‘* Human being reproduce sexually and are viviparous ie., they give birth’ young ones. Reproductive system in | human is a set of interconnected and interdependent ‘organs and body components which take part in sexual reproduction. reproductive systems, The later are made of two types of sex organs, primary and secondary. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SEX ORGANS ‘as well as the growth and development of the entire body. Sex organs, glands and ducts which do not produce gametes and hormones but are otherwise essential for sexual reproduction are known as secondary sex organs. Secondary sex organs of human male reproductive system are vasa efferentia, epididymes, vasa deferentia, ejaculatory ducts, seminal vesicles, Cowper's glands, urethra, prostate gland and penis. © Secondary sex organs of a human female reproductive system are Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, Bartholin’s glands and mammary glands. ACCESSORY OR EXTERNAL OR SECONDARY : | SEX CHARACTERS © They are those external features which provide” Human males and females have different types of sexual Primary sex organs are those sex organs which produce : | gametes, They are also called gonads, Gonads of males are | called testes while those of females are known as ovaries. They also produce steroid hormones essential fr reproduction | 4 2 6 7 S41. | Basal |_| metabolic rate ' greater activity distinctiveness to the two sexes (Refer table below) Character | = Man | Woman General build | More muscular | Less muscular up | poe \ —— - Aggressiveness | More marked | Less marked | Hair growth | ()Facial | Beard, moustache | Absent present 1 | (il Axitary | Present Present (ii) Pubic | Hair listrbution | Upward growth more lateral and | not so marked | upwards towards | and is more,| | umbilicus horizontal | (iv) Chest_ __| Present___—_| Absent a i “Undeveloped | Welldeveloped | | i | j = wee} { fore hairy and | Less. hairy al | — cose coarse | | Shoulder | Broad | Pelvis Not broad _ | "Low pitched Breathing | Predominantly | Predominantly | } ‘| abdominal | thoracic | | High due to| Not so high as) compared to men |PUBERTY MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Its the period when primary sex organs become functional and start secreting sex hormones wiich bring about derdooment of secondary sex organs and appearance of secondary sex characters. As a result sexual maturit attained. mare Puberty is characterised by rapid growth, The average age of onset for girls is 10 to 12 years old and for boys, 12 to 14 years old : In boys pubertal changes occur in response totestosterone In girls, pubertal changes occur in response to estiagen It consists of scrotum, testes, accessory ducts, ejaculatory ducts, urethra, penis, etc. Ureter Senet clase athe AS cepa Scan ‘Granny bod Cone’ gland spongiosum ‘ams 986) ae Jere, 4 ool ‘as mens inn scan Orifice of Testis taney Fig: Male eproducive system Scrotum + Itis 2 pouch of deeply pigmented skin divided into two separate sacs. Each sac contains one testis. The scrotum acts a5 @ thermoregulator, maintaining the testes at a temperature 2-2.5°C lower than that of the body which is: ideal for the developing sperms. # The scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canals. The spermaticord, formed from the spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes into the tests through inguinal canal Testes + Testes are primary sex organs in man. During early foetal: life the testes develop in the abdominal cavity just below the kidney then they descend into the scrotum. ‘© A fibrous cord that extends from the caudal end of the testis to the scrotal wall is called gubernaculum, Each testis is oval in shape with a length of about 4 to cm and a width of about 2 to 3 cm. {Tunica vaginalis) > Outer covering ofthe testes. Tunica albuginea) — Fibrous covering situated under the tunic vaginal. [Tunica vaseulosa)—» Consists of network of capitis. Each testes has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, Each lobule contains 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules each about 500mm long. Wall of each seminiferous tubules is formed of a single layered germinal epithelium. Majority of cells in this epithelium are cuboidal called male germ cells (spermatogonia) and at certain places, there are present tall Sertoli or sustentacular cel Sertoli cells secrete androgen binding protein (AB?) that concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous tubules It also secretes inhibin which suppress FSH synthesis by negative feedback. Thispeptidealsoaffectspermatogenesis, by local action. They secrete spermatogenic substances for nourishing and differentiation of cells undergoing spermatogenesis, therefore, Sertoli cells are also called nurse cells. Leydig’s cells or interstitial cells are present in the connective tissue around the seminiferous tubules. They ae large sized polyhedra cells with eccentric nucleus, lipid vacuoles and yellow pigment granules. Under the influence of luteinising hormone (LH) or interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH), Leydig cells produce androgens, e.g, testosterone. Rete testis and vasa efferentia : The seminiferous tubules are closed at one end but on the other side they join to a network the rete testis from where fine ciliated ductules the vasa efferentia arise, Coputeiddyis