1963 – Homeland Policy (Transkei, Self-Governance)

In 1963, the South African government introduced the Homeland Policy, which aimed
to segregate Black South Africans by creating separate areas, called homelands, where
they could live and govern themselves. Transkei was the first homeland to be granted
self-governance under this policy. The government’s justification was that it would allow
Black South Africans to manage their own affairs, but in reality, it was a way for the
apartheid regime to remove Black people from urban areas and deny them full rights as
citizens. The policy was a critical part of the apartheid system, which sought to create a
racially segregated society. The homelands, including Transkei, were isolated from the
rest of the country, effectively stripping Black South Africans of their political and
economic power in the broader nation. This also meant that Black people living in the
homelands were not allowed to vote or have any say in national governance.

1976 – 1981 Homeland Independence

Between 1976 and 1981, four homelands—Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and

Ciskei—were granted so-called “independence” by the South African government.
These were considered puppet states, with the apartheid government controlling their
politics, economy, and borders. Transkei was the first to be declared "independent" in
1976, followed by Bophuthatswana (1977), Venda (1979), and Ciskei (1981). While these
homelands were given the appearance of sovereignty, they were not recognized by any
other countries and remained entirely dependent on South Africa. The international
community viewed these declarations as a way to justify the apartheid system and deny
Black South Africans full citizenship. Life in the homelands was difficult, with limited
economic opportunities and poor infrastructure. This “independence” was seen by
many as a way for the South African government to avoid international pressure and
continue its discriminatory policies without interference.

1960s Boom – Immigration and Investment

The 1960s saw significant economic growth in South Africa, largely driven by the mining
industry, especially gold and diamonds. This period of economic boom brought more
foreign investment into the country, particularly from Europe and the United States. At
the same time, many people, particularly from Europe, began to immigrate to South
Africa in search of economic opportunities. The government encouraged this
immigration to maintain a supply of skilled labor, while also supporting the apartheid
regime. For Black South Africans, this period was marked by rising inequality, as most of
the economic growth benefited white people and was tied to exploitative labor
practices. Black South Africans were confined to low-paying jobs with limited access to
education and healthcare. Despite the economic boom, the wealth generated by these
industries was not shared equitably, and the vast majority of Black South Africans
remained in poverty.
1960s Black Consciousness (NUSAS/SASO Split)

In the 1960s, a new political and social movement called Black Consciousness gained
momentum in South Africa, encouraging Black people to embrace their identity and
resist the effects of apartheid. This movement was largely led by young intellectuals and
activists who believed that Black South Africans needed to become aware of their own
worth and reject the inferiority imposed by the apartheid system. A key moment in this
movement was the split between the National Union of South African Students
(NUSAS) and the South African Students' Organisation (SASO) in 1969. NUSAS was
predominantly white and liberal, while SASO was established to focus on Black student
issues. The split marked a turning point in student activism, as Black students began to
form their own organizations to fight for their rights, rejecting white-dominated
institutions. The Black Consciousness Movement became an important force in the
fight against apartheid, promoting solidarity among Black South Africans and helping to
inspire further resistance across the country.

1972 – Black People’s Convention

In 1972, the Black People’s Convention (BPC) was formed as part of the Black
Consciousness movement. Its primary goal was to unite Black South Africans in their
struggle against apartheid. The BPC emphasized self-reliance, Black pride, and the
need for social and political change through grassroots mobilization. The formation of
the BPC was a direct response to the lack of political representation and economic
opportunities for Black South Africans. It also aimed to challenge the legitimacy of
apartheid policies by promoting Black South African leadership and empowerment. The
BPC worked closely with other activist groups, such as SASO, and became a key
organization in the resistance to apartheid. The government viewed the BPC as a threat
and responded with increased repression, including surveillance, arrests, and banning
its leaders.

1973 – Durban Strikes

In 1973, workers in Durban, South Africa's largest industrial city, organized major strikes
to protest against low wages, poor working conditions, and racial discrimination in the
workplace. The Durban Strikes were a significant turning point in South Africa’s labor
movement. Black workers had long been exploited in factories, mines, and other
industries, but this wave of strikes marked a new level of unity and activism among
Black laborers. Thousands of workers from various industries went on strike,
demanding better wages and conditions. The strikes were a major challenge to the
apartheid government's labor policies, and they helped to bring attention to the
economic inequality faced by Black South Africans. The government responded harshly,
using force to break up the strikes and arresting many union leaders. Despite this, the
strikes were a success in raising awareness of labor issues and inspiring future
resistance.

April 1974 – Carnation Revolution

In April 1974, a peaceful military coup in Portugal, known as the Carnation Revolution,
led to the fall of the Portuguese dictatorship and the end of colonial rule in Portuguese
Africa. The revolution had a significant impact on South Africa and the wider Southern
African region. Portugal’s withdrawal from its African colonies, including Angola,
Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau, left a power vacuum that liberation movements could
exploit. The fall of the Portuguese regime also encouraged anti-apartheid activists and
inspired the people of South Africa to continue their fight for freedom. The Carnation
Revolution showed that oppressive regimes could be overthrown, offering hope to those
struggling under apartheid. It also highlighted the global wave of decolonization that
was sweeping through Africa and the world in the mid-20th century.

1974 – BPC/SASO Demonstration Prompts Repression

In 1974, the Black People's Convention (BPC) and South African Students’
Organisation (SASO) organized a demonstration against apartheid policies, calling for
improved conditions for Black South Africans and greater political freedom. The
government responded with repression, arresting many of the leaders of these
organizations and banning their activities. The crackdown was part of the apartheid
state's wider strategy to silence opposition and prevent the spread of Black
Consciousness ideology. The demonstrations and the resulting repression showed the
growing resistance to apartheid in South Africa, even as the government sought to crush
these movements. Despite the arrests and bans, the BPC and SASO continued to
inspire other forms of resistance, particularly in the urban townships and schools where
many young people were becoming politically active.

1975-76 – Protests Against Afrikaans in Black Schools

From 1975 to 1976, there were widespread protests against the government's decision
to make Afrikaans a compulsory language of instruction in Black schools. Black South
Africans viewed the use of Afrikaans in schools as a symbol of oppression, as it was the
language of the apartheid regime and of the police. The decision angered both students
and teachers, who saw it as a further attempt to suppress their cultural identity and
autonomy. In many areas, protests turned violent, with students organizing strikes and
demonstrations. These protests were not only about language but were part of a
broader resistance to apartheid’s policies in education, which kept Black students in
underfunded and inferior schools. The government's decision to enforce Afrikaans in
schools became a flashpoint for larger national protests and set the stage for the
Soweto Uprising in 1976.
16 June 1976 – Soweto Uprising

On June 16, 1976, the Soweto Uprising took place, one of the most significant events in
South Africa’s history of resistance. Thousands of Black students in Soweto, a township
near Johannesburg, protested against the government’s decision to impose Afrikaans as
a medium of instruction in schools. The protest quickly escalated into violent clashes
with police, who responded with force, killing many students. The uprising sparked
protests across the country and became a powerful symbol of resistance to apartheid.
It also drew international attention to the brutality of the apartheid regime. The Soweto
Uprising marked the beginning of a new phase in the struggle against apartheid, as it
mobilized more people, especially the youth, to fight against the oppressive system.