsible in promoting gender stereotyping when they treat
boys and girls differently. Learning to know implies learning how to learn by developing
one’s concentration, memory skills and ability to think. It
Attitude towards men’s and women’s role is referred to as includes the development of the faculties of
gender ideologies. 1. Memory
2. Imagination
3 gender ideologies 3. Reasoning
4. Problem solving
1. A traditional gender ideology maintains that 5. Ability to think in a coherent and critical way.
men’s sphere is work and women’s sphere is the
home. The implicit assumption is that men have When individuals know how to learn on their own, it is assumed
greater power then women. that they will develop knowledge and skills needed to function
2. Egalitarian gender ideology maintains that power productively in the 21st Century. Learning how to learn
is distributed equally between men and women presupposes the following learn-to-learn skills:
and that each group identifies equally with the 1. Learning to read with comprehension
same spheres. 2. Listening
3. Transitional gender ideology believes that it is 3. Observing
acceptable for women to devote energy both to 4. Asking questions
work and family domains, but they should hold 5. Data gathering
proportionally more responsibility for the home 6. Note-taking
and men should focus their energy more 7. Accessing, processing, and selecting
proportionally on work. information

Gender and Equality Universal Aim of Education (Faure Report)

Gender equality gives women and men the same entitlements to 1. Towards a scientific humanism based on
all aspects of human development – economic, social, cultural, scientific and technological training. Command of
civil and political rights. It also gives the same level of respect, specific thought and language has become
the same opportunities to make choices and the same level of indispensable in today’s world. Objective
power to shape the outcomes of their choices. knowledge must be directed towards action and
primarily in the service of humankind. Science
becomes a science with a conscience, and science
at the service of development. Citizens of the new

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millennium must learn to become scientific John Dewey, the great educational pragmatist and a major
humanists. proponent of progressivism, viewed education as a process for
2. Creativity means preserving each individual’s improving human condition. He saw schools as specialized
originality and creative ingenuity along with environments within the larger social environment. Curriculum
realism. Creativity means transmitting culture is based on a child’s experiences and interests and prepared the
without stifling the individual. It is about child for life’s affairs. Subject matter was inter-disciplinary.
encouraging the use of one’s gifts, aptitude and Dewey emphasized problem-solving and scientific method.
personal forms of expression without cultivating
egoism and paying attention to individual’s Social Reconstructionism’s aim is to improve and reconstruct
specific traits without overlooking collective society. Education is for change and social reforms. Knowledge
activity and welfare. This is possible when there focus on skills and subjects needed to identify and ameliorate
is respect for the creativity of others and other society’s problems. It requires active learning that is concerned
cultures or creative diversity. with contemporary and future society. The role of the teacher is
3. Social Commitment consists of preparing the to serve as an agent of change and reform. Teachers help
individual for life in society, moving him/her into students become aware of problems confronting humankind.
a coherent moral, intellectual and affective The curriculum is focused on social sciences and social research
universe composed of sets of values, methods, the examination of social-economic and political
interpretations of the past and conceptions of the problems.
future. An individual comes into full realization of
his/her own social dimension through active Paolo Freire’s Philosophy. The Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
participation in the functioning of social Believed that education should enlighten the masses about their
structures and a personal commitment to reform oppression, prompt them to feel dissatisfied with their condition
when necessary. In essence, that is the practice in and give them the competencies necessary for correcting the
a democratic society. identified inequities. For Freire (in Maningas, 2016), education
4. Compelete Man respects the many sidedness of is a tool by which people could learn more about their capacity
personality as essential in education if the as human beings – to enhance the knowledge that they already
individual is to develop for himself/herself as well have, (p.218).
as for others. It calls for balance among the
physical, intellectual, ethical, emotional and Jurgen Habermas’ Philosophy. Emphasizes that education’s
spiritual components of personality. goal is emancipation of the awareness, competencies, and
attitudes that people need to take control of their lives. In this
Related Social-Philosophical Views view educated people do not follow social conventions without
Pragmatism is a world philosophy which is based on change, reflection.
process, and relativity. It conceived of knowledge as a process
in which reality is constantly changing. It assumes that learning Theodore Brameld argued that social reconstructionists were
occurs as the person engages in problem-solving which is committed to facilitating the emergence of a new culture;
transferable to a wide variety of subjects and situations. Both believed that schools should help students develop into social
the learners and the environment are constantly changing. beings dedicated to the common good.
George Counts believed that society must be totally reorganized
Pragmatists reject the idea of unchanging universal truths. to promote the common good.
Truth is relative and knowledge must be the result of testing and
verification. To them, teaching should focus on critical Harold Rugg believed that schools should engage children in
thinking, teaching is exploratory rather than explanatory and critical analysis of society in order to improve it.
method is more important than subject matter
. Alvin Toffler (1970, in Llagas, Corpuz, & Bilbao, 2016, p.1)
Progressivism is an educational philosophy predicted in his book Future Shock that the prime objective of
whose main philosophical base is found in Pragmatism. For education must be to increase the individuals’ cope-ability – the
Progressivism, the aim of education is to promote democratic speed and economy with which individuals can adapt to
social living. It believes that knowledge must lead to growth continual change. In 1980, he surmised in the Third Wave that
and development; it is a living-learning process. Knowledge the electronic cottage will become the norm of the future…there
must focus on active and relevant learning. The role of the will be a transformation of our technological system and our
teacher is guide for problem- solving and scientific inquiry. Its energy base into a new techno sphere.
curriculum is based on students’ interests; addresses human
problems and affairs; interdisciplinary subject matter; and on John Naisbitt
activities and projects. The trends shaping the 80’s are shifts from industrial to
information society, from national economy to world economy,

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from hierarchies to networking, and from centralization to The Political Purposes of Schooling:
decentralization. In Megatrends 2000, Naisbitt described the  To inculcate allegiance to the existing political order
year as “…operating like a powerful magnet on humanity, (patriotism)
reaching down into the 1990’s and intensifying the decade. It is  To prepare citizens who will participate in the political
simplifying emotions, accelerating change, heightening order
awareness and compelling us to reexamine ourselves, our  To help assimilate diverse cultural groups into a
values, and our institutions. common political order
 To teach children the basic laws of society The Social
SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION AND AS AN Purposes of Schooling:
ORGANIZATION  To socialize children into various roles, behaviors, and
values of society (socialization); a key ingredient in
School as a Social Institution the stability of society; enables members to help solve
The basic purpose of education is the transmission of social problem
knowledge. While before, education was a family  By participating in the socialization of children,
responsibility, along with the community and the church, schools work along with other social institutions such
industrialization changed it dramatically. Schools became as the family and the church to ensure social cohesion
necessary when cultural complexity created a need for
specialized knowledge and skills which could not be easily The Economic Purposes of Schooling:
acquired in the family, community and church. The complexity 1. To prepare students for their later occupational roles
of the modern life has not diminished the function of the family, 2. To select, train and allocate individuals into the
but it has added the need for many types of instruction which division of labor
require specialized educational agencies like the school, college
or university. The Multiple School Functions (Yin Cheong Cheng In Vega,
et al. 2015, p.88)
Functions of Schools 1. Technical/Economic
Schools is first and foremost a social institution, an established 2. Human/Social
organization having an identifiable structure and a set of 3. Political
functions meant to preserve and extend social order, 4. Cultural
(McNergney & Hebert In Vega, et al. 2015, p.87). Its primary 5. Educational
function is to move young people in the mainstream of society.
The curricula, teaching process of evaluation and relationships Technical/Economic Functions. They refer to the
among people reinforce a public image to which young people contributions of schools to the technical or economic
are expected to aspire. It is concerned with preserving our development and needs of individuals, the institution, the local
heritage, adapting to social change and making change happen community, the society and the international community.
where it is needed.
Political Functions. They refer to the contribution of schools
The school is a place for contemplation of reality, and out task to the political development at different levels of society.
as teachers is to show this reality to students. At home, the
family teaches children this reality in personal, informal, and Cultural Functions. They refer to the contributions of schools
unstructured way. In school, we teach reality in professional, to the cultural transmission and development at different levels
formal and structured way. Hence in school there is a set of of society.
curriculum which includes knowledge subjects, skills subjects,
and enabling subjects. There are also teachers who facilitate Education functions. They refer to the contributions of schools
learning, who teach children and youth certain types of to the development and maintenance of education at different
acceptable behavior, and see to it that children develop in all levels of society.
aspects – physically, emotionally, socially, and academically.
The Manifest and Latent Functions of Education
The Intellectual Purposes of Schooling: Manifest functions of education are the open and intended goals
• To teach basic cognitive skills such as or consequences of activities within an organization or
reading, writing, and mathematics institution. The latent functions are the hidden, unstated, and
• To transmit specific knowledge (in sometimes unintended consequences of activities within
literature, history and the sciences) schools.
• To help students acquire higher order
thinking skills such as analysis,
evaluation, and synthesis
The Manifest Functions:
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1. Social Control. Schools are responsible for teaching values objective, and they follow a formal relationship. They
such as discipline, respect, obedience, punctuality, and are governed by established rules and policies for
perseverance. Schools teach conformity by encouraging compliance and there exists a system of authority. The
young people to be good students, conscientious future formation of such an organization is deliberate by the
workers and law-abiding citizens. top level management. The basic objective of the
2. Socialization. From kindergarten through college, schools establishment of an organization is the attainment of
teach students their various roles in their family, school, the organization’s goal. For this purpose, work is
and society in general. Students are also taught specific assigned, and authorities are delegated to each
subject matters. member. The concept of division of labor and
3. Social Placement. Schools are responsible for identifying specialization of workers are applied. The work is
the most qualified people to fill available positions in assigned on the basis of their capabilities. The job of
society. each member is fixed. Roles, responsibilities,
4. Transmitting Culture. As a social institution, schools authority and accountability associated with the job
perform a conservative function of transmitting the are clearly defined. The hierarchical structure
dominant culture. Young people are exposed to the existing determines the logical authority relationship and
beliefs, norms and values of the society. follows a chain of command. The communication
5. Promoting Social and Political Integration. between two members is only through planned
6. Agent of Change channels.

