journeys.

Currently, nearly all major automotive

Adaptive Cruise Control manufacturers have integrated ACC into their new
System vehicle models, making it a significant
advancement in the evolution of driving assistance
MUHAMMAD IZRIN BIN SUKIMAN technologies.
B042110223 The importance of ACC systems extends
4 BMCK S2 beyond merely controlling vehicle speed. They
help reduce driver fatigue by automating the task
Department of Mechanical Engineering Universit Teknikal
Malaysia Melaka Jalan Hang Tuah Jaya, 76100 Durian
of speed and distance maintenance in highway
Tunggal, Melaka [email protected] driving. This automation enables drivers to focus
on other aspects of the driving experience, such as
Abstract road conditions or navigation. Additionally, ACC
systems have the potential to contribute to
This report presents the development and environmental sustainability by reducing fuel
simulation of an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) consumption through more efficient driving
system using a two-vehicle model consisting of an patterns. This report aims
Ego vehicle and a Lead vehicle. The ACC system
operates in two main modes: speed control, where II. LITERATURE REVIEW
the Ego vehicle maintains a preset speed, and
A. Evolution and Technology of ACC
spacing control, where it adjusts its speed to keep
a safe distance from the Lead vehicle. Switching Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) systems are
between these modes is based on the measured designed to automatically adjust a vehicle’s speed
relative distance and velocity. The control logic, in response to traffic conditions. The core
vehicle dynamics, and system responses are functionality of ACC involves using sensors such
modeled and tested using Simulink. The as radar, lidar, and cameras to detect the lead
simulation results show that the Ego vehicle vehicle’s distance and relative velocity. These
successfully adapts its acceleration and velocity to sensors enable the system to maintain a constant
maintain the desired following distance, with speed or adjust the vehicle’s speed to maintain a
performance stabilizing over time. Despite its safe following distance (Rajamani, 2012). The
effectiveness in controlled environments, the ACC technology has evolved significantly since its
system still faces challenges in more dynamic or initial implementation, with modern systems now
unpredictable conditions. This study highlights the capable of adapting to more complex driving
practical aspects of ACC implementation and its environments. The early systems, based primarily
potential for improving vehicle safety and on radar sensors, have been supplemented by
comfort. more sophisticated sensor technologies that
improve reliability and detection range.
I. INTRODUCTION
B. Modes of Operation
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) has emerged as a
transformative technology within the realm of ACC systems operate with two primary modes:
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS). It Speed Control and Spacing Control. In Speed
is designed to improve driving safety, enhance Control Mode, the ego vehicle maintains a fixed
driver comfort, and contribute to energy savings. speed set by the driver. In the absence of a lead
Unlike traditional cruise control systems that vehicle, the vehicle travels at this preset speed. If
maintain a constant speed set by the driver, ACC a lead vehicle is detected, the system switches to
automatically adjusts the vehicle’s speed to Spacing Control Mode, adjusting the speed of the
maintain a safe following distance from the vehicle to maintain a predefined safe distance
vehicle ahead. This feature not only improves from the vehicle ahead. This is done by modifying
road safety but also helps to reduce the burden of the throttle and, if necessary, applying the brakes
driving in traffic, particularly on long-distance
to reduce the vehicle's speed when the gap to the complex traffic situations and adverse weather
lead vehicle becomes too small (Rajamani, 2012). conditions. Ongoing research into improving
sensor reliability, handling diverse traffic
The system makes decisions on whether to scenarios, and integrating with other ADAS
operate in Speed Control or Spacing Control technologies will continue to drive the evolution
based on real-time radar measurements of the lead of ACC, moving closer to fully autonomous
vehicle’s relative position and velocity. For driving systems.
example, when the lead vehicle is too close, the
ACC system transitions from Speed Control to
Spacing Control to ensure a safe distance. III. METHODOLOGY
Conversely, if the lead vehicle moves away, the
This study utilizes a two-car model for
system switches back to Speed Control, resuming
simulating the Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC)
the preset speed. This adaptive capability ensures
system. The model consists of an "Ego" vehicle
that the vehicle not only maintains the driver-set
and a "Lead" vehicle. As shown in Figure 1, the
speed but also responds dynamically to traffic
system operates under two primary modes: Speed
conditions. (Rajamani, 2012)
Control Mode and Spacing Control Mode. The
(MathWorks, 2025)
control strategies are defined based on the relative
C. Challenge and Limitation distance between the two vehicles.

