Plant anatomy: The study of internal structure of plant

Tissue: A tissue is the group of cells having common origin and can perform same
set of functions. Study of tissue is called histology. Term tissue was given by Grew.
Depending upon the dividing capacity the tissues are classified into two types.

A. Meristematic Tissue

B. Permanent Tissue

A. Meristematic Tissue

A meristematic tissue consists of a group of cells which remain in a

continuous state of division or they retain their power of division. The meristems
usually occur at the apex of all main and lateral shoots and roots and thus their number
in a single plant becomes quite large.

The characteristics of meristematic tissue are as follows:

1. They have power of cell division.

2. They are small, thin-walled and living cells

3. The cells may be rounded, oval, spherical or polygonal in shape.

4. The intercellular spaces between the cells are absent.

5. Vacuoles are small or sometimes absent

6. They are found on apex of root and stem

Classification of Meristems

Meristems are classified into three types on the basis of following features.

a. Classification based on origin and development

Classification of tissue
1. Primary meristem
It is derived from the embryonic cells in early stage of development. These cells are
always in active state of division throughout the plant life. They are found at the tip of
root and stem.
2. Secondary meristem
Secondary meristem is a type of meristematic tissue that is responsible for the
secondary growth in plants. i. e. growth in girth or thickness. They are always present in
lateral position.
B. Classification on the basis of position
1. Apical meristem: It is present at the growing points or apex of roots and stems. It
increases the length of plant or it’s parts.
2. Intercalary Meristem: The meristem present between the regions of permanent
tissues is called intercalary meristem. It is considered to be a part of the apical
meristem which gets separated from the apex due to formation of intermediate
permanent tissues. They are found at the base of leaves in Pinus, at the base of
internode in grasses and below the node Mentha.
3. Lateral Meristem: It lies along the lateral sides of roots and stems. They are
responsible for increasing thickness of plant part. Eg. Cambium, Cork cambium.
C. Classification on the basis of function

1. Protoderm: It is the outermost layer of meristem and form outer epidermal

layer.

2. Ground meristem: It gives rise to hypodermis, cortex, endodermis and

pericycle, pith.

3. Procambium: It is located inside the protoderm and forms cambium and

vascular tissue.
Theories of Differentiation of Root and Shoot Apex

1. Tunica- Corpus Theory (Schmidt, 1924)

According to this theory, shoot apex is dome shaped in outline and protected by

young leaf (leaf primordia). It has two parts: outer tunica and inner mass of cells

called corpus.

Tunica: Cells of tunica are smaller. They undergo anticlinal division (right angle to

the surface of apex)and form protoderm which later differentiates into epidermis.

Corpus: Cells of corpus are comparatively larger. They divide in all planes and

form procambium (future vascular bundle) and ground meristem (future ground

tissue). This theory is only applicable for differentiation of shoot apex.

Theories of Differentiation of Root and Shoot Apex

2. Histogen Theory (Hanstein, 1870)

According to this theory, apex of stem and root have small masses of
similar actively dividing cells called histogen which later differentiate into
dermatogen, periblem and plerome.

a. Dermatogen: It is the single outermost layer of the cells which gives rise to
epidermis of stem.

b. Periblem: It is the region internal to dermatogen which gives rise to cortex and
endodermis.

c. Plerome: It is the central region of meristem which later gives rise to central
stele consisting of pericycle, vascular tissue, medullary rays and pith.

This theory is applicable for differentiation of both shoot apex and root apex.
2. Permanent tissue

It is the group of cells that have lost the power of cell division and attained a
definite shape, size and function. These cells may be dead or living and thin walled
or thick walled. The permanent tissues are classified into two types.

1. Simple permanent tissues 2. Complex permanent tissue

1. Simple permanent tissues: These are composed of one type of cells and are
homogenous in nature. They are classified into three types

a. Parenchyma b. collenchyma c. sclerenchyma

a. Parenchyma: It is the most common permanent tissues in plants. It has

following characters.