The Latent Functions: 2. Informal organization. It is formed within the formal

1. Restricting some activities organization and is a system of interpersonal
2. Matchmaking and production of social networks relationship between individuals. It is created
3. Creation of generation gap spontaneously out of socio-psychological needs and
urge of people to talk. Informal organization is
Functions of Schools by Calderon (1998 in Vega, et al. 2015) characterized by mutual aid and cooperation, and
1. Conservation Function. The school conserves and companionship between and among members.
preserves through its libraries and other devices recorded Informal organization may also be formed outside the
experiences of the past generations such as knowledge, formal organization through social media networks
inventions, mathematics-scientific-historical facts, skills, like Facebook, Viber, WhatsApp and others
customs, traditions, language, literature, music, writings
and the arts. All these are preserved for future generations. Forces affecting the nature of organization
2. Instructional Functions. The main concern of the school 1. People
is to pass on the accumulated experiences of the past  People make up the internal social system of the
generations to the incoming generations. This is performed organization. The system consists of individuals and
by teachers, mentors, instructors, or professors. Some call groups (large groups, small groups, formal, informal).
such instruction as enculturation, when things of the local Groups are dynamic, they form, change and disband.
culture are taught to the students. In the performance of this 2. Structure
function, school is expected to produce leaders in all fields  Defines the formal relationship and use of people in
of endeavor- politics, education, trade, science, medicine, organizations creating complex problems of
etc. cooperation, negotiation, and decision-making.
3. Research Function. The school conducts research to 3. Technology
improve the old ways of doing things or to discover  Provides the resources with which people work and
unknown facts or systems that will improve the quality of affect the tasks they perform.
human life. 4. Environment
4. Social Service Function. One justification for the  All organizations operate within an internal and
existence of schools is for them to perform social service external environment. An organization does not exist
in the locality where they are located. This can be done alone. It is part of a larger system that contains many
through various forms of community service depending on other elements or social institutions.
the need of the community and the available expertise of
the school. Characteristics of People that can affect how people behave
at work:
School as an Organization 1. Individual Difference or the belief that each person is
Organization is a collection of people who work together to different from all others. The headings under which
attain specified objectives. There are two types: personal characteristics can vary have been classified as
1. Formal organization. It is formal when two or more follows:
persons come together to accomplish a common a. Competencies or abilities and skills
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b. Constructs or the conceptual framework which perception. They may have selective perception
governs how people perceive their environment causing misunderstanding, problems, and conflicts in
c. Expectations or what people have learned to expect organizations.
about their own and others’ behavior 3. A Whole Person. Organizations employ not just the
d. Values or what people believe to be important brain of the person or his skills but the whole person.
e. Self-Regulatory Plans or the goals people set for Skills do not exist apart from background and
themselves and the plans they make to achieve those knowledge, homelife is not totally separable from
goals. worklife, emotional conditions are not separate from
physical conditions.
Individual differences interact with Environmental or 4. Motivated Behavior. Human behavior is always
situational variables include the type of work individuals carry driven, triggered, or energized by their needs, desires,
out, the culture, climate and management style in the or wants whether or not they are conscious or
organization, the social group within which individuals work, unconscious of them.
and the reference groups that individuals use for comparative 5. Desire for Involvement. People are actively seeking
purposes. opportunities at work to become involved in relevant
decisions, contributing to the organization’s success,
Ability is the quality that makes an action possible. Overriding thus the need to involve them, to empower them.
all abilities is the general intelligence factor which accounts for
most variations in performance. 6. Value of the Person. Employees’ value and dignity as
human beings dictate that they be treated differently
Intelligence or the capacity to solve problems, apply principles, from other factors (within the context of schools,
make inferences and perceive relationships. teachers and students must be treated differently from
 The capacity for abstract thinking and reasoning with factors like technology, financial resources, school
a range of different contents and media building, class schedule, academic and teaching tasks)
 The capacity to process information
 Related to specific aspects of reasoning, inference, The Nature of Organizations
cognition (knowing, conceiving) and perception Organizations are social systems whose behaviors are governed
(understanding, recognition) by social laws and psychological laws. People in the
organizations have psychological needs that need to be fulfilled,
Personality is the relatively stable and enduring aspects of and they also have social roles that they need to fulfill as well
individuals that distinguish them from other people. It is all- as status that they need to maintain or improve. As social
embracing in terms of the individual’s behavior and the way it system, organizations are dynamic.
is organized and coordinated when s/he interacts with the
environment. Organizations and individuals have mutual interests,
organizations need people and people need organizations.
Influence of Background. Individual differences may be a Organization are formed and maintained based on mutuality of
function of people’s background which will include the interest which provides super-ordinate goals that can only be
environment and culture in which they have been brought up attained through the integrated efforts of individuals.
and now exist. Levinson (1978) suggested that “individual life
structure” is shaped by 3 types of external events: In order to attract and retain valuable employees, ethical
1. Socio-cultural environment treatment is necessary. When the organization’s goals and
2. Roles that they play and the relationships they have actions are ethical, mutuality creates a triple reward system –
3. Opportunities and constraints that enable or inhibit them to individual objectives, organizational objectives, and social
express and develop their personality objectives).

Attitude is a settled mode of thinking. It is evaluative in nature How Organizations Function?

for it contains an assessment of whether the object to which it The two factors that determine how an organization functions
refers is liked or disliked in relation to its internal and external environment are its
A general understanding about the nature of people or the 6 structure and processes that operate within it. Organizations are
basic concepts with which we need to view people: also affected by the culture they develop, the values and norms
1. Individual differences that affect behavior.
2. Perception. People look at the world and see things
differently. It is the unique way in which each person Organization Structure
sees, organizes and interprets things based on their Organization structure consists of all the tangible and regularly
personalities, needs, demographic factors, and past occurring features which help to shape its members’ behavior.
experiences. People tend to act on the basis of their Structures incorporate a network of roles and relationships and

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are there to help in the process of ensuring that collective effort d. Free Flow Network. Under this pattern, everyone is
is explicitly organized to achieve specified ends. connected to each other, and the information can flow
freely from anywhere in the organization. It is the most
The organization structure identifies and ensures the division of decentralized form of formal communication. The
the overall management task into a variety of activities. It distinct feature of this communication pattern is that
allocates these activities to the different parts of the all persons in the group are linked to each other and
organization and establishes means of controlling, coordinating, can freely communicate with anyone they want.
and integrating them. The structure consists of units, divisions, e. Inverted ‘V’ Communication. In this network the
and departments. It indicates who is responsible for what at each subordinate is allowed to communicate with his/her
level of the organization. Organization structure is usually immediate superior as well as with the superior’s
described in the form of Organization Chart. superior. However, the communication between the
subordinate and the superior’s superior is limited.
Organizational Processes f. Task and Maintenance Functions. The following
The structure of the organization as described in an functions need to be carried out in groups:
organizational chart does not give any real indication of how it g. Task – initiating, information-seeking, diagnosing,
functions. To understand this, it is necessary to consider the opinion-seeking, evaluating, decision-making
various processes that take place within the structural h. Maintenance – encouraging, compromising, peace-
framework, namely: keeping, clarifying, summarizing, standard-setting
1. Group behavior
2. Teamwork It is the job of the group leader to ensure that these functions
3. Leadership operate effectively. Leaderless groups can work, but only in
4. Power special circumstances. A leader is essential. The style adopted
5. Politics by the leader affects the way the group operates. If the leader is
6. Conflict respected, this will increase group cohesiveness and its ability
7. Interaction and networking to get things done. An inappropriately authoritarian style
8. Communication creates tension and resentment. An over-permissive style means
that respect for the leader diminishes and the group does not
Group Behavior. Organizations consist of groups of people function so effectively.
working together. Interactions take place within and between  Group Ideology. In the course of interacting and
groups and the degree to which these processes are formalized carrying out task and maintenance functions, the group
variy according to the organizational context. develops an ideology which affects the attitudes and
 Formal groups actions of its members and the degree of satisfaction
 Informal groups which they feel.
 Channels of communication  Group Cohesion. If the group ideology is strong and
a. Wheel Network. This is the most centralized form of individual members identify closely with the group, it
communication network wherein all the information will become increasingly cohesive. Group norms or
flows from one central person, typically the leader. implicit rules will evolve which define what is
The other members have little or no communication acceptable behavior and which is not.
link with each other. The leader deliberately controls  Reference Group. It consists of the group of people
the line of communications and make sure that the with whom the individual identifies. This means that
information reaches all in the group. the group’s norms are accepted and if in doubt about
b. Chain Network. Under the chain pattern, the what to say or do, references are made to these norms
information flows either up or down the line. Each or to other group members before action is taken. Most
person gets the information from his immediate people in organization belong to a reference group and
superior and then passes it to their immediate this can significantly affect the ways in which they
subordinates. Likewise, the chain gets created, and all behave.
members get connected to a single person, typically
the leader. This network is suitable when the Group Development. 4 stages of group development
information to be passed is legally correct. 1. Forming. Starts when there is anxiety, dependence on
c. Circle Network. The network is one of the the leader and feeling to find out the nature of the
decentralized forms of communication network situation and the task, and what is acceptable behavior.
wherein the information is shared equally among all 2. Storming, where there is conflict, emotional
members. Each person gives and receives information resistance to the demands of the task, resistance to
from two or more persons in the network. Under this control and even rebellion against the leader.
pattern, each member has the equal chance to 3. Norming, when group cohesion is developed, norms
participate. emerge, views are exchanged openly, mutual support
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and cooperation increase and the group acquires a 5. Disagreements are frequent and often relate to
sense of identity. personalities and differences of opinion rather than a
4. Performing, when interpersonal problems are reasoned discussion of alternative points of view.
resolved, roles are flexible and functional, there are 6. Decisions are not made jointly by team members.
constructive attempts to complete tasks and energy is 7. There is evidence of open personal attacks or hidden
available for effective work personal animosities.
5. Identification. Individuals will identify with their 8. People do not feel free to express their opinions.
groups if they like other members, approve of the 9. Individual team members opt out or are allowed to opt
purpose and work of the group and wish to be out, leaving the others to do the work.
associated with the standing of the group in the 10. There is little flexibility in the way in which team
organization. Identification will be more complex if members operate – people tend to use a limited range
the standing of the group is good. of skills or specific tasks, and there is little evidence of
multi-tasking.
Teamwork 11. The team leader dominates the team; more attention is
Team. A team is a small number of people with complementary given to who takes control rather than to getting the
skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance work done.
goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually 12. The team determines its own standards and norms
accountable. which may not be in accord with the standards and
norms of the organization.
Characteristics of effective teams:
1. Teams are the basic units of performance for the Leadership, Power, Politics, and Conflicts
organizations. They join together the skills, Leadership is the ability to persuade others willingly to behave
experiences, and insights of several people. differently. The function of the team leaders is to achieve the
2. Teamwork applies to the whole organization as well as task set for them with the help of the group. Leaders have 2
specific teams. It represents a set of values that main roles: (1) they must achieve the task, and (2) they have to
encourage behaviors such as listening and responding maintain effective relationships between themselves and the
cooperatively to points of views expressed by others, group and the individuals in it. In fulfilling their roles, leaders
giving others the benefit of the doubt, providing have to satisfy the following:
support to those who need it and recognizing the 1. Task needs. The group exists to achieve a common
interest and achievement of others. purpose or task. The leader’s role is to ensure that this
3. Teams are created and energized by significant purpose is fulfilled. If it is not, they will lose the
performance challenges. confidence of the group and the result will be
4. Teams outperform individuals acting alone in large frustration, disenchantment, criticism, and possible the
organizational groupings especially when ultimate disintegration of the group.
performance requires multiple skills, judgments and 2. Group maintenance needs. To achieve its objectives,
experiences. the group needs to be held together. The leader’s job
5. Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events is to build up and maintain team spirit and morale.
and demands. They can adjust their approach to new 3. Individual needs. Individuals have their own needs
information and challenges with greater speed, which they expect to be satisfied at work. The leader’s
accuracy and effectiveness. task is to aware of these needs so that where necessary,
6. High performances teams invest much time and effort they can take steps to harmonize them with the needs
exploring, shaping and agreeing on purpose that of the task and the group.
belongs to them, both collectively and individually.
They are characterized by a deep sense of commitment Power
to their growth and success. Organizations exist to get things done and in the process, people
or groups exercise power. Power is the capacity to secure the
Dysfunctional Teams dominance of one’s goals or values over others. There are four
1. The atmosphere can be strained and formalized. different types:
2. Either there is too much discussion that gets nowhere 1. Reward power. It is derived from the belief of
or discussion is inhibited by dominant members of the individuals that compliance brings rewards. The
team. ability to distribute rewards contributes considerably
3. Team members do not really understand what they are to the executive power.
there to do and the objectives or standards they are 2. Coercive power. This power makes it plain that non-
expected to achieve. compliance will bring punishment.
4. People don’t listen to one another. 3. Expert power. It is exercised by people who are
popular and admired and with whom the less popular