Serotal skin Tunica vaginalis Tunica albuginea Tunica vasculosa Septa of testis seminiferous tubules Cauda epididymis, Fig: LS.of testis showing various parts 4Male accessory ducts + Rete testi, vasa efferentia epididymis and vasa deferens Bre called mate accessory ducts. These ducts store and Transport sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra. The seminiferous tubules ae closed atone end but onthe other side they join to 2 network the rete testis from where fine ciated ductules, the vase efferentla arise, Cia help in conducting sperms. © The epigidymis is a mass of long narrow closely colled tubule whieh ies along the inner side ofeach testis. Coling forms three parts = upper @put epididymis or head, fiddle corpus epidlaymis or body and lower <2ud8 episicy™'s or tail The epididymis stores the sperms and also secretes a fluid which is considered to nourish the sperms. * The term testicle is used for both testis and epididymis. + The vas deferens is a continuation of the cauda epididymis which leaves the scrotal sac and enters the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. © The vas deferens loops over the urinary bladder where itis joined by duct from the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct. Vasa deferentia carry sperms Table : Differences between vasa efferentia ____and vasa deferentia _Vasa efferenti They arise from the rete | They arise from the cauda testis. _\epididymes. _ 4 2.| They vary from 15 to 20 Tere | 4,| Their lining bears many | Their lining has sary | ____| stereocia | 5.| It carries spermatozoa It carries spermatozoa | | | from the rete tests tothe | from cauda epididymis wo| L__Lepididymis. _ the ejaculatory ¢ Ejaculatory ducts © They ate short ducts of about 2 cm length. Each duct is, formed by the joining of vas deferens and duct of seminal vesicle, Ejaculatory ducts enter the prostate gland and join the prostatic urethra to produce a single urinogenital or Urogenital duct. in ejaculatory ducts the sperms mix up with secretion of seminal vesicles. Urethra © itis the urinary duct which originates from the neck of urinary bladder and opens to the exterior at the tip of penis, Its 2 common pathway for Passel of urine and Semen. he urethra has 3 regions: (I) @ short proximal prostatic ane ahh is surrounded by prostate gland. Wa Nery short middle membranous urethra without any ver. and (il along distal penile urethra that passe ‘through the penis She urethra has Internal sphincter of smooth muscle bes Tits beginning and external sprincter of sated muscles fibjes around its membranous part Membranous urethra and penile urethra carry Doth urine and semen, Prostatic urethra carries urine only Penis + The penis is a male copulatory organ used during m the body, transfers semen into reproductive tract of female during sexual intercourse. ‘The penis contains three cylindrical mass of erectile tissue ‘two dorsal corpora cavernosa and one ventral Corpus 1. The penis in addition to conducting urine from spongiosum. “The corpus spongiosum, which contains the penile urethra, is enlarged atthe distal end ofthe penis to form the glans penis. it is covered with smooth skin, the prepuce or foreskin. During serual arousal the three bundles of tissue in the penis become engorged with blood Penis conducts urine as well as semen, but the two cannot pass through it at the same time Glans penis Corpus. spongiosum Corpora cavernosa Fig.: Ventral view of penis Male accessory glands © The seminal vesicles are a pair of sac like structures near the base of the bladder. Their ducts join the vasa deferentia to form the ejaculatory ducts. They produce an alkaline secretion which forms 60% of the volume of semen. The secretion of the seminal vesicles contains fructose, prostaglandins, citrate, inositol, and clotting proteins that are different from those in blood* The prostaglandins stimulate uterine contractions and thus may help the sperm to be moved towards female's oviducts, where fertilization takes place. The clotting proteins help semen coagulate after ejaculation. * Alkaline nature of the seminal fluid helps to neutralize the acidic environment of the male urethra as well as that of female reproductive tract which otherwise would inactivate and kill sperms. d © Fructose, which is present in the seminal fluid and is not produced anywhere else in the body, provides a forensic test for rape. Its presence in the female's genital tract : confirms sexual intercourse. © The prostate gland is a single large gland that surrounds the urethra. It produces a milky slightly alkaline secretion which forms 25% of the volume of semen. This secretion contains citric acid (a sperm nutrient) and enzymes (acid. | phosphatase, amylase, pepsinogen) and prostaglandins, : © Secretion of the prostate gland nourish and activates the : spermatozoa to swim. * A pair of bulbourethral glands or Cowper's glands are present on either side of membranous urethra These ! glands secrete an alkaline fluid. Their ducts open into the membranous urethra cartying the fluid that neutralizes acids from urine in the urethra. They also secrete mucus ; that lubricates the end of the penis and lining of the urethra. ; Semen * Semen is a collection of secretion from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and Cowper's glands and sperms from testes. Semen ‘is ejected