UNIT I

TWO MARKS

1. What is a distributed system?

A distributed system is one in which components located at networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions
only by passing messages. The components interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal.

2. What do you mean by message passing?

Message passing is a fundamental mechanism for communication in distributed systems. It enables processes or nodes to
exchange messages and coordinate their actions. There are several types of message-passing models, including synchronous,
asynchronous, and hybrid approaches.

3. Define Distributed Program?

A computer program that runs within a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is
the process of writing such programs.

4. What do you mean by synchronous and asynchronous execution?

Asynchronous is a non-blocking architecture, so the execution of one task isn't dependent on another. Tasks can run
simultaneously. Synchronous is a blocking architecture, so the execution of each operation depends on completing the one
before it. Each task requires an answer before moving on to the next iteration.

5.List out the features of distributed systems?

 Performance. ...
 Scalability. ...
 High availability. ...
 Data integrity. ...
 High reliability. ...
 Security. ...
 User mobility.

6. Write down the principles of distributed systems?

Distributed file systems are an important part of any organization's data storage and access needs. The design of the system
should be based on the principles of scalability, availability, reliability, performance, and security.

7. State the objectives of resource sharing model?

The primary objective of resource sharing is to maximize the resource base ,i.e.collection, staff, infrastructure, as well as
services of the participating libraries.They would be benefited by the resources of other libraries adding to their own
resources.

8. What are the significant consequences of distributed systems?

The components of a distributed system interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant
challenges of distributed systems are: maintaining concurrency of components, overcoming the lack of a global clock, and
managing the independent failure of components.

9. What are the challenges of distributed systems?

The main challenges of distributed system are:

 Heterogeneity
 Openness
 Security
 Scalability
  Failure handling
 Concurrency
 Transparency
 Quality of service

10. Define Transparency. What are its types?

Transparency is defined as the concealment from the user and the application programmer of the separation of components
in a distributed system, so that the system is perceived as a whole rather than as a collection of independent components.

Its types are:

 Access transparency
 Location transparency
 Concurrency transparency
 Replication transparency
 Failure transparency
 Mobility transparency
 Performance transparency
 Scaling transparency

11.What is the need of openness in distributed system?

Openness: The openness of the distributed system is determined primarily by the degree to which new resource-sharing
services can be made available to the users.Open systems are characterized by the fact that their key interfaces are published

12. List any two resources of hardware and software, which can be shared in distributed systems with examples

Five types of hardware resource and five types of data or software resource that can usually be shared are
printer ,plotter ,storage space, cd drive, dvd drive, processing power. For example printer which takes graphics and texts
from the computer and later it gets transferred into a paper which is of standard size.

13. Differentiate between buffering and caching

Buffering is a process of temporarily holding data in memory or a buffer before writing it to a permanent storage location.
Caching is a process of temporarily storing data in memory for quick access or retrieval. Cache stores copy of the data.Cache
is in processor, and can be also implemented with ram and disk.

14. Differentiate between synchronous and asynchronous execution?

Synchronous code executes one line of code after the other, while asynchronous code allows multiple lines of code to run at
the same time. Asynchronous code can be much more efficient than synchronous code for certain types of programs, but itis
also more complex and harder to debug.

15.What is the role of middleware in a distributed system?

Middleware is an intermediate layer of software that sits between the application and the network. It is used in distributed
systems to provide common services, such as authentication, authorization, compilation for best performance on particular
architectures, input/output translation, and error handling.

16.Name some services and examples of middleware?

Common middleware examples include database middleware, application server,middleware, message-oriented middleware,
web middleware, and transaction-processing monitors.

17.What is open in distributed system?

An Open Distributed System is made up of components that may be obtained from a number of different sources, which
together work as a single distributed system.

18.Describe what is meant by a scalable system?

A system is scalable when it has the capacity to accommodate a greater amount ofusage. Some systems aren't at all scalable,
and can only handle exactly the amount of usage they were designed for. Scalable systems can handle extra usage, but their
capacity varies.

19.What is replication transparency?

Replication transparency is the ability to create multiple copies of objects without any effect of the replication seen by
applications that use the objects. It should not be possible for an application to determine the number of replicas, or to be
able to see the identities of specific replica instances.

20. Define access transparency?

Access Transparency allows the same operations to be used to access local and remote resources.

PART -B

1 .Explain how a parallel system differs from a distributed system (May 2022, Mark-13)

2. Illustrate the difference between message passing and shared memory process communication model (Dec 2022, Mark-
13)

3.Discuss the design issuses and challenges in distributed system from a system perspective. (May 2022, Mark-13)

UNIT 2

TWO MARKS

1. What are the issues in distributed system?

There is no global time in a distributed system, so the clocks on different computers do not necessarily give the same time as
one another.

All communication between processes is achieved by means of messages.

Message communication over a computer network can be affected by delays, can suffer from a variety of failures and is
vulnerable to security attacks.

2. What is meant by group communication in distributed system?

Group Communication occurs when a single source process simultaneously attempts to communicate with numerous
functions. A group is an abstract collection of interrelated operations. This abstraction hides the message passing such that
the communication seems to be a standard procedure call.

3. What is meant by asynchronous programming?

Asynchronous programming provides opportunities for a program to continue running other code while waiting for a long -
running task to complete.

4. Write application of casual order?

The causal ordering of messages describes the causal relationship between a message send event and a message receive
event. For example, if send(M1) ->send(M2) then every recipient of both the messages M1 and M2 must receive themessage
M1 before receiving the message M2.

5. What is synchronous order?

Synchronous execution means the first task in a program must finish processing before moving on to executing the next task.

6. Define Scalar Time?

scalar time are independent (i.e., they are notcausally related), they can be ordered using any. arbitrary criterion without
violating the causality relation . Therefore, a total order is consistent with the. causality relation .

7. What is clock skew?

Clock skew (sometimes called timing skew) is a phenomenon in synchronous digital circuit systems (such as computer
systems) in which the same sourced clock signal arrives at different components at different times due to gate or, in
moreadvanced semiconductor technology, wire signal propagation delay.

8. What is clock drift rate?

Clock Drift: As mentioned, no two clocks would have the same clock rate of oscillations i.e; clock rate would be different.
The difference of clock rate is called clock drift.

9.What is clock tick?

Clock Tick: after a predefined number of oscillations, the timer will generate a clock tick. This clock tick generates a
hardware interrupt that causes the computer's operating system to enter a special routine in which it can update the software
clock and run the process scheduler.

10. What is logical Clock?

Logical Clocks refer to implementing a protocol on all machines within your distributed system, so that the machines are
able to maintain consistent ordering of events within some virtual timespan. A logical clock is a mechanism for capturing

chronological and causal relationships in a distributed system.

11.What is global state of the distributed system?

The global state of a distributed system is the set of local states of each individual processes involved in the system plus the
state of the communication channels. Determinism. Deterministic Computation.

12.Write the happen before relation?

Happened before relation is an irreflexive partial ordering on the set of all events happening in the system i.e.; (a ⇢ a) is not
true for any event a. This relates back to Einstein’s general theory of relativity where events areordered in terms of messages
that could possibly be sent.

13.What is vector clock?

Vector Clock is an algorithm that generates partial ordering of events and detects causality violations in a distributed system.

14.What is chandy lamport algorithm?

Chandy and Lamport were the first to propose a algorithm to capture consistent global state of a distributed system. The
main idea behind proposed algorithm is that if we know that all message that have been sent by one process have been
received by another then we can record the global state of the system.

Part -B

1.Explain about Message ordering paradigms ( May 2022, Dec 2022 , Mark-13)

2.Explain the types of Group communication used in distributed system( Dec 2022 , Mark-13)

3.Elucidate on the total and casual order in distributed system with a neat diagram( Dec 2022, Mark- 13)

4.Explain about Chandy Lamport Snapshot algorithms for FIFO channels ( May 2022, Mark-13)
 UNIT 3

TWO MARKS

1. What is clock synchronization?

Nodes in distributed system to keep track of current time for various purposes such as calculating the time spent by a process
in CPU utilization ,disk I/O etc so that the corresponding user can be charged. Clock synchronization means the
timedifference between two nodes should be very small.

2.Explain the term mutual exclusion

A program object that blocks multiple users from accessing the same shared variable or data at the same time. With a critical
section, a region of code in which multiple processes or threads access the same shared resource, this idea is put touse in
concurrent programming.

3. What is deadlock?

A Deadlock is a situation where a set of processes are blocked because each process is holding a resource and waiting for
another resource occupied by some other process. When this situation arises, it is known as Deadlock. Deadlock.