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can identify. It can also be a power emanating from  Rumor is a statement or claim of questionable
one’s expertise or superior knowledge. accuracy, from no known reliable source, usually
4. Legitimized power. It is a power conferred by the spread by word of mouth
position in an organization held by an executive.  Small talk is an informal type of discourse that does
not cover any functional topics of conversation or any
Politics transactions that need to be addressed. Small talk is
Power and politics are inextricably mixed and in many conversation for its own sake.
organizations there will inevitably people who want to achieve  Gossip is revealing personal information about others.
their satisfaction by acquiring power, legitimately or A friend who passes on the secret of other friends, but
illegitimately. Politics is a process of influencing individuals asks you not to tell is an example of gossip. Gossip is
and groups of people to your point of view where you cannot defined as the private information about others shared
rely on authority. Effective management is the process of in conversation or print.
harmonizing individual endeavor and ambition to the common
good. Characteristics of informal Communication
 Formation through social relations
Conflict  Uncertain path
Conflict is inevitable in organizations because they function by  Possibility of rumor and distortion
means of adjustments and compromises among competitive
 Quick relay
elements in their structure and membership. Conflict also arises
when there is change because it may be seen as a threat to be
Advantages of Informal Communication
challenged or resisted or when there is frustration, this may
 Fast and effective
produce aggressive reaction, fight rather than flight.
 Free environment
Interaction and Networking  Better human relations
Interactions between people criss-cross the organization  Easy solution of the difficult problems
creating networks for getting things done and exchanging  Satisfying the social needs of the workers
information which is not catered for in the formal structure.
Networking is an increasingly important process in flexible and Limitations
delayered organization where more fluid interaction across the  Unsystematic
structure are required between individuals and teams.  Unreliable
Individuals can often get much more done by networking than
by going through the formal channels. People also get things Most Common Barriers to Effective Communication
done In organizations by creating alliances – getting agreement 1. Physical barriers have to do with poor or out-dated
on a course of action with other people and joining forces to get equipment used during communications, background
things done. noise, poor lighting, temperatures that are too hot or
too cold.
Communication 2. Attitudes also known as emotional noise. Emotions
The communication processes used in organizations have like sadness or anger can taint objectivity. Also being
marked effect on how they function especially if they take place extremely nervous, having a personal agenda, or
though networks which can turn into the ‘grapevine.’ E-mails “needing to be right no matter what” can make
in intranets encourage the instant flow of information(and communications less than effective.
sometimes produce information overload) but may inhibit face- 3. Language. Even people speaking the same language
to-face interactions which are often the best way of getting can have difficulty understanding each other if they are
things done. from different generations or different regions of the
same country.
Informal Communication 4. Physiological barriers. Poor health condition, poor
The communication which does not follow any pre-defined eyesight or hearing difficulties, physical pain
channel for the transmission of information. There are 4 general 5. Cultural noise. People sometimes make stereotypical
types: (1) grapevine, (2) rumor, (3) small talk, and (4) gossip. assumptions about others based on their cultural
 Grapevine is an informal, unofficial and personal background.
communication channel or system that takes place 6. Problems with Structure Design. Companies or
within the organization as a result of rumor and gossip. institutions can have organization structures that are
It is a complex web of oral information flow linking not clear, which can make communications difficult.
all members of the organization. Also to blame for faulty communication are bad
information systems and lack of supervision or
training of the people involved.

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7. Lack of Common Experience pertains to that of the sender 4. Culture is influenced by the organization’s
and receiver of information. Sharing a story on the part of the environment.
speaker to make a point may not be successfully received and
understood by the audience if they do not have the same Culture is learned over a period of time. There are 2 ways in
experience. which learning takes place:
8. Ambiguity and Abstractions Overuse. Leaving things half- 1. The Trauma Model in which members of the
said, using too many generalizations, proverbs or sayings can organization learn to cope with some threat by
all lead to communications that are not clear and that can lead employing defense mechanism.
themselves to misinterpretations. 2. The Positive Reinforcement Model where values,
9. Information Overload. It takes time to process a lot of beliefs, and norms of the organization are learned by
information and too many details can overwhelm and distract the use of reward system. Over the years, things that
the audience from the important topics. Keep It Simple. seem to work become embedded ad entrenched.
10. Assumptions and Jumping to Conclusions. This can make Where culture has developed over long periods of time and has
someone reach a decision about something before listening to become firmly embedded, it may be difficult to change quickly,
all the facts. if at all, unless a traumatic event occurs.

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Components of Culture:

Organizational culture refers to pattern of values, norms, 1. Values
beliefs, attitudes and assumptions that may not have been 2. Norms
articulated but shape the ways in which people behave and 3. Artefacts
things get done. 4. Leadership or Management Style
 Values refer to what is believed to be important about
how people and organizations behave Values help to determine what we think is right or wrong, what
 Norms are the unwritten rules of behavior is important and what is desirable. Values are belief in what is
best or good for the organization and what should or ought to
The culture of an organization refers to the unique configuration happen. Some of the areas in which values can be expressed
of norms, values, beliefs and ways of behaving that characterize implicitly or explicitly are:
the manner in which groups and individuals combine to get  Performance
things done. Culture is a system of informal rules that spells out  Competence
how people are to behave most of the time. Culture is the  Competitiveness
commonly held beliefs, attitudes, and values that exist in an  Innovation
organization.  Quality
 Customer service (service to student)
Organizational Climate refers to those aspects of the  Teamwork
environment that are consciously perceived by organizational  Care and consideration for people (community and
members. A climate is a perception and is descriptive. country)
The Significance of Culture Values are translated into reality (enacted) through norms and
Culture represents the social glue and generates a we feeling artefacts. They may also be expressed through the media of
thus counteracting processes offers a shared system of language (organizational jargon), rituals, stories and myths.
meanings which is the basis for communication and mutual
understanding. If these functions are not fulfilled in a Norms are the unwritten rules of behavior. They are the rules
satisfactory way, culture may significantly reduce the efficiency of the game that provide informal guidelines on how to behave.
of an organization. Norms tell people what they are supposed to be doing,
believing, even wearing. They are not expressed in writing – if
How Organizational Culture Develops. The values and norms they were, they would be policies or procedures. They are
are the basis of culture and are formed in four ways: passed on by word of mouth or behavior and can be enforced
1. Culture is formed by the leaders in the organization, by reactions of people if they are violated. They can exert very
especially those who have shaped it in the past. powerful pressure on behavior because of these reactions. We
2. Culture is formed around critical incidents – important control others by the way we react to them.
events from which lessons are learned about desirable
or undesirable behavior. Within the context of schools, norms may refer to such aspects
3. Culture develops from the need to maintain effective of behavior as:
working relationships among organization members o How principals treat their teachers and how teachers relate
and this establishes values and expectations. to them

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o The prevailing work ethic in school (work hard, play hard; leadership is not exerted. An employee who performs
come in early, stay late, if you cannot finish your work satisfactorily with almost no boss contact is not being led.
during business hours, you are inefficient, look busy at all
times or look relaxed at all times) Leadership, Management Supervision. Leadership is one
o Status, how much import is attached to it; the existence of component of management, working with and through
lack of obvious status symbols individuals and groups to accomplish organizational goals.
o Ambition, naked ambition is expected and approved of; or Management includes the major activities of planning,
a more subtle approach is the norm organizing, controlling, and leading. The non-leadership
o Performance, exacting performance standards are general; aspects of a manager’s job are sometimes referred to as
the highest praise that can be given in an organization is to administrative work, while the interpersonal aspects involve
be referred to as very professional leadership. Leadership is regarded as a force that inspires and
o Power recognized as a way of life, executed by political energizes people and brings about change. The other aspects of
means, dependent on expertise and ability rather than management deal more with status quo. Among the leadership
position, concentrated at the top, shared at different levels aspects of a manager’s job described in this context are
in different parts of the organization motivation, communication and conflict resolution. Both good
o Politics rampant throughout the organization and treated as management and effective leadership are important for an
normal behavior; not accepted as overt behavior organization to run well. Supervision is first-level management
o Loyalty expected, a cradle to grave approach to careers, or overseeing of workers. Supervisors plan, organize, control,
discounted, the emphasis is on results and contribution in and lead as do other managers. However, supervisors spend
the short term more time in direct leadership activities than do higher-level
o Anger openly expressed, hidden but expressed through managers.
other means possibly political means
o Approachability, managers (principals, department heads) How Leaders Use Power to Achieve Goals
are expected to be approachable and visible, or everything Leaders influence others to achieve goals through the use of
happens behind closed doors power – the ability to control resources, to influence important
o Formality, a cool formal approach is the norm, or given decisions, and to get other people to do things. When power
name, surname nickname are allowed or not allowed at all stems from the formal position you occupy, it is referred to as
levels, there are unwritten but clearly understood rules position power. When it stems from your personal
about dress characteristics and skills, it is referred to as personal power. If
you want to be an effective leader, you must be able to use
Artefacts power in an intelligent and sensitive manner.
They are the visible and tangible aspects of the organization that
people hear, see, touch, feel. They include such things as Position power can be divided into three sub-types:
working environment, the tone and language used in letters or 1. Legitimate power is the ability to influence others
memoranda; the manner in which people address each other at that directly stems from the leader’ position. It is the
meetings, over the telephone, the welcome or lack of it given to easiest type of power to understand and accept. People
visitors, etc. at higher levels in an organization have more power
than the people below them. However, the culture of
Leadership (Leading and Influencing Others) an organization helps decide the limits to anybody’s
This part from definition of Leadership to The Leaders’ Role in power. Although employees generally accept their
Encouraging Others is from Dubrin, A.J. (1994). Applying boss’ right to make requests, they do not like to be
Psychology, Individual and Organizational Effectiveness. 4th given orders in a way that implies they are not as good
Ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. as the leader. Effective leaders therefore exercise
authority by making polite requests, rather than
Effective leadership has been evaluated as the most important arrogant demands.
factor in moving organizations forward in a complex and 2. Reward power refers to the leader’s control over
competitive world. To achieve such ends, effective leadership rewards valued by the subordinates. For example, if a
is needed at all levels from supervisors to top executive. principal or a department head can directly reward
teachers with cash bonuses for good performance, then
The reason leadership is so important can be found in its that principal or department head has the power to
definition. Leadership is a process of influencing others to exert control over the teachers who value cash or
achieve certain objectives. Leadership involves influencing the financial rewards. Effective leaders do not use rewards
activities of an individual or group in efforts toward reaching a as bribes for getting employees to do what they want.
goal in a given situation. However, unduly coercive tactics are Instead, rewards are used to reinforce desirable
not part of leadership. If influence is not exerted, then behavior after it has already taken place.