Despite its advancements, ACC technology

faces several challenges. One key limitation is the
performance of sensors in adverse weather
conditions such as fog, rain, or snow, which can
interfere with the ability of radar and lidar systems
to detect obstacles accurately (Watanabe et al., Figure 1: Adaptive Cruise Control Concept
1997). In addition, while ACC systems excel in
highway driving, they can struggle with more
complex urban traffic scenarios where vehicles
frequently change lanes, stop, or make sudden 1. Speed Control Mode
manoeuvres. These limitations often require Condition 1: If the relative distance
human intervention, particularly in highly between the Ego and Lead vehicles,
dynamic environments.
denoted as Drel, is greater than or equal to
Moreover, ACC systems may not fully account the safe distance Dsafe, the system
for non-motorized road users such as cyclists or operates in Speed Control Mode. In this
pedestrians, as current systems are predominantly mode, the primary objective is to maintain
focused on detecting and responding to other the preset velocity, Vset, set by the driver.
vehicles (Rajamani, 2012). This gap in the
technology can limit the applicability of ACC in
Drel ≥ Dsafe
urban environments, where interactions with a
wide range of road users are common.
2. Spacing Control Mode
D. Summary Condition 2: If the relative distance Drel
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) systems falls below the safe distance Dsafe, the
have made significant progress in enhancing system switches to Spacing Control Mode.
vehicle safety, comfort, and fuel efficiency. By In this mode, the primary goal is to
adjusting speed and maintaining a safe following maintain a safe following distance.
distance, ACC helps reduce driver fatigue and
smoothens traffic flow. Despite advancements in Drel < Dsafe
sensor technology and control algorithms, ACC
systems still face challenges, particularly in
Formula for Safe Distance: The safe following does not exceed levels that might cause
distance, Dsafe, is calculated as discomfort to the driver. The acceleration limits
are set to a maximum of 2m/s2 and a minimum of
Dsafe = DDefault + Timegap x Vego −3m/s2. The default spacing between vehicles is
set to 10 meters.
The system applies braking or acceleration to .
adjust the vehicle’s speed and ensure that the safe
distance is maintained. This is governed by the
conditions above. The system continuously
adjusts the vehicle’s velocity until the relative
distance becomes equal to or greater than the safe
distance, transitioning back to Speed Control
Mode. Figure 3: ACC Controller Design

3. Control Inputs and Simulation 5. Vehicle Dynamics

Parameters The dynamics of both the Ego and Lead vehicles
are modeled using equations for acceleration and
The control inputs for the ACC system are velocity, as shown in Figure 4. The vehicle
provided by the driver’s set velocity (Vset), dynamics are based on a simple second-order
which serves as the target speed for the model, where the acceleration is determined by
system. The system also relies on real-time the difference between the desired and actual
data from a wheel speed sensor to measure the velocities. The transfer function representing the
longitudinal velocity of the Ego vehicle. The vehicle dynamics is given by the following
relative distance and relative velocity between equation:
the Ego and Lead vehicles are monitored 1
through a radar sensor mounted at the front of G=
s(0.5 s+1)
the Ego vehicle, as shown in Figure 2.
In the simulation, a time gap of 1.4 seconds is This transfer function models the vehicle’s
used to define the desired headway between the response to control inputs, where G(s) represents
vehicles. This parameter is critical for calculating the vehicle dynamics in the Laplace domain, and
the safe following distance. The output of the the equation reflects the relationship between the
controller is the longitudinal acceleration, which vehicle's acceleration and its velocity.
determines whether the Ego vehicle should
accelerate, maintain its speed, or decelerate to
maintain a safe distance.