• They are thin walled living cells made up of cellulose

• They are oval, spherical or polygonal in shape

• They contain large vacuole. The cells have intercellular spaces in between them.
Location: This tissue is generally present in all the soft parts of a plant pith,
mesophyll of leaves, the pulp of fruits, endosperm of seeds, cortex of stems and
roots, etc.
Types of Parenchyma tissue
The parenchyma tissue are further classified into following types.
1. Chlorenchyma: Parenchyma containing chloroplast are called chlorenchyma.
They produce organic food by photosynthesis.
2. Aerenchyma: The parenchyma cell contain large air spaces (intercellular
spaces) called the aerenchyma. They help to make the aquatic plant light and
buoyant.
3. Prosenchyma: It is slightly thick walled living fibre- like elongated
parenchyma. They provide mechanical support to the plant.
4. Idioblast: Some special type of parenchyma which helps in storage of oils and
crystal.
Function of Parenchyma

The parenchyma performs the following functions

• It helps in storage of the food.

• Chlorenchyma helps in photosynthesis

• Aerenchyma help in storage of gaseous and make the aquatic plant light and
buoyant.

• Prosenchyma provide rigidity and mechanical support.

• Idioblast parenchyma help to store oil and crystals.

• In xylem( xylem parenchyma) and phloem (phloem parenchyma), the

parenchyma tissues take part in lateral conduction of water and food material
respectively.
2. Collenchyma: The characters of collenchyma are

• They are living cells which are somewhat elongated.

• The cells are circular, oval or polygonal in shape.

• The cells have additional cellulose and pectin thickening in their walls.

Location: They are mainly found in hypodermis of stem, petioles, pedicels and
leaves of dicot plants. It is usually not found in dicot roots and monocot plants.

Classification

1. Angular collenchyma: In this type, the cell wall possesses thickening at the
corner or angles of the cells. E.g. stems of Solanum, Lycopersicon, Tobaccum,
etc.

2. Lacunar collenchyma: In this type thickening occur at the intercellular space. E.

g. Stem of Cucurbita
3. Lamellar collenchyma: In this type, thickening occurs at the tangential walls.
E.g. stem of sunflower.
Function of Collenchyma

• It provides mechanical strength, flexibility and elasticity to the plant.

• Some collenchyma contain the chloroplast which helps in photosynthesis.

• It provides support to delicate leaf margins and prevents tearing of leaves.

• Being alive it also takes part in the storage of food.

• It allows the growth and elongation of organs.

Sclerenchyma

It has following characteristics

• Sclerenchyma is a dead tissue with highly thick walled

• It consist of long, narrow and lignified cells.

• The cell wall is thickened due to deposition of lignin.

Location: It is found in hard parts of plants e.g. mesocarp fibres of coconut. It is

chief mechanical tissue present in hypodermis of monocot stem and xerophytes.

Types of sclerenchyma

1. Fibre: They are highly elongated, narrow, thick walled dead cells with tapering
ends. They are of three types: wood fibres (present in xylem), bast fibres (present in
phloem) and surface fibres (present other than xylem and phloem)
2. Sclereids: They are highly thickened dead sclerenchyma cells with very narrow
cavities. Sclereids are broader as compared to fibres. The thick wall has branched
or unbranched simple pits. They may occur singly or in groups and provides
stiffness to the plant parts.
Types of sclereids
1. Stone cells or brachysclereids: They are unbranched short and isodiametric
structure with branched pit canals. Grittiness of the fruits of guava, apple, pear, etc.
is due to brachysclereids

2. Macrosclereids: They are elongated and columnar or rod- shaped structure. They
are found in covering of legume seeds
3. Osteosclereids: They are bone like or columnar shaped with swollen ends. They
are found in sub- epidermal covering of some legume plants
4. Astrosclereids: They are star like structure. They are found in tea leaves and
petioles of lotus
5. Filiform sclereids: They are fibre-like branched structure and found in stem of
hydrophytes
Function of Sclerenchyma

• Fibre provides mechanical support ( rigidity) to various plant parts.