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3. Coercive power refers to the leader’s control over 3. Ingratiation refers to getting somebody else to like
punishments. It is based on fear and thus may create you, often using political behaviors. Two specific
anxiety and defensiveness. Effective leaders generally ingratiating behaviors: Acted in a friendly manner
avoid the use of coercive power except when prior to asking for what I wanted” and ”Praised the
absolutely necessary because coercion is likely to subordinate just before asking for what I wanted.”
create resentment and undermine their personal power. Strong leaders tend not to rely heavily on ingratiating
Yet, if skillfully used, coercion can get some people to tactics.
comply with rules, regulations, and orders. 4. Rationality is appealing to reason and logic. It is an
influence tactic used frequently by effective leaders.
Personal power has two sub-types Pointing out the facts of a situation to a group member
1. Expert power is the ability to control others through in order to prompt that person to act is an example of
knowledge relevant to the job as perceived by rationality.
subordinates. You can also exercise expert power 5. Exchange is the use of reciprocal favors in order to
when you do not have a formal leadership position (but influence others. Leaders with limited personal and
perceived as having specialized knowledge or skill). position power tend to emphasize exchanging favors
To accumulate expert power, a leader should cultivate with group members.
an image of experience and competence. Credibility 6. Upward Appeal means asking for help from a higher
must be preserved by avoiding careless statements and authority. The leader exerts influence by getting a
rash decisions. It is also important to remain cool. A more powerful person to carry out the influence act.
leader who appears confused, vacillates, or obviously More than occasional use of upward appeal weakens
panicked will quickly lose expert power. the manager’s stature in the eyes of subordinates and
2. Referent power is the ability to control based on superiors and erodes effectiveness as a leader.
loyalty to the leader and subordinates’ desire to please 7. Blocking refers to work slowdowns or the threat
that person. The charisma (personal charm and thereof, thus being used primarily to exert upward
magnetism) of the person is the basis of referent rather than downward influence. However, a leader
power. Some of the loyalty to the leader is based on sometimes use blocking in ways such as: “ I ignored
identification with the leader’s personality traits and him until he came around to my way of thinking” or “I
personal characteristics and charisma, and therefore stopped being friendly until she started listening to
referent power, are both based on the subjective me.”
perception of the leader’s traits and characteristics. 8. Joking and Kidding can be used to influence others.
Although both position and personal power are Good- natured ribbing is especially effective when a
important, effective leaders rely heavily on personal straightforward statement might be interpreted as
power to get work done. harsh criticism.
9. Charm and appearance. Being charming and
Influence Tactics Used by Leaders creating a positive appearance can influence others to
1. Leading by example is simple but effective way of accomplish a task.
influencing members. The ideal approach to leading
by example is to be “Do as I Say and Do manager. This Traits, Motives, and Characteristics of Effective Leaders
type of manager shows consistency between actions Past studies on leadership focused on the traits, motives and
and words. Also actions and words confirm, support, characteristics of leaders. Trait approach to understanding
and often clarify each other. For example, if the firm leadership has been downplayed because the emerging belief
has a dress code and the supervisor explains the code now is that leadership can be best understood when the leader,
and dresses accordingly, a role model has been the group members, and the situation in which they are placed.
provided that is consistent in words and actions. The Effective leadership is not solely and exclusively attributable to
action of following the dress code provides an example the personal traits and characteristics of the leader. A realistic
that supports and clarifies the words used to describe view is that certain traits and behaviors contribute to effective
the dress code. leadership in a wide variety of situations.
2. Assertiveness refers to being forthright with your
demands, expressing both the specifics of what you Power Motive. Effective leaders have a strong need to control
want done and the feelings surrounding the demands. resources. Leaders with high power drives have 3 dominant
An assertive leader might say, “I’m worried about the characteristics:
backlog of paper works, and late submission of Report 1. They act with vigor and determination to exert their
of Grades, I want all paper works done and on my desk power
by Thursday at 4:00 in the afternoon. A leader might 2. They invest much time in thinking about ways to alter
also be assertive by checking frequently on the behavior and thinking of others, and
subordinates.

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3. They care about their personal standing with those Credibility and Integrity. Studies show that honesty is the
around them most sought after leadership traits. Group members however
4. The strong need for power is important because it measure honesty by the deeds (behavior) of leaders. Leaders are
means that the leader is influencing others. The power considered honest when they follow through on promises. In a
needed to satisfy the power motive can be obtained related study, it was found that of all the behaviors describing
through acquiring the right position or through leadership the most essential was the leader’s display of trust of
developing personal power. others.

Drive and Achievement Motive. Leaders are noted for high Insight into People and Situation. Insight is a depth of
level of effort in achieving work goals. Drive refers to such understanding that requires intuition and common sense. It is a
aspects of behavior as ambition, energy, tenacity, initiative, and skill associated with cognitive ability and could be classified as
above all achievement motivation. The achievement motive is a trait or behavior. A leader with good insight is able to make
reflected in finding joy in accomplishment for its own sake. better work assignments, do a better job of training members,
High achievers find satisfaction in completing challenging and be sensitive to people’s feelings. The reason is that such a
tasks, attaining high standards, and developing better ways of leader makes a careful assessment of the strengths and
doing things. weaknesses of group members. Another advantage of being
insightful is that the leader can size up the situation and adapt
Cognitive Ability. Effective leaders have good problem- his or her leadership approach accordingly.
solving ability. Cognitive Resource Theory posits that
“intelligent and competent leaders make more effective plans, Maintaining High Standards. Effective leaders consistently
decisions and action strategies than do leaders with less hold group members to high standards of performance which
intelligence or competence.” However, an advanced cognitive raises productivity. Setting high expectations for others
ability can also be disadvantageous. John D. Greary ( in Dubrin, becomes self- fulfilling prophecy. Workers tend to live up to the
A., 2004) comments: expectations set for them by supervisors (the Pygmalion
Effect). Setting high expectations might take the form of
Self-confidence. In every setting, it is important for the leader encouraging team members to establish difficult goals.
to be self-confident. A leader who is self-assured without being
overbearing instills confidence in subordinates. Aside from Stability Under Pressure. Effective leaders are steady
being a psychological trait, self-confidence or self-assurance performers even under heavy workloads and uncertain
refers to the behavior exhibited by the person in a number of conditions. Remaining steady under uncertain conditions
situations. It is like being cool under pressure. contributes to effectiveness because it helps subordinates cope
with the situation. When the leader remains calm, group
Courage. Study of 200 US and Japanese managers indicate that members are reassured that things will work out satisfactorily.
courage is an important leadership attribute in revitalizing an
organization. Managerial courage involves a manager giving Recovery Quickly from Setbacks. Effective leaders are
voice to ideas that deviate from current thinking because the resilient, they bounce back quickly from setbacks. They do not
manager believes they will produce improved benefits for the even think about failure and they don’t even use the word.
organization. Sometimes, the ideas recommend change, at other Instead, they use the word, glitch, mistake, bugle, and setback.
times the ideas advocate maintaining the status quo. In practice, this means that the leader sets an example for
subordinates by not crumbling when something goes wrong.
Internal Locus of Control. Effective leaders believe they are Instead the leader tries to conduct business as usual.
the primary causes of events happening to them. A study has
shown that supervisory leaders with an internal locus of control Supportiveness. Supportive behavior towards the subordinates
are favored by group members. Part of the reason is that an is frequently associated with leadership effectiveness. A
internal person is perceived as more powerful than an external supportive leader is one who gives praise and encouragement to
because that person takes responsibility for things happening. subordinates increasing morale and productivity. Supportive
leadership also contributes to preventing burnout among group
Behaviors and Skills of Effective Leaders members.
Technical Competence refers to the knowledge of the
business. An effective leader has to be technically competent in Power Sharing. A dominant trend in workplace is for managers
some discipline, particularly when leading a group of to share authority and power with team members. power sharing
specialists. It is difficult to establish rapport with group is the basis of empowerment, a manager sharing power with
members when the leader does not understand their work. team members to help them achieve greater confidence in their
Group members also have to respect the leader’s technical skill. abilities.
At a minimum, the manager of specialists has to be snowproof
(not readily bluffed about technical matters by group members).