Figure 4: Ego and Lead Car Model

6. Simulink Model

The complete Simulink model of the ACC

system, which integrates the ACC control
algorithm and the Ego and Lead car models, is
depicted in Figure 5. The table below summarizes
the key parameters used in the simulation for both
Figure 2: ACC Input the Lead and Ego vehicles.
4. Controller Design
The ACC controller, shown in Figure 3,
includes constraints to ensure that the acceleration
 dynamically to changes in the Lead car's speed
and position.
Acceleration
2
Lead
Ego
1

Figure 5: ACC Simulink Model

0

m/s
Table 1: ACC Parameter
-1
Name Parameter Value
-2
Initial Position
x0_lead 50 (m)
(lead)
Initial Velocity -3
v0_lead 35 (m/s) 0 20 40 60 80
(lead) Time (seconds)
Set Velocity v_set 40 (m/s) Figure 6: Acceleration(m/s) vs Time(s)
The second graph illustrates the velocities
Time Gap t_gap 1.4 (s) of both the Ego and Lead cars over time. The Ego
car’s speed (red line) fluctuates around a target
Initial Position
x0_ego 20 (m) speed of approximately 36 m/s, showing the
(ego)
adjustments made by the ACC system to follow
Initial Velocity
v0_ego 30 (m/s) the Lead car. These fluctuations occur as the
(ego)
system adapts the Ego car’s velocity to maintain a
Distance Default_spacing 10 (m) safe following distance. In contrast, the Lead car’s
velocity (blue line) remains relatively constant,
Gain 1 verr_gain 0.5 indicating more consistent driving behaviour. The
horizontal line shows the target speed that the Ego
Gain 2 xerr_gain 0.3 car attempts to maintain, reinforcing the goal of
the ACC system to achieve and keep a constant
Gain 3 vx_gain 0.2 speed while adapting to the Lead car’s behaviour.
Velocity
40 Set
Lead
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSION 38 Ego

The first graph illustrates the acceleration 36

of both the Ego and Lead cars over time. The Ego
m/s²

34
car's acceleration (represented by the red line)
fluctuates significantly, especially with a sharp 32
spike at the beginning. This initial spike occurs as
30
the Ego car rapidly adjusts its speed to match the
Lead car's movements, which is typical of an 28
Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system. The Lead
car’s acceleration (blue line) is much smoother, 26
0 20 40 60 80
reflecting its steady pace. The oscillations in both Time (s)
cars demonstrate how the ACC system Figure 7: Velocity(m/s²) vs Time(s)
continuously modifies the vehicle's acceleration to
The third graph displays the actual
ensure a safe following distance, responding
distance between the Ego and Lead cars over
time, compared to the safe distance the system
tries to maintain. The red line represents the actual and control algorithms will be vital in evolving
distance, which fluctuates as the Ego car adjusts ACC systems into more autonomous and
its speed. Initially, the distance varies intelligent driving aids.
significantly, but it eventually stabilizes, showing
that the system has successfully maintained a
steady gap. The blue line represents the "Safe VI. REFERENCES
Distance," which remains constant throughout the
simulation. This line represents the ideal gap that MathWorks. (2025). Adaptive cruise control system -
MATLAB & Simulink example.
the system aims to maintain between the cars,
https://www.mathworks.com
based on the set time gap and the vehicles' speeds.
Distance between two cars Rajamani, R. (2012). Vehicle dynamics and control
80 (2nd ed.). Springer.
Actual
Safe
70 Watanabe, K., Yamaguchi, T., & Takahashi, S. (1997).
An adaptive cruise control system using a novel
environment recognition method. IEEE Transactions
60 on Vehicular Technology, 46(3), 765–775.
m

50

40

30
0 20 40 60 80
Time (seconds)

Figure 8: Distance(m) vs Time(s)

V. CONCLUSION

The development and simulation of an

Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system
demonstrate its effectiveness in enhancing driving
safety, comfort, and efficiency. By dynamically
switching between speed control and spacing
control modes, the system ensures that the Ego
vehicle maintains either a set cruising speed or a
safe distance from the Lead vehicle, depending on
real-time traffic conditions. The simulation results
affirm that the ACC system can respond
appropriately to changes in the Lead car’s speed,
minimizing relative distance fluctuations and
helping the Ego car stabilize its velocity over
time. While the system performs reliably under
normal driving conditions, challenges remain in
ensuring robust performance in complex scenarios
such as urban traffic or adverse weather.
Continued improvement in sensor technologies