• Sclereids help in the stiffness to the plant parts.

• Sclereids form stony endocarp of drupes called stony fruits (almond, coconut,
etc)

• It forms protective covering of testa in many legume plants.

• Grittiness of the fruits of guava, apple, pear, etc is due to brachesclereids.

• A number of fibres are commercially exploited e. g. jute, flax, etc.

Difference between parenchyma and collenchyma

Parenchyma Collenchyma

1. The cells are thin walled and uniform 1. The cells are thick walled and
elongated
2. The cells are loosely arranged 2. The cells are usually compactly
arranged
3. It has intercellular space within cells 3. There is no or very little intercellular
space available within cells
4. The cell wall is made of cellulose 4. The cell wall is made up of cellulose
and pectin
5. It helps in storage of food materials 5. It provides elasticity and flexibility to
plant
6. It is mostly present in soft part of plant 6. It is mostly present in hypodermis of
like pith, cortex, etc. stem, petioles and leaves

7. It shows several modifications 7. It shows a very few modifications

Difference between collenchyma and sclerenchyma
Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

1. Collenchyma is living tissue 1. Sclerenchyma is dead tissue

2. Cells are filled with protoplasm 2. The cells are empty

3. Cell wall is made up of cellulose and 3. Cell wall is made up of waterproofing

pectin lignin
4. Cell wall of collenchyma has unequal 4. Cell wall of sclerenchyma has uniform
wall thickening wall thickening
5. They provide mechanical strength as 5. They provide mechanical strength and
well as elasticity hardness (Stiffness)
6. They may contain chloroplast 6. Chloroplast is absent

7.They are found in hypodermis of dicot 7. They are present in hypodermis of

stem, petioles and pedicels monocot stem, leaves and xerophytes
2. Complex Permanent Tissue

Complex permanent tissue is heterogenous tissue which is made up of different

group of cells . They are of two types.

a. Xylem (Wood) b. Phloem (bast)

a. Xylem

Xylem is complex permanent that helps

in transport of water and minerals from

root to different parts of the plant. It has four components:

tracheids, vessels, xylem or wood parenchyma and xylem or wood fibre.

i. Tracheids: They are elongated, tapering, lignified, thick walled and dead

cells with narrow lumen. The hard lignified walls have one or more rows of

bordered pits. The thickening in the wall of tracheids may be annular (ring),

spiral, reticulate (network), scalariform (ladder) and pitted (with pits). The

main function of tracheids is the conduction of water and minerals.

ii. Vessels: Vessels are long, cylindrical tube like dead cells with hard lignified
walls and large lumen (without tapering ends). Vessels are thickened variously like
annular, spiral, reticulate, scalariform and pitted for mechanical support. The vessel
members are placed end to end in vertical rows to form elongated pipe- like
structures. They help conduction of water and minerals and also provide
mechanical strength to the plant body.
iii. Xylem parenchyma: The parenchyma cells associated with xylem are called
xylem parenchyma. It is only one living elements of xylem. It stores food and
helps in lateral conduction of water.

iv. Xylem fibre: Sclerenchyma cells associated with xylem is called xylem fibre. It
provides mechanical support.

Function of xylem

• It helps in conduction of water and mineral

• Xylem parenchyma helps in storage of food

• Xylem fibre helps to provide mechanical support

Protoxylem and Metaxylem
Depending upon the time of origin, xylem are of two types.
a. Protoxylem: First form xylem with small tracheids and vessels.
b. Metaxylem: Later form xylem with bigger tracheids and vessels.
Depending upon the position, xylem are of three types.
a. Exarch (P-P, M-C) The protoxylem lies exit
towards the outside (periphery) and metaxylem
towards the centre. It is found in root.
b. Endarch: The metaxylem lies towards the
outside (periphery) and protoxylem
towards the centre. It is found in stem.
c. Mesarch: The protoxylem lies in the middle
of metaxylem or vice versa. It is found in fern plant.
2. Phloem (Bast)

Phloem is another conducting tissue which helps in conduction of food from leaf
to another part of plant. It consists of four components: sieve tubes, companion
cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibre.

a. Sieve tubes: They are tube like structure composed of elongated cells placed
end to end. Their wall are thin and made up of cellulose. They have many sieve
pores. They are the living elements of phloem and helps in conduction of organic
food.

b. Companion cell: They are thin- walled,

elongated, living cells associated with sieve

tubes. They are square or rectangular in shape.