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3 Key Leadership Styles unless requested. The only limits directly imposed on the group
A leadership style is a leader’s characteristic way of behaving are those specified by the leader’s boss. Such extreme degree of
in most situations. The leadership continuum, or classical group freedom is rarely encountered in a work organization.
approach to understanding leaders, classifies leaders according
to how much authority they retain for themselves versus how A real problem with free-rein leadership in practice is that it
much is turned over to the group. Three points on the continuum frustrates many subordinates. Most people feel a leader is paid
are autocratic, participative, ad free-rein leaders. to give direction and advice. People often characterize a free-
rein leader as weak and ineffective.
Autocratic Leader attempts to retain most of the authority
granted to the group. Autocratic leaders make all the major Transformational and Charismatic Leadership
decisions and assume subordinates will comply without An important development in understanding leaders and
question. Leaders who use this style give minimum leadership is the emphasis on the type of leader who, through
consideration to what group members are likely to think about charm and talent, captivates the imagination of others. The
an order or decision. An autocrat is sometimes seen as rigid and transformational leader is one who helps organization and
demanding by have to be made rapidly or when group members. people make positive changes. Transformational leadership is a
combination of charisma, inspirational leadership, and
Although authoritarian (a synonym for autocratic) style of intellectual stimulation. The transformational leader exerts
leadership is not in vogue, many successful leaders are more influence on people than a transactional leader, who
autocratic. This style of leadership works best in situations mainly conducts transactions with group members.
where decisions or when group opinion is not needed. (Transactional leaders trade money, jobs, and security for
compliance.)
A participative leader is one who shares decision-making
authority with the group. Although the participative style is The transformational leader is adept at turning around failing
usually associated with a strong people orientation, one situations, but can also move an organization to performing
observes that the participative leader can be tough-minded. This adequately to a much higher levels of achievement.
type of leadership has 3 sub-types”
1. Consultative leaders. A consultative leader solicits How Transformations Take Place
opinion from the group before making a decision yet Transformation takes place in one or three ways:
does not feel obliged to accept the group thinking. 1. Transformational leader raises people’s awareness of
Leaders of this type make it clear they alone have the the importance and value of certain rewards and how
authority to make the final decisions. A standard way to achieve them. The leader might point out the pride
to practice consultative leadership would be to call a workers would experience if the firm became number
group meeting and discuss an issue before making a one in its field and the financial rewards associated
decision. with such success.
2. Consensual Leaders. A consensual leader encourages 2. The transformational leader gets people to look
group discussion about an issue then makes a decision beyond their self-interests for the sake of the group and
that reflects the consensus of group members. the organization.
Consensus leaders thus turn over more authority to the 3. The transformational leader helps people to go beyond
group than do consultative leaders. The consensus a focus on minor satisfaction as a quest for self-
style results in long delays in decision-making because fulfillment. In this way, people are urged to move to a
every party involved has to agree. higher point on the need hierarchy.
3. Democratic Leaders. A democratic leader confers
final authority on the group. He or she functions as a The Link between Charisma and Transformational
collector of opinion and takes a vote before making a Leadership
decision. Democratic leaders turn over so much Transformational leaders have charisma, the ability to lead
authority to the group that they are sometimes called others based on personal charm, magnetism, inspiration, and
free-rein leaders. The group usually achieves its goals emotion. Charisma is the basis of referent power. To label a
when working under a democratic leader. Democratic leader as charismatic does not mean that everybody grants him
leadership has more relevance for community or her referent power. The best a charismatic leader can hope
activities than for most work settings. for is that the majority of people in the organization grant
him/her referent
Free-rein Leadership (The Subordinate-Centered Styles)
A free-rein leader is one who turns over virtually all authority Charismatic leaders inspire trust. People believe so strongly
to the group. The free-rein style leadership style is also referred in the integrity of the charismatic leaders that they will risk their
to as laizzes-faire (allow them to do). They issue general goals careers to pursue the chief’s vision.
and guidelines to the group and then do not get involved again

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Charismatic leaders help group members feel capable. The Students bring to school the conflicts that are occurring where
charismatic leader recognizes the importance of effort-to- they reside, whether that be with parents, siblings, or another
performance expectancies. One technique used to help people student. Many times, these conflicts are manifested outside the
feel more competent is to let them achieve success on relatively school doors only to be brought inside the school in terms of
easy projects. arguments, fights, harassment, and violence.
Charismatic leaders have energy and an action-oriented
leadership style. Most charismatic leaders are energetic and School Culture (from www.educationreform, Last Updated,
serve as a model for getting things done on time. 11- 25-13)

Qualities and Practices of Ethical Versus Unethical The term school culture generally refers to the beliefs,
Charismatic Leaders power. The following are some perceptions, relationships, attitudes, and written and unwritten
significant qualities and actions of charismatic leaders: rules that shape and influence every aspect of how a school
1. Charismatic leaders have vision. A major functions. The term also encompasses more concrete issues
requirement of a charismatic leader is that the person such as the physical and emotional safety of students, the
offers the organization an exciting image of where the orderliness of the classrooms and public spaces, or he degree to
organization is headed and how to get there. A vision which the school embraces and celebrates, racial, ethnic,
is more than a forecast. It describes an ideal version of linguistic, or cultural diversity.
the future organization or an organizational unit. A
sense of vision inspires an organization to perform Like the larger social culture, a school culture results from both
well. conscious and unconscious perspectives, values, interactions,
2. Charismatic leaders are masterful communicators. and practices and it is heavily shaped by a school’s particular
To inspire people, the charismatic leaders use colorful institutional history. Students, parents, teachers, administrators,
language and exciting metaphors and analogies. and other staff members all contribute to their school’s culture
as do other influences such as the community in which the
Superleadership: Leading Others to Lead Themselves school is located, the policies that govern how it operates, or the
An important goal for leaders is to become Superleader, one principles upon which the school was founded.
who leads others to lead themselves. When people are self-
directing, they require a minimum of external control. A Generally, school culture is divided into two basic forms:
superleader leads others to lead themselves by acting as a 1. Positive cultures
teacher and a coach and not as a director. 2. Negative cultures

The key aspect of Superleadership deals with learning the right Positive school cultures are conducive to professional
thought patterns. The Superleadership Theory contends that the satisfaction, morale, and effectiveness, as well as to student
leader must teach team members how to develop productive learning, fulfillment, and well-being. Below is a representative
thinking. The purpose of productive or constructive thinking is list of the characteristics commonly associated with positive
to enable workers to gain control over their own behavior. A school culture:
central part of Superleadership is the leader serving as a model 1. The individual successes of teachers and students are
of constructive thought patterns. recognized and celebrated;
2. Relationships and interactions are characterized by
School Culture openness, trust, respect, and appreciation;
School culture has been and can be defined in many ways and 3. Staff relationships are collegial, collaborative and
in some cases it is described as school climate, ethos or saga, productive and all staff members are held to high
(Seifert & Vornberg, 2002). In this discussion, school culture is professional standards;
defined as that which refers to the interaction among the 4. Students and staff members feel emotionally and
following factors: physically safe, and the school’s policies and facilities
1. Attitudes and beliefs held by stakeholders inside promote students’ safety;
and outside the organization 5. School leaders, teachers and staff members model
2. Cultural norms of the school positive, healthy behaviors for students;
3. Relationships among individuals in the school 6. Mistakes not punished as failures, but they are seen as
opportunities to learn and grow for both students and
School culture is composed of traditions, values, and beliefs educators;
that are held in common by the students, teachers, and 7. Students are held consistently to high academic
principals. Schools are direct reflection of the society from expectations and a majority of students meet or exceed
which the students come. As teachers and principals, are fully those expectations;
aware, many of the conflicts, problems, and concerns that find
their way into the schools are deeply rooted in the community.

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8. Important leadership decisions are made 6. Creating a leadership team comprising a representative
collaboratively with input from staff members, cross-section of school administrators, teachers,
students and parents; students, parents and community members that
9. Criticisms, when voice, is constructive and well- oversees and leads school improvement initiatives.
intentioned, not antagonistic or self-serving;
10. Educational resources and learning opportunities are Debate
equitably distributed to all students including Since most members of a school community will benefit from
minorities and students with disabilities; a more positive culture, and cultural factors tend to contribute
11. All students have access to the academic support and significantly to emotional states such as happiness and
services they may need to succeed. unhappiness or fulfillment and dissatisfaction, the concept of a
more positive culture, is rarely in itself controversial. For this
School Reforms reason, debates tend to arise (if they arise at all) in response to
School culture has become a central concept in many efforts to specific reform proposals rather than to the general goal of
change how schools operate and improve educational results. improving a school culture.
While a school culture is heavily influenced by its institutional
history, culture also shapes social patterns, habits, and What Makes a Good School Culture (Leah Shafer, 23 July
dynamics that influence future behaviors which could become 2018, www.gse.harvard.edu.)
an obstacle to reform and improvement. For example, if a
faculty culture is generally dysfunctional (if interpersonal “A good school cultures starts with connections- strong and
tensions and distrust are common, problems are rarely overlapping interactions among all members of the school
addressed or resolved, or staff members tend to argue more than community.”
they collaborate or engage in productive professional
discussion), it is likely that these cultural factors will Most principals have an instinctive awareness that
significantly complicate or hinder any attempt to change how organizational culture is a key element of school success. They
the school operates. The simple example illustrates why school might say that their school has a “good culture” when teachers
culture has become the object of so many research studies and express a shared vision and students are succeeding – or that
reform efforts. Without a school culture that is conducive to they need to work on school culture when several teachers
improvement, reform becomes exponentially more difficult. resign or student discipline rates rise.

The following describe a few representative examples of But like many organizational leaders, principals may get
common ways that schools may attempt to improve their stymied (blocked, thwarted, hindered) when they actually try to
culture: describe the elements that create a positive culture. It is tricky
1. Establishing Professional Learning Communities that to define, and identifying its components can be challenging.
encourages teachers to communicate, share expertise, Amid the midst for tangible outcomes like higher test scores and
and work together more collegially and productively; graduation rates, it can be tempting to think that school culture
2. Providing presentations, seminars and learning is just too vague or soft to prioritize. That would be a mistake
experiences designed to educate staff and students according to Ebony Bridwell-Mitchell, an expert in educational
about bullying and reduce instances of bullying; leadership and management. Bridwell-Mitchell explained that
3. Creating events and educational experiences that those who studied culture have tracked and demonstrated a
honor and celebrate the racial, ethnic, and linguistic strong and significant correlation between organizational
diversity of the student body, such as hosting cultural culture and an organization’s performance. Once principals
events and festivals, exhibiting culturally relevant understand what constitutes culture – once they learn to see it
materials throughout the school, inviting local cultural not as a hazy mass of intangibles, but as something that can be
leaders to present to students, or making explicit pinpointed ad designed – they can start to execute a cultural
connections between the diverse cultural backgrounds vision communications are limited and there are fewer
of students and what is being taught in History, Social connections. For example, if certain teachers never hear directly
Studies, and Literature courses; from their principal, an administrator is continually excluded
4. Establishing an advisory or assigning an adult advisor from communications, or any groups of staff members are
to strengthen adult-student relationships and ensure operating in isolation from others, it will be difficult for
that students are well-known and supported by at least messages about shared beliefs and commitments to spread.
one adult in the school;
5. Surveying students, parents, and teachers about their A culture will be strong or weak depending on the interactions
experiences in the school, and hosting community between people in the organization. In a strong culture, there
forums that invite participants to share their opinions are many, overlapping, and cohesive interactions, so that
about and recommendations for the school and its knowledge about the organization’s distinctive character – and
programs; what it takes to thrive in it – is widely spread. In a weak culture,

