Displaying data
In this chapter you will learn about
´Methods of communicating and displaying analysed data
in quantitative and qualitative research;
´How to present your data in tables;
´Different types of graph and how to use them to
represent your data.
Reading
´Kumar (2019), chapter 16
Methods of communicating and displaying
analysed data
´ The choice of a particular method should be determined primarily
by your impressions/knowledge of your likely readership’s
familiarity with the topic and with the research methodology and
statistical procedures.
´ Four ways of communicating and displaying the analysed data: text,
tables, graphs, statistical measures
Text
´ The most common method of communication in both quantitative
and qualitative research.
´ The only method of communication in qualitative research
´ Your writing should be thematic: that is, written around various
themes of your report; findings should be integrated into the
literature citing references using an acceptable system of citation;
your writing should follow a logical progression of thought; and the
layout should be attractive and pleasing to the eye. Language, in
terms of clarity and flow, plays an important role in communication.
Tables
´ Tables are the most
common method of
presenting analysed
data.
´ Tables offer a useful
means of presenting
large amounts of
detailed information
in a small space (The
Chicago Manual of
Style, 1993)
Tables
´ TitleTitle of a table normally indicates the table number and describes
the type of data the table contains
´ You must give each table its own number
´ The tables should be numbered sequentially as they appear in the
text.
´ The description accompanying the table number must clearly specify
the contents of that table
Tables
´ Stub
´ The subcategories of a variable, listed along the y-axis (the left-hand
column of the table).
´ Lists the items about which information is provided in the horizontal
rows to the right.
Tables
´ Column headingThe subcategories of a variable, listed along the x-axis
(the top of the table)
´ Lists the items about which information is provided in the horizontal
rows to the right
Tables
´ Body
´ The cells housing the analysed data
´ Supplementary notes or footnotes
´ There are four types of footnote: source notes; other general notes;
notes on specific parts of the table; and notes on the level of
probability.
Tables
´ Types of
tables
´ Univariate
(also known
as frequency
tables)
Tables
´ Types of
tables
´ Bivariate
(also known
as cross-
tabulations)
Tables
´ Types of tables
´ Polyvariate or multivariate
Tables
´ Types of percentage
´ Row percentage
´ Column percentage
´ Total percentage
Graphs
´ The main objective of a graph is to present data in a way that is
easy to understand and interpret, and interesting to look at Column
percentage
´ Graphs can be constructed for every type of data – quantitative and
qualitative – and for any type of variable (measured on a nominal, ordinal,
interval or ratio scale).
Graphs
´ Decision to use a particular type should be made on the basis of the
measurement scale used in the measurement of a variable.
´ For categorical variables you can construct only bar charts, histograms or pie
charts/ Đối với các biến phân loại, bạn chỉ có thể dùng biểu đồ thanh, biểu đồ
hoặc biểu đồ hình tròn.
´ For continuous variables, in addition to the above, line or trend graphs can
also be constructed/ Đối với các biến liên tục, ngoài các biểu đồ trên, đồ thị
đường hoặc đồ thị xu hướng cũng có thể được xây dựng.
´ The number of variables shown in a graph are also important in
determining the type of graph you can construct.
Graphs
´ When using graphs, remember:
´Graphic presentation is constructed in relation to two axes:
horizontal (y) and vertical (x).
´A graph, like a table, should have a title that describes its
contents. The axes should be labelled also
´A graph should be drawn to an appropriate scale.
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ A histogram consists of a series
of rectangles drawn next to
each other without any space
between them, each
representing the frequency of a
category or subcategory l
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ A bar chart is identical to a
histogram, except that in a bar
chart the rectangles
representing the various
frequencies are spaced, thus
indicating that the data is
categorical
.
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ A stacked bar chart is similar to
a bar chart except that in the
former each bar shows
information about two or more
variables stacked onto each
other vertically .
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ The 100 per cent bar chart is
very similar to the stacked bar
chart. The subcategories of a
variable are converted into
percentages of the total
population
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ A frequency polygon is drawn
by joining the midpoint of each
rectangle at a height
commensurate with the
frequency of that interval
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ The cumulative frequency polygon
´ The stem-and-leaf display
´ The area chart
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ In the pie chart, the circle or
pie is divided into sections in
accordance with the magnitude
of each subcategory, and so
each slice is in proportion to
the size of each subcategory of
a frequency distribution
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ A set of data measured on a
continuous interval or a ratio
scale can be displayed using a
line diagram or trend curve
´ A trend line can be drawn for
data pertaining to both a
specific time (e.g. 1995, 1996,
1997) or a period (e.g. 1985–
1989, 1990–1994, 1995–)
Graphs
´ Types of graphs
´ When you want to show
visually how one variable
changes in relation to a change
in the other variable, a
scattergram is extremely
effective.
Exercises
´ Use file: wagesmicrodata.xls
´ Requirements:
´Display the frequency of the Occupation and Sector variables
in a tabular form.
´Displays the relationship between Occupation and Gender in
a table.
´Show the relationship between Wage and Experience, Wage
and Age, Wage and education in the form of a graph.
´Show the relationship between Occupation, Sector and
Gender