Each cell has dense cytoplasm and nucleus.They

help in conduction of food along with sieve tubes.

c. Phloem parenchyma: They are thin walled living parenchyma without
intercellular spaces which are associated with phloem. They help in storage of food.

d. Phloem fibre: They are thick walled dead sclerenchyma present in phloem.
They help in mechanical support.

Function of Phloem

• Sieve tube helps in conduction of organic food.

• Phloem parenchyma help in storage of food.

• Phloem fibre help in mechanical support.

Differentiate between xylem and phloem-imp

Xylem Phloem
1. It is usually found towards inner sides of 1. It is usually situated towards outer sides of
plant the plant

2. It consists of tracheids, vessels, xylem 2. It consists of sieve tube, companion cells,

parenchyma and xylem fibre phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres

3. There is one type of living cells (xylem 3. There are three types of living cells i.e
parenchyma) sieve tube, companion cells and phloem
parenchyma
4. It is made up of three types of dead cells 4. It is made up to one type of dead cells
(tracheids , vessels and xylem fibre) (phloem fibre)

5. Conducting elements are dead 5. Conducting elements are living

6. It helps in conduction of water and 6. It helps in conduction of food.

minerals

7. Xylem conducts water and minerals in 7. Phloem conducts organic food in two
single direction directions
Vascular bundles

Vascular bundle is the strand of conducting tissue. Each vascular bundle consists of
xylem and phloem with cambium in dicot stems and without cambium in monocot
stem.

On the basis of arrangement of xylem and phloem, the vascular bundles are
classified as follows.
1. Radial vascular bundles: When xylem and phloem lie on different radii
alternating with each other. This type of vascular bundle is found in the roots of
monocot and dicot plants.

2. Conjoint: Both xylem and phloem are present in same radius or single vascular
bundle. It is differentiated into three types.

a. Collateral b. Bicollateral c. Concentric

a. Collateral: In this types xylem and phloem occur together in the same bundle
in such a manner that xylem being internal and phloem being external in position. It
is of two types.

i. Open collateral vascular bundles

ii. Close collateral vascular bundles

i. Open collateral vascular bundles: When cambium is present in between xylem

and phloem. E. g. dicot stem
ii. Closed collateral vascular bundle: When a cambium is absent in between xylem
and phloem, it is called closed collateral. E. g. Monocot stem

b. Bicollateral: It is the type of vascular bundle in which phloem and cambium are
present on both outer and inner side of xylem. Xylem is in the middle. E. g. dicot
stem of family cucurbitaceae.

c. Concentric: In is a type

of bundle in which xylem and

phloem are present in concentric circles. It is of two types

i. Amphicribal (hadrocentric) vascular bundle:

In this type, the xylem lies in the centre and phloem surrounds the xylem.

E.g. Fern
ii. Amphivasal (leptocentric) vascular bundles: In this type phloem lies in the centre
and xylem completely surrounds the phloem. E. g. Dracaena, Yucca

Secretory Tissue
The tissue that are concerned with the secretion of gums, resins, latex, nectar and
other substances are called secretory tissue. It is of following 2 types
1. Laticiferous tissue or laticifers: They are thin walled multinucleate highly
branched tubes or ducts containing milky juice known as latex. The latex
chemically contain stored food carbohydrate, protein, tannins.
2. Glandular tissues: These are present in the form of special structures, the
glands which contain some secretory or excretory products. The glands may be
internal or external. Oil glands, glands secreting resins, gums, etc are internal
glands whereas digestive glands, nectaries, glandular hairs, hydathodes, etc are
external glands.