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sparse interactions make it difficult for people to learn the children in the public school systems come from economically
organization’s culture, so its character is barely noticeable and disadvantaged families. Reeves (1998 in Seifert & Vornberg,
the 2002, p.87) claimed that the more poverty-level students a
school has, the more likely a child is to fail because poverty
Culture is shaped by five interwoven elements, each of which level appears to be the best predictor of student achievement.
principals have the power to influence. Teacher expectations for students living in poverty may play a
1. Beliefs, values, and actions will spread the role in how the student feels about his/her academic well-being.
farthest and be tightly reinforced when everyone It is inherent that students, regardless of their financial
is communicating with everyone else. In a strong circumstances, expect the highest quality instruction from all
school culture, leaders communicate directly with teachers.
teachers, administrators, counselors, and families,
who also communicate directly with each other. A Changing Family Patterns
culture is weaker when beliefs and assumptions, One of the most dramatic changes in society that has impacted
or the things that people at your school consider the school is changing family patterns. What used to be
as true. For example, “All students have the considered as the atypical family, a single parent family has
potential to succeed.” Or “Teaching is a team over the years become the norm in the US. The traditional
sport.” family with a father, mother, and children has continued to
2. Shared values, or the judgments people at your decline and single- mother families continue to rise. (In the
school make about those beliefs and assumptions Philippines, the trend of single-parent family is increasing.)
– whether they are right or wrong, good or bad, According to the 1998 Survey conducted by the US Census
just or unjust. For example, “It is wrong that some Bureau (in Seinfert & Vornberg, 2002)
of our students may not have the same opportunity
to graduate from college.” Or “It is not just for The School Leader in the Community
teachers not to teach well for they deprive students
the opportunity to learn and improve their lives.” The more one community learns, the more each
3. Norms or how members believe they should act member is
and behave, or what they think is expected of
them. For example, “We should talk often and The technological and cultural changes in society affect schools
early to parents of our students about what it will tremendously and its role within it. As more technological and
take for their children to graduate from college.” industrial development materialized and the society’s
4. Patterns and behaviors or the way people actually populations become increasingly diversified in ethnic,
act and behave in your school. religious, and cultural backgrounds, the work of the school as
5. Tangible evidence, or the physical, visual, the foundation to the community has become increasingly
auditory or other sensory signs that demonstrate complex and highlighted.
the behaviors of the people in your school. For
example, prominently displayed posters Societal changes have become even more difficult because of
showcasing the school’s enrollment or a full the liberalization of beliefs and actions from outside the
parking lot an hour before school or class sessions institution such as family values and tremendous impact on
start. students of mass media’s messages in the form of
entertainment, they also include able to contribute to the
Each of these components influences and drives the others, Development of the school – the better the community
forming a circle of reinforcing beliefs and actions. Bridwell- becomes.
Mitchell says, strong connections among every member of the
school community reinforce the circle at every point. School Culture

larger societythe changes that are brought into the school by the
School Culture and the Changing Nature of School and participants – teachers, students, parents, and the principal.
Society
In order to create a school culture that is conducive to student Discussion of leadership starts with considering the culture
learning, instruction, and discipline, principals (and teachers) where the leadership activity takes place. Organization’s culture
need to have an understanding of the social and economic or school’s culture is made up of the beliefs and values which
context of where the school is located. Some issues surrounding school participants hold to be meaningful in the actual operation
the context are: of the system. These values are manifested in things such as
rituals, roles, mores, traditions, and significant artifacts that
Poverty. Most schools (particularly, public schools here in the represent these values. School culture plays a major influence
Philippines) have children that live in economic poverty. Most in the

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conditions, will principal, teachers, and students become

serious, committed, sustained, lifelong, cooperative learners?
leadership that is provided by the principal because the beliefs
that are present in the school’s culture, actions, of the principal, Barth’s Assumption about School Change:
teachers, students are somewhat circumscribed by expectations
for the goals of the school. 1. Schools have the capacity to improve themselves, if
the conditions are right. A major responsibility of
The Principal as a Steward those outside the school is to help provide and support
The principal, as the formal leader, becomes a steward of the these conditions for those inside.
system and the mission of the school as well as those individuals 2. When the need the and purpose is there and when the
who are part of the school, (Senge in Seifert & Vornberg, 2002, conditions are right, adults and students alike learn
p.20). S/he protects the system from being undermined by while energizing and contributing to the learning of
outside forces that will injure the community and its purpose. each other.
The school leader is also expected to examine the beliefs and 3. What needs to be improved about schools is their
values of the system, weighing them carefully for their impact culture, the quality of interpersonal relationships, and
on the purpose of the school, and then determining those that the nature and quality of learning experiences.
need to be changed to best meet the challenges of the larger 4. School improvement is an effort to determine and
community in which the school participates. provide, from actions inside and outside the school,
conditions under which the adults and youngsters who
The school contributes to the development of society by inhabit school will promote and sustain learning
extending the education of its participants. But the school is among participants.
very much an institution that is itself a participant in a larger
environment – that of social institutions. As such, the school is School Culture and the Hidden Curriculum
influenced and changed by all of the other social institutions Hidden curriculum is a type of curriculum that is not
that participate in this society – family, religion, economy, deliberately planned but has a great impact on the behavior of
politics/government, mass media. learners. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental
pressure or total absence of it, societal changes, cultural
Expectation for the leadership of the principal practices that students experience, see, and interpret may
influence students’ behavior, academic motivation, values,
While model of leadership has changed from being beliefs, attitudes, and many others.
authoritarian to being collaborative, principals must also step
into a more directive role when the situation calls for immediate School Culture
action and ensure that measures are accomplished to protect the  Successful schools emerge from the direction of the
educational participants and the overall mission of the school. principals who see the school organization from a
The charismatic leader generally appears at times of stress and holistic point of view. Seeing the big picture is what
the state of mind of followers is a powerful ingredient in principals do when they understand and are able to
explaining. The risk of a school following the charismatic communicate and shape the values, beliefs and
leader is to depend on one individual to have all of the ideas and attitudes of faculty and students. This allows them to
to deal with all threats. give guidance to the future of the organization.
 Culture can affect what teachers discuss in their
In the 21st Century-environment, leaders are no longer viewed classroom, in the faculty room, etc.
as individuals who think the organization’s way through the  Cultural beliefs and attitudes impact school
problems and assign tasks to those on the front lines in the improvement to the point that teachers and students
classrooms. Senge, (in Seifert & Vornberg, 2002, p.21) refers internalize those beliefs and make them personal
to the new model as learning organizations – that which values.
incorporates integrating thinking and acting at all levels. This  People new to the school must learn the culture or face
requires not only adaptive learning in schools to cope with new sanctions employed by the school.
challenges, but also focus on generative learning, or creating  Students and teachers must not become totally
new strategies for unknown contingencies and ensuring that socialized to the culture or else the organization will
processes exist that continually improve those strategies. run the risk of stagnation.
Leaders in learning organizations influence their colleagues to  A deterrent to a positive school culture is teacher and
focus not on events that occurred (reactive), but to the systemic principal mobility. The loss of key members of any
structure of what is occurring (generative). organization always impacts on the improvement of
the organization.
Real question to ask by learning communities and educational
leaders: (Barth, in Seifert * Vornberg, 2002, p. 22). Under what

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 It is the principal’s responsibility to provide direction 2. Collegiality. It is concerned with and among
so that the school culture becomes a positive force in teachers’ interpersonal relationships and their
allowing the school to become the best it can be. need for empowerment. With collegiality comes
support from principals and other teachers which
Principals interested in modifying or changing their school in turn provide educational confidence in the
culture must identify and understand the current culture. teaching and learning process. With this
Cultural change must be done carefully and with some confidence, teachers become willing participants
hesitation. in classroom research and innovation. Most of all,
they trust each other and the principal to help with
Principals must understand that actions support deeply held problems and listen when mistakes occur.
beliefs. It is important that they address the beliefs of all the 3. Collaboration. Focuses on teacher-to-teacher
stakeholders is school improvement is to occur. discourse in the formal setting of the school
organization. This aspect of school culture
Principals must be open to constructive criticisms and the provides the consistency in instruction that
willingness to confront their own beliefs. students must have to be successful. Moving from
class-to- class and teacher-to-teacher, students’
 Changing the school culture for school improvement learning experiences are enhanced by a unified
must be the target, not change for change’s sake. curriculum and a variety of instructional
 At any point in time, the image of the future will strategies.
evolve and the principal that can adapt to internal 4. Shared planning. Assumes that teachers know
and/or external threats is the person capable of creating and understand the school vision and their
a dynamic school culture, (Senge, in Seinfert & willingness to participate and implement the
Vornberg, 2002, p.95). school’s targets. This type of planning provides a
unity of purpose for all stakeholders. Teacher
Bosworth’s Strategies for Changing School Culture (For the participation in decision-making mandates that
School Leaders) teachers know and understand school policies,
1. Establish a program of rewards for positive behavior procedures, and most of all the school’s future
2. Communicate core values by modeling appropriate direction. Being equal partners in decision making
behavior provides the motivation for teachers to pull their
3. Celebrate staff, student, and community share of the load.
accomplishments 5. Transformational leadership. Focuses on the
4. Use staff development for teachers and students that principal’s willingness and capacity to support
allows for giving and receiving praise teachers and programs. Principals must be willing
5. Assure that teachers and students learn to optimize the to divest themselves of some leadership
opportunities to demonstrate respectful behavior responsibilities to focus on the school and
6. Communicate expectations in clear and concise community. This does not mean an abdication of
manner responsibility by the principal, but it does mean a
7. Provide development in conflict and negotiation skills. sharing of that responsibility with the entire
school community. Sharing of responsibility
The School Improvement Model of School Culture should cause individuals in the school to develop
(Cavanaugh & Dellar, 1997) leadership skills by capturing the energy and
1. The nucleus of the model is composed of the values expertise of the professionals in the organization.
and norms held by individual teachers. These values 6. Emphasis on learning
and norms form the elements of the school culture as
they are exchanged among all the faculty members. EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Should this fail to occur, there will be an absence of
school culture. Teachers working in isolation have no From Administration and Supervision to Instructional
way of solving school-related problems. Leadership
2. The factors that cause schools to improve Studies on the quality of education here in the country and
academically and culturally: abroad brought to the fore renewed interest in supervision
1. Teacher efficacy. It is about the value teachers coupled with quality monitoring. Goddard and Richards (in
place on schooling and the level to which they will Llagas, Corpuz, &
work to accomplish the goals of the organization. Bilbao, 2016, p.28) describes the renewed interest.
The teachers’ values are given credence by their
participation in the school community. Supervision has been a neglected area of education
management for a long time. During the 1970’s, the word