4. Name the two types of messages used in Ricart-Agrawala's algorithm

The algorithm uses two types of messages: REQUEST and REPLY. A process sends a REQUEST message to all other
processes to request their permission to enter the critical section. A process sends a REPLY message to a process to giveits
permission to that process.

5. What are the conditions for deadlock?

The four necessary conditions for a deadlock situation are mutual exclusion, no preemption, hold and wait, and circular set.
There are four methods of handlingdeadlocks - deadlock avoidance, deadlock prevention, deadline detection andrecovery,
and deadlock ignorance.

6. Which are the three basic approaches for implementing distributed mutual exclusion?

 Token-based approach.
 Non-token-based approach.
 Quorum-based approach.

7. What are the requirements of mutual exclusion algorithms?

 No Deadlock: Two or more site should not endlessly wait for any message that will
never arrive.
 No Starvation: Every site who wants to execute critical section should get an
opportunity to execute it in finite time.

8. What is response time?

Response time includes the time taken to transmit the inquiry, process it by the computer, and transmit the response back to
the terminal.

9. What is wait for graph?

A wait-for graph in computer science is a directed graph used for deadlock detection in operating systems and relational
database systems.
10.What do you mean by deadlock avoidance?

Deadlock avoidance is another technique used in operating systems to deal with deadlocks. Unlike deadlock prevention,
which aims to eliminate the possibility of deadlocks, deadlock avoidance focuses on dynamically detecting and avoiding
situations that could lead to deadlocks.

11.Define deadlock detection in distributed system?

Deadlock detection involves two basic tasks: maintenance of the state graph and search of the state graph for the presence of
cycles. Because in distributed systems a cycle may involve several sites, the search for cycles greatly depends on how
thesystem state graph is represented across the system.

Part -B

1. Explain about Ricart Agrawala's Algorithm with an example

2. Analyse suzuki kasami's broadcast algorithm for mutual exclusion in distributed system

3.Discuss with suitable example to show that a deadlock cannot occur if any one ofthe four conditions is absent

4. Name and explain the different types of deadlock models in distributed system

with the commonly used strategies to handle deadlocks with a neat diagram.

UNIT 4

2 MARKS

1. What do you mean by clock skew and clock drift?

Clock skew – Instantaneous difference between the readings of anytwo clocks is called clock skew. Skew occurs since
computer clocks like any others tends not be perfect at all times.

Clock drift – Clock drift occurs in crystal based clocks which counts time at different rates and hence they diverge. The drift
rate is the change in the offset between the clock and a nominal perfect reference clock per unit of time measured by the
reference clock.

2. What do you mean by Coordinated Universal Time?

Coordinated Universal Time generally abbreviated as UTC is an international standard for timekeeping. It is based on atomic
time. UTC signals are synchronized and broadcast regularly from land based radio stations and satellites covering many parts
of the world.

3. Define External Synchronization.

Generally it is necessary to synchronize the processes’ clocks Ci with an authoritative external source of time. It is called as
ExternalSynchronization. For a synchronization bound D>0, and for a source S ofUTC time, | S(t) – Ci(t)|<D for i=1,2..N for
all real times t in I where I is the time interval.

4. When an object is considered to be garbage?

An object is considered to be garbage if there are no longer any references to it anywhere in the distributed system. The
memory taken up by the object can be reclaimedonce it is known to be garbage. The technique used here isdistributed
garbage collection.

5. What do you meant by Distributed debugging?

In general, distributed systems are complex to debug.A special care needs to be taken in establishing what occurred during
the execution.Consider an application with a variable xi(i=1,2..N) and the variable changesas the program executes but it is
always required to be within a value $ of one other. In that case, relationship must be evaluated for values of the variables
that occur at the same time.

6. Define marker receiving rule.

Snapshot algorithm designed by Chandy and Lamport is used for determining global states of distributed systems. This
algorithm is defined through two rules namely marker sending rule and marker receiving rule. Marker receiving rule
obligates a process that has not recorded its state to do so.

7. Define marker sending rule.

Snapshot algorithm designed by Chandy and Lamport is used for determining global states of distributed systems. This
algorithm is defined through 2 rules namely marker sending rule and marker receiving rule. Markersending rule obligates
processes to send a marker after they have recorded their state ,but before they send any other messages.

8.Define the characteristics of serial equivalent transactions.

For any pair of transactions, it is possible to determine the order ofpairs of conflicting operations on objects accessed by both
of them. Read and write are the operations generally considered. For two transactions to beserially equivalent it is necessary
and sufficient that all pairs of conflictingoperations of the two transactions be executed in the same order at all of theobjects
they both access.