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inspector or even supervisor had a negative connotation and Re-conceptualization of Supervision to Instructional
even became a taboo term in some countries. Inspection was Leadership Supervision was re-conceptualized to instructional
seen as an old-fashioned, non-democratic institution as a few leadership in the late 90’s. Supervision services became part of
countries got rid not only of the terminology but also the quality monitoring in the educational system.
supervision service itself. Since the beginning of the 1990’s,
there have been renewed interest in issues of quality and Monitoring can be defined as an internal management process
therefore in quality monitoring and supervision. of continuous control of inputs, processes, and outputs in order
to identify strengths and weaknesses, formulate practical
Weber (in Llagas, et al., 2016) pointed out that instructional proposals for action to be taken and take the necessary steps to
leadership includes both management and supervision. He reach the expected results. Monitoring system is classified into:
underscored that “beyond the direct contact with teachers 1. Compliance monitoring
(supervision) and the control of support services for instruction 2. Diagnostic monitoring
(management) leadership duties include some overarching 3. Performance monitoring
concerns such as defining school goals, setting standards, and
influencing learning climate. It includes both the tone and the Typology of monitoring systems by focus
substance of a leader’s relationship with faculty, students, and
community. Type
Characteristic
Leadership is authority invested in a trusted person and thus
qualifies as a kind of moral and transformational power over the Compliance Diagnostic Performance
organization, (Weber, in Llagas, et al. 2016). The leadership Theoretical Bureaucratic Pedagogical Market
Reference Organization Theory Competition
process is interpersonal and dynamic with the following
functions: Theory Theory
1. Setting school academic goals
2. Maximizing effects of instructional organization Goal Ensure Ensure Promote
3. Hiring, supervising, evaluating teachers standardized efficient academic
4. Protecting instructional time and programs
formal quality learning achievement
5. Setting standards for achievement/setting tone for
Teaching- Academic
learning climate Focus Inputs
learning achievement
6. Monitoring achievement levels/evaluating programs
process

The instructional leader is expected to be familiar with all levels Key Inspectorate Advisory Standardized
of instruction in the school. S/he is likened to a conductor who Monitoring and services and testing
knows the qualities of each instrument in the orchestra. The Device s self-
instructional leader relies on collaborative planning with elf- reporting assessment and league
tables
teachers, parents, internal and external stakeholders. S/he is
focused on two domains: (1) curriculum management and (2)
staff development.
Behaviors of a good supervisor according to a focus group
Hiring, supervising, and evaluating are interactive functions discussion in Chile:
and concerns of instructional leadership. Hence, the  Helps assists and indicates possible errors without
instructional leader is expected to possess competence to waiting for them to occur in order to be able to sanction
observe teachers, to offer advice as needed, listen to the them
problems encountered, and make formative as well as  Does not impose, but who respects the specificity of
summative evaluation of teacher performance. the school and is willing to listen
 Knows how to guide, with human relations and
Monitoring achievement levels and evaluating program is a empathy
challenge to instructional leaders. Setting high expectations for  Concentrates on the daily school processes in a
students is a challenge to teachers and instructional leaders. The systematic and integrated way
instructional leader is a ‘physician’ of the instructional  Develops support networks
program, keeping a finger on the pulse of the process, by  Takes into account the know-how of the teacher and
knowing the program objectives, looking for symptoms of stimulates his/her professional development
health or problems, and prescribing remedies for weak or
troubled areas. A new paradigm shift of instructional leadership has emerged
in the early 90’s. Administrative structures tend to decentralize
gradually moving from bureaucratic to hierarchical structure.

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The educational administrator/supervisor is now an 4. Developing the school education program and school
instructional leader. S/he is an active listener, a creative improvement plan;
problem-solver, a resource provider, a team player, has trust, 5. Offering educational programs, projects, and services
encourages and supports the people in the organization. S/he which provide equitable opportunities for all learners
keeps the communication channels in a two-way direction. in the community;
6. Introducing new and innovative modes of instruction
Davis (in Llagas, et al., 2016) defines leadership as the ability to achieve higher learning outcomes;
to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It 7. Administering and managing all personnel, physical
is the human factor that binds a group together and motivates it and fiscal resources of the school;
toward goals. The instructional leader is a key element in 8. Recommending the staffing complement of the school
helping new teachers develop their potentials and motivate based on its needs;
experience teachers to be teacher-leaders, mentors and coaches 9. Encouraging staff development;
and becoming instructional leaders in the future. 10. Establishing school and community network and
encouraging the active participation of teachers’
3 dimensions of the principal as a leader (Referee Report for organizations, non-academic personnel of public
Accredited Membership of the Australian Principal Centre schools, and parents-teachers-community
(APC): associations;
1. Educational Leadership. The ability to lead in 11. Accepting donations, gifts, bequest and grants for the
crafting a shared school vision including the purpose of upgrading teachers/learning facilitators’
development of curriculum policies and practices; competencies, improving and expanding school
2. People Leadership. The ability to work with various facilities and providing instructional materials and
stakeholders. Misfire the respect and cooperation of equipment. Such donations or grants must be reported
people and promote the development and effectiveness to the appropriate district supervisors and division
of people within the organization. superintendent; and
3. Strategic Leadership. The ability to explore complex 12. Performing such other functions as may be assigned
issues from global perspective, to manage and by proper authorities.
educational enterprise, to focus resources and motivate
people in the realization of the shared school vision. Promulgated at the start of the 21st century, policy makers
believe that the enumerated functions and responsibilities need
Reinventing the Principalship to be reviewed. New perspectives of transformative leadership
This is a review of the functions and competencies of school are emerging aimed to reinvent/reshape school leadership.
leaders in basic education: the principal/school head, head
teachers/department heads, and teachers-in-charge. Sergiovanni (in Llagas, et al. 2016) proposes a reflective
practice perspective initiating that administering which includes
Under the umbrella of educational leadership, the school the principalship is a moral craft with three dimensions: (1)
head/principal is on the frontline. S/he is a leader in a learning heart, (2) head, and (3) hand.
organization as designer, steward and teacher. As a designer,
the principal encourages building a shared vision/mission on The Heart, Head, and Hand of Leadership
how to deal with critical issues. As a steward, the principal is The heart of leadership has to do with what a person believes,
committed to and responsible for the vision, manages it over values, dreams about, and is committed to or that person’s
self-interest. As a teacher, the principal fosters learning for personal vision. The head of leadership has to do with the
everyone in the organization. As a leader, the principal is a team theories of practice each of us has developed over time and our
player, fosters team learning and collaborative problem-solving ability to reflect on the situations we face in light of these
as the school culture develops trust, supports innovation and theories. The process of reflection combined with our personal
creativity, (Senge, vision becomes the basis for our strategies and actions. The
P. in Llagas, et al. 2016). hand of leadership has to do with the actions we take, the
decisions we make, the leadership and management behaviors
Functions, Responsibility and Accountability of School Heads we use as our strategies become institutionalized in the form of
(RA 9155 of 2001, Governing Act of Basic Education): school programs, policies, and procedures.
1. Setting the mission, vision, goals and objectives of the
school; Blumberg (in Llagas, et al. 2016) emphasized that bringing
2. Creating an environment within the school that is together head, heart and hand in practice would result to
conducive to teaching and learning; transforming the school from being an organization into an
3. Implementing the school curriculum and institutional culture. Institutionalization happens in an
being accountable for higher learning outcomes; organization over time, reflecting the organization’s distinctive

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history, the people who create and embody interest in of managerial and psychological skills in order to
developing its own culture. direct thought and action.
3. Professional Authority. When principals rely on
Selznick (in Llagas, et al. 2016, p.43) explains organization professional authority, they appeal to expertise,
turning into institution as: expecting everyone to be subordinates to a form of
technical rationality that is presumably validated by
Organizations become institutions as they are infused with craft notions of what constitutes best educational
value, that is, prized not as tools alone but as sources of direct practice or scientific findings from educational
personal gratification and vehicles of group integrity. This research.
infusion produces a distinct identity for the organization. Where 4. Moral Authority. When principals rely on moral
institutionalization is well- advanced, distinctive outlooks, authority, they bring to the forefront a form of
habits and other commitments are unified, coloring all aspects normative rationality as discussed above that places
of organizational life and lending it social integration that goes every subordinate to a set of ideas, ideals, and shared
well beyond formal coordination and command. values and asks them to respond morally by doing their
duty, meeting their obligations, and accepting their
Institutional Culture responsibilities.
Selznick’s conception of institution is similar to the more
familiar conception of school as learning community. To All are important, but the art of leadership is balancing the four
become wither, the school must move beyond concerns for competing sources of authority in such a way that moral and
goals and roles to the task of building purposes into its structure professional authority flourish without neglecting bureaucratic
and embodying these purposes in everything that it does with and personal authority.
the effect of transforming school members from neutral
participants to committed followers. The embodiment of In the principalship, the challenge of leadership is anchored on
purpose and the development of followership are inescapably competing imperatives, the management and the moral
moral. imperative. If schools are to survive, they have to be managed
effectively and efficiently. Policies are implemented, resources
Reinventing principalship accepts the assumption that should be available, the school should be child-friendly. More
leadership is not a right but a responsibility. The test of moral than these imperatives, the school must transform into an
leadership is when the followers and other stakeholders believe institution, a learning community. Institutionalization is the
in the competence, and well-being of the leader who encourages moral imprerative principals face. Leadership values are
and support empowerment of the followers for the benefit of the internalized such as empowerment, balance of professional and
school. moral sources of authority making the professional manager
conception of the principalship.
Sergiovanni (in Llagas, et al. 2016) differentiates a follower
from a subordinate. Subordinates respond to bureaucratic The challenge of leadership would lead to institutionalizing a
authority and sometimes to personal authority. Followers by school culture. Culture influences what is thought of and done
contrast, respond to ideas. You can’t be a follower unless you in the school by the principal possessing cultural leadership.
have something to follow. Zalenick suggests that subordinate The challenge of cultural with moral leadership in schools is for
may cooperate with the management system but are rarely the principals to engage in the process of decision-making
committed to it. By contrast, one of the hallmarks of being a without thought to self-interest.
follower is commitment. Kelly suggests that followers are
committed to the organization, to a purpose or principle. They The principal leads in developing a school culture that:
build their competence and focus their efforts for maximum  Affects how individuals treat and relate to one another
impact. Subordinates do what they are supposed to do, and they  Develops slowly and is remarkably resistant to change
do not tend to do more.  Is shaped by the behavior of everyone in the organization,
administration, learners, faculty, staff and parents
What may a principal do to develop and help emerge  Shapes teachers’ feeling optimistic and positive about their
followership? To do these, principals may have to draw from work and not frustrated that their expertise and efforts are
the 4 sources of authority as described by Sergiovanni. not being used to best advantage
1. Bureaucratic Authority. When principals use  Shapes the tone of the organization; a positive culture
bureaucratic authority, they rely on rules, mandates, inspires optimism and hope; a negative culture promotes
and regulations in efforts to direct thought and action. cynicism and defeatism
2. Personal Authority. When principals use personal  Enhances respect toward learners which does not happen
authority, they rely on their own interpersonal style, by itself; it must be cultivated
cleverness, guile, political know-how and other forms

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 Promotes interpersonal relationship with respect, both community and other stakeholders, (SBM-TEEP, 2000 in
personal and professional Llagas, et al, 2016).
 Promotes student culture of hard work, responsibility and
success Instructional Leadership and Supervision Models
 Enhances ongoing learning and professional inquiry which
are regarded as hallmarks of a profession Model 1. Supervision as Inspection (Pre-1900)
 Ensures the quality of the initiatives undertaken by the  Supervision of teachers was duly the function of
administration, faculty, staff, students, parents and administrators as managerial routines.
community (LGUs and NGOs)  The supervisor’s function is to instruct poorly prepared
 Culminates Total Quality Management (TQM) and Total teachers to conform to standard practice in the
Quality Education (TQE) organizational administration.
 The focus of supervision through the school masters who
have unlimited powers to establish criteria for effective
The Principal and the Servant Leadership instruction.
Principals are responsible for ministering to the needs of the
schools they serve. The needs are defined by the shared values Model 2. Democracy in Supervision (1900-1960)
and purposes of the school’s covenant. They minister by  This model used scientific means of supervision.
furnishing help and being of service to parents, teachers, and  Supervisors were specialists and must have the ability to
students. They minister by providing leadership in a way that analyze teaching situations.
encourages others to be leaders in their own right. They minister  The use of data-gathering devices and tools was
by highlighting and protecting the values of the school. The introduced.
principal as minister is one who is devoted to a cause, mission  Teachers must possess certain skills to develop new
or set of ideas and accepts the duty and obligation to serve this methods and materials for instruction.
cause. Ultimately, his/her success is known by the quality of the  The influence of John Dewey was very prominent during
followership that emerges. Quality of followership is a this period.
barometer that indicates the extent to which moral authority has
replaced bureaucratic and psychological authority. When moral Model 3. Supervision as Leadership (1960 to early 1990)
authority drives leadership practice, the principal is at the same  Leadership was guiding organization.
time a leader of leaders, follower of ideas, minister of values,  Supervision to lead mutually accepted goals, extending
and servant to the followership. democratic methods, improving classroom instruction,
promoting research and professional leadership.
The Principal and Accountability to the State, Community
and Stakeholders  Use of clinical supervision was premised on the principle
School Heads or Principals are responsible for transforming that teaching could be improved by a prescribed formal
schools to nurseries of the citizens of the state, (Article II, process of collaboration between teacher and instructional
Section 1, Code of Ethics). They are accountable to deliver leader.
quality education and report such educational outcomes, not
 Incorporated the cycle of supervision which consisted of as
just outputs of the teaching-learning process periodically. This
pre-conference, observation and post-conference.
is their personal accountability to the state, the community and
 Supervision embraced the concepts of being
stakeholders. As they perform their role, functions and
developmental (professional growth plans), teacher
responsibilities, they are guided by the Ethical Standards in the
empowerment, peer supervision, transformational
Code of Ethic of Professional Teachers and the provisions of
instructional leadership.
RA 6713 Establishing a Code of Conduct ad Ethical Standards
for Public Officials and Employees to uphold the time-honored
Model 4. Standard-Based Supervision (2000 - )
principle of “public office being a public trust.
 Emergence of standard-based reforms to raise academic
achievement, new curriculum standards, teacher standards,
As an instructional/curriculum leader, the school head has the
school heads standards and high stake tests.
overall responsibility in setting up an efficient and effective
instructional system at the classroom level. Instructional  Supervision focused on teaching-learning standards for
leadership will enhance the creation of a school environment improvement of teaching-learning outcomes.
conducive to learning and develop a synergy in the school  Changed the view of supervision from inspection to
participation, from bureaucratic to democratic and from
evaluation to support.

community. With the responsibility as an instructional leader With the standard-based supervision, the main goal is to
goes the accountability of the school head to the school improve both teaching and learner performance. School heads

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act as collaborative, supportive instructional leaders that a Framework of Governance for Basic Education, Establishing
continue to evaluate teacher performance and mentor teachers Authority and Accountability, Renaming the Department of
to reflect and improve instruction. Thus, the ultimate goal of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) as the Department of
supervision is the improvement of teaching-learning, thus, Education (DepEd), related laws and DepEd policies.
school teachers also become teacher leaders. 2. Responsive. Competencies are applicable in any range
of context: big or small school, city or rural school, culturally
Instructional leadership is a joint responsibility of both the divergent groups.
school heads and the school teachers. While the school head is
responsible of this role over the school teachers and staff, the
teachers assume this role among their peers and students. To 3. Impartial. These are applicable to any school head,
address these responsibilities, the Department of Education regardless of position item, gender, age, experience and other
(DepEd) developed the National Competency-Based Standards personal circumstances.
for School Heads (NCBS-SH) and the National Competency- 4. Coherent. These are clear and logical.
Based Standards for Teachers (NCBTS). These two documents 5. Valid. All performance indicators are research-and-
are the foundations upon which the instructional supervision experience-based.
roles of the school heads and classroom teachers are anchored.
The National Competency-Based Standards for School
Perspectives for School Heads as Instructional Leaders Heads (NCBS-SH) Domains and Descriptions
Instructional leadership embraces actions that the principal or
school head makes or delegates to others to promote growth in National Competency-Based Standards for School
students’ learning which include (a) the clear statement of Heads(NCBS-SH)
school’s vision, mission, and goals, (b) support for learning Domain 1 School Leadership
resources, (c) support for professional development of teachers, Domain 2 Instructional Leadership
and (d) creation of a Professional Learning Community (PLC). Domain 3 Creating Student-Centered Learning Climate
As instructional or curriculum leaders, their major tasks Domain 4 HR Management and Professional
include: Development
1. Ensuring curriculum quality and applicability Domain 5 Parent Involvement and Community
2. Integrating and aligning the curriculum Partnership
3. Implementing the curriculum efficiently and Domain 6 School Management and Operations
effectively Domain 7 Personal and Professional Attributes and
4. Regularly evaluating, enriching and Interpersonal Effectiveness
updating the curriculum
Competencies and Behavioral Indicators under Domain 2:
6 Fundamental standards that define what principals Instructional Leadership
should do, (United States of America National Association of
Elementary School Principals, 2001): Competencies Indicators
1. Lead schools to place student learning at the center. Assessment for -manages the processes and
2. Set high expectations and standards for the academic Learning procedures in monitoring
performance of learners and adults. student achievement
3. Demand content and instruction that ensure student -ensures utilization of a range
achievement on agreed upon academic achievement. of assessment processes to
4. Create a culture of continuous learning for adults assess student performance
connected to student learning. -assesses the effectiveness of
5. Use multiple sources of data as diagnostic tool to curricular/co-curricular
assess, identify, and apply instructional improvement. programs and/or instructional
6. Actively engage the community to create strategies
shared responsibilities for student and school success. -utilizes assessment results to
improve learning
Instructional Leadership is driven by the National -creates and manages a
Competency- Based Standards for School Heads (NCBS-SH). school process to ensure
DepEd in 2012 through the Basic Education Sector Reform students’ progress is
Agenda (BESRA) developed the NCBS-SH as the common conveyed
standards for all school heads. The development was guided by
to students/parents/guardians
the following basic principles.
1. Function-based. The competencies are based on regularly
school head functions as stated in RA 9155 or An Act Instituting Developing and using -develops/adopts research-

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 THE TEACHER AND THE COMMUNITY, SCHOOL CULTURE AND
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP NOTES

programs/adopting based school programs 5. Peer Leader

existing programs -assists in implementing an 6. School Leader
existing coherent and
responsive school-wide The Principal as Leader of Leaders
curriculum The Principal and Instructional Leadership
-addresses deficiencies ad  Instructional Leadership Defined
sustains successes of current  Instructional Delivery Systems
programs in collaboration o Inquiry Instructional System
with teachers and learners o Cooperative Instructional System
Develops a culture of o Problem-Based Instructional System
functional literacy o Concept Attainment Instructional
Implementing -manages the introduction of System
programs for curriculum initiatives in line o Classroom Discussion Instructional
instructional with DepEd policies System
improvement -works with teachers in  Instructional Collaboration
curriculum review  Evaluation of Instruction
o Two-Hat Theory of Instructional
-enriches curricular offerings
Evaluation
based on o Results-Based Supervision as a Model
local needs for Instructional Evaluation
o Democratic Supervision as a Model for
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) Instructional Evaluation
Domain 1 Social Regard for Learning
Domain 2 The Learning Environment Integrity and Ethics for School Leadership
Domain 3 The Diversity of Learners  Ethical Conduct
Domain 4 Curriculum  Core Values and Ethical Decision Making
Domain 5 Planning, Assessing and Reporting  Ethical Leadership
Domain 6 Community Linkages
Domain 7 Personal Growth and Professional
Development

Perspectives for Classroom Teachers as Instructional References

Leaders
The new view of instructional leadership is no longer limited to Jayson, V. L. (n.d.). The Teacher and the Community, School
the function of school heads. Those who remain to be in the Culture, and Organizational Leadership. Module.
classroom as classroom teachers or master teachers are also
considered as instructional leaders. Sometimes they are also Llagas A.T., Corpuz, B.B. and Bilbao, P.P. (2016). Becoming a
referred to as teacher leaders and more specifically,
21st Century Educational Leader. Q.C.: Lorimar Publishing,
instructional leaders.
Inc.
Teacher teaching behavior and student learning outcomes are
the two main foci of school heads’ instructional leadership.
Ideal teaching is defined by a set of standards contained in the
National Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS).

Teacher Leaders perform the following roles:

1. Instructional Leader. As an instructional specialist,
teacher and master teachers help colleague use
effective teaching strategies. They assist their peers in
various aspects of teaching like assessment in learning,
development of instructional materials or doing action
research. They become mentors to novice teachers.
2. Curriculum Leader. As a curriculum specialist, teacher
leaders understand
3. Classroom Leader
4. Learning Leader
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