9. What are the advantages of nested transactions?

The outermost transaction in a set of nested transactions is called top level transaction. Transactions other than the top level
transaction are called subtransactions. Advantages of nested transactions are:

 Subtransactions at one level may run concurrently with other subtransactions at the same level in the hierarchy.
This can allow additional concurrency in a transaction.
 Subtransactions can commit or abort independently.

10.What are the rules of committing nested transactions?

Rules for committing of nested transactions are:

 A transaction may commit or abort only after its child transactions have completed.
 When a subtransaction completes, it makes an independent decision either to commit provisionally or to abort.
 When a parent aborts, all of its transactions are aborted.
 When a sub transaction aborts, the parent can decide whether to abort or not

11.Write short notes on strict two phase locking

A simple mechanism of a serializing mechanism is the use of exclusive locks. Under a strict execution regime, a transaction
that needs to read or write an object must be delayed until other transactions that wrote the same object have committed
oraborted. To enforce this rule, any locks applied during the progress of a transaction are held until the transaction commits
or aborts. This is called strict two-phase locking. The presence of the locks prevents other transactions reading or writingthe
objects.

12.Define the approach of two phase commit protocol.

Two phase commit protocol is designed to allow any participant to abort its part of a transaction. In the first phase of the
protocol, each participant votes for the transaction to be committed or aborted. In the second phase of the protocol, every
participant in the transaction carries out the joint decision

16 marks

1. List the agreement statement that should be followed in synchronous system with failure?

2. Illustrate briefly the two kinds of checkpoints for checkpoint algorithm?

3. Discuss the issues of failure recovery with an example

 UNIT 5

TWO MARKS

1.What is cloud service

Cloud services are infrastructure, platforms, or software that are hosted by third-party providers and made available to users
through the internet.Cloud services facilitate the flow of user data from front-end clients (e.g.,users’ servers, tablets,
desktops, laptops—anything on the users’ ends), through the internet, to the provider’s systems, and back.

2. What is public cloud

The public cloud is defined as computing services offered by third-party providers over the public Internet, making them
available to anyone who wants to use or purchase them. They may be free or sold on-demand, allowing customers to pay
only per usage for the CPU cycles, storage, or bandwidth they consume.

3.What is private cloud

A private cloud is a cloud computing environment dedicated to a single organization. Any cloud infrastructure has
underlying compute resources like CPU and storage that you provision on demand through a self-service portal.In a private
cloud, all resources are isolated and in the control of one organization.

4. What is Virtual Machine

A virtual machine (VM) is a digital version of a physical computer. Virtual machine software can run programs and
operating systems, store data, connect to networks, and do other computing functions, and requires maintenance such as
updates and system monitoring.

5. Characteristics of Cloud Computing

1. On-demand self-services: The Cloud computing services does notrequire any human administrators, user themselves are
able to provision, monitor and manage computing resources as needed.

2. Broad network access: The Computing services are generally provided over standard networks and heterogeneous devices.

3. Rapid elasticity: The Computing services should have IT resources thatare able to scale out and in quickly and on as
needed basis. Whenever the user require services it is provided to him and it is scale out as soon as its requirement gets over.

7.What is Hypervisor

Hypervisor :

Hypervisor is a firmware or a low level program which is a key to enablevirtualization. It is used to divide and allocate cloud
resources between several customers. As it monitors and manages cloud services/resources that’s whyhypervisor is called as
VMM (Virtual Machine Monitor) or (Virtual MachineManager).

8. Characteristics of IAAS

 Resources-as-a-service. ...
 Pay-as-you-go pricing model. ...
 Scalable services. ...
 Automated administrative tasks. ...
 Platform virtualization.

9.What is IAAS?

IaaS, or Infrastructure as a Service, is a cloud computing model that provides on- demand access to computing resources
such as servers, storage, networking, and virtualization. IaaS is attractive because acquiring computing resources to run
applications or store data the traditional way requires time and capital. Organizations must purchaseequipment through
procurement processes that can take months. They must investin physical spaces, typically specialized rooms with power and
cooling. And after deploying the systems, they need IT professionals to manage and maintain them.

Part B

1.Explain about Cloud Services

2.Difference between Iaas, Paas, Saas

3.Explain about cloud models

4.Difference between cloud computing