from the penis fation may contain 200 during ejaculation. A single ejacu to 300 million spermatozoa (sperms) t * Semen has a pH of 7.35 to 7.50; its alkalinity helps to: neutralize the acidity of the urethra left from the passage ‘ of urine and protects the sperms from the acidity of the ! vagina. : HORMONAL CONTROL OF MALEREPRODUCTIVE : SYSTEM : * The growth, maintenance and functions of the male reproductive organs are under the hormonal control. ® GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) is secreted by the hypothalamus. It stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to secrete and release LH and FSH. WHO Al “T ama fi spherical \ mammalian* In male, LH is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) because it stimulates interstitial cell (Leydig's cells) of the testes l.. filled to secrete androgens. 3 * Testosterone is the principle Fy and androgen. The —_ growth, aside it.” maintenance and functions ‘of secondary sex organs and accessory glands are under the control of testosterone, * FSH stimulates Sertoli cells of testes to secrete an androgen binding protein (ABP) that concentrates testosterone in the seminiferous tubules and also secrete a peptide inhibin which suppresses FSH synthesis and release by negative feedback effect. FSH acts directly on spermatogonia to stimulate sperm production. Growth, maintenance and functions of seminiferous tubules and Leydig’s are regulated by FSH and IcsH Hypothalamus search me © Inhibits mnRH and LH production Stimulates 4 spermatogenesis Hormone @ inhibin Reproductive tract and other

Detmis Derivation ofthe major tissue types,Oxidation becomes intensified so oxygen consumption increases and the nature of metabolism changes. Nuclei become physiologically active and control activities of embryonic cells. The influence of paternal chromosomes! * Con the embryo becomes evident, i * Synthesis of new kinds of proteins begins Extra-embryonic or foetal membranes * The growing embryoifoetus develops four membranes | « called the extra-embryonic or foetal membranes. These include chorion, amnion, allantols and yolk sac. = | « _ Topholat Amniotic cavity fmt ne Anterior end posegestueyat Somatopeuic |e Fig: Diagram showing foetal membranes Chorion # Itis made up of trophoblast outside and somatopleuric | * ‘extraembryonic mesoderm inside. It completely surrounds the embryo and protects it. It also takes part in the formation of placenta. Amnion * It consists of trophoblast inside and somatopleuric extra |, ‘embryonic mesoderm outside. ; The amnion, and the fluid-filled amniotic cavity it encloses, enlarge and neatly surround the embryo. The embryo is suspended in the amniatic cavity by an umbilical cord. The latter is formed of the stalks of the yolk sac and allantois. | ‘© The main blood vessels from the placenta reach the foetus | through the umbilical cord ‘© The amniotic fluid absorbs shocks and prevents desication of the embryo. Aminocentesis ei ‘Amniotic fluid can be sampled by amniacenteslsas eatly as. the sixteenth week of pregnancy, This is dane by ingeting 2 needle into the amniotic cavity, Some genetic'diseases can be diagnosed! by the finding of certain chemicals elthet In the fluid or in’ sloughed fetal cells suspended In the fluid. The chromosomes of these fetal cells can also be examined | for diagnosis of certain disorders as well as to determine the sex of the foetus: : aaa at embedded in the decidua Allantois The allantois is composed of endoderm inside and splanchnopleurc extraembryonic mesoderm outside. Its a saccike structure which arises from the gut ofthe embryo near the yolk sac In human, the allantois is small and non-functional except for furnishing blood vessels to th placenta ‘Yolk sac The yok sac consists of endoderm inside and splanchnopleuric extraembryonic mesoderm outside {tis nonfunctional in human beings except that it functions as thesite of early blood cel formation. : Placenta The outer surface of the chorion in human develops a number of finger-like projections, known as chorionic villi, which grow into the tissue ofthe uterus These vili, penetrate the tissues of the uterine wall in wiich they are embedded, to make up the organ known as, the placenta, by means of which the developing embryo ‘obtains nutrients, oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide ‘and metabolic wastes. ‘fully formed human placenta is a reddish-brown dsc. ts foetal surface is smooth and has the umbilical cord Umbilical cord, as a connecting stalk, has two umbilical arteries (with small diameter) and one umbilical vein (with large diameter) Umbilical arteries convey oxygen poor blood from the foetus to the placenta and umbilical veins carry oxygen rich blood from the placenta to the foetus. The bloodk of the mother and foetus do not mix at all in the placenta or any other place. The human placenta is metadiscoidal because of its shape; haemochorial, because of direct contact of the charion withthe maternal blood and deciduate, because some maternal issue is shed at parturition (child birth), Placental vill embedded inthe decidua basalis PF cavity of tes Yoksac Cavity of amnion Umblical cord with ts contained Decida vera oF vessels parietalis BF Plug of mucus in the DY eanicutes Non-flacental vil capsulats Figs Human foetus within the uterus showing placentaFunctions of placenta © The Typ ire) functions of placenta are summed up below :- ‘Nutritive organ : Food materials pass from the mother’s bond into the foetal blood through the placenta, Digestive organ : The trophoblast of the placenta digests (breaks down) proteins before passing them into the foetal blood. Respiratory organ : Oxygen diffuses from the maternal blood into the foetal blood through the placenta, Carbon dioxide diffuses from the foetal blood Into the matemal blood also through the placenta for elimination by the mother's lungs. Foetal haemoglobin has a greater affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin i=. ~ Endocrine organ ; rea, - Excretory organ : Nitrogenous wastes, such as U pass from the foetal blood into the maternal blood via placenta for elimination by mother’s kidneys. Placenta secretes some hormones such as estrogens, progesterone, ies chotionic gonadotropin (hCG), human ceri somatomammotropin ~ hCS (it was formerly known a: human placental lactogen —hPL), chorionic thyrotropin, chorionic corticotropin and relaxin, - Storage organ : The placenta stores glycogen for the foetus before liver is formed. ~ Asa barrier : Placenta serves as an efficient barrier and allows those materials to pass into the foetal blood that are necessary, On the basis of histology mn Uterine epithelium breaks down; only five barriers eft Eg, cow, butfalo, ‘camel, sheep. Placenta with af shx barriers between foetal and maternal blood. These six barter are (i) Endothelium of foetal blood vessels (i) Foetal connective tissue (i) Trophoblast (iv) Utetine epithelium () Uterine connective tissue (Wi) Endothelium of maternal blood vessels Eg, horse, q No par of uterine Porton of placenta or decidua is shed. E.g, horse, ass Uterine epithelium and connective tissue breaks down; only four barriers let. Eg, tiges lion, cat, dog Some part of uterine tissue is passed out as Gecidua after the birth ., primates Only three barriers left, maternal part erodes. E.g., human, ape, lemurs Al barriers except endothelium of foetal part get eroded Eg, rat, rabbit (arene Be] Placenta is non-deciduate and even foetal part of placenta is Fetalned and absorbed. Eq, moles, bandicoot On the basis of uterine wall after parturition Flow chart: Types ofacent onthe basi of ciferent features Organogenesis * The gastrulation is followed by neurulation, during which the primordum of nervous system, the neural pate i laid down. Gradually, the rudiments of organs appear. Ths is called organogenesis, + Organo genesis involves differentiation and specialization OF groups of cls inthe individual gem layers The calls of such groups change their form and give rise to morphological new individual, Separation ofthe differentiated cell groups may occur by {ling off from the germ layer or by migration of cae individually and reaggregation at a new place, In ths manney the primordial cells of the germ layers Saul and accurately give rise tothe tissues and organs of the offspring. ly recognizable tissues and organs of thePolar body Pronuclei tone ~~ Blastornere Day 1: Fertilization Day 2: Cleavage Epiblast Hypoblast Trophoblast - Day 12: Bilaminar Day 9: Cell mass i dis formation aie entiation Amniotic $3¢, ‘Trophpectoderm Exocoelom, Primitive streak - > CChorfon Day 12: Mesoderm formation Inner cel Tight cell junction Day 3: Compaction Day 18: Mesoderm spreading, Inner cell mass Blastocoelic ‘cavity —_ Day 4: Differentiation Uterine epithelium Day 5: ae “9 Day 7: Implantation Day 6: Zone hatching Chorion = Mesoderm Emr Yok S20 Digestive tract Day 23: Amniotic sac enlargment Fig.: Summarised view of early embryonic development in humans. ‘+A summarised account on hormonal contro! in pregnancy Is given on next page. DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS Amnionitis © It is inflammation of amnion, usually resulting from premature rupture of the amnion and often associated with neonatal infection. Abortion ‘© It is giving birth to an embryo or foetus prior to the stage i of viability at about 20 weeks of gestation (foetus weighs ! less than 500 gm), It may occur from natural causes or induced. Teratogeny © Production of malformed infant due to certain teratogens is called teratogeny. Teratogens are certain agents or drugs that cause abnormal development in embryorfoetus. E4g., thalidomide, which causes multiple defects in growing embryo. Pregnancy sickness Some women suffer from pregnancy sickness (popularly called morning sickness), which is. characterized by nausea anc vomiting during the fist 3 months (first trimester) of pregnancy The exact cause in. unknown, but high concentrations 0 estrogen and other substances may be responsible t may al be linked with increased sensitivity to odors, such as those certain foods. Whether or not pregnancy sickness has adapti value is curently being debated. It has been speculated, f example, that pregnancy sickness may prevent ingestion certain foods that may contain toxic alkaloid compounds orth Caty parasites or other-infectious organisms that could ha the developing fetus.Table: Major pregnancy hormones and their roles. Features | * tis secreted by seta trophoblast cels and sist detectable 8-9 days after owlation * Prevent degradation of the corpus luteum, therefore allowing the corpus luteum to maintain progesterone levels. Progesterone is imy portant for endometrial growth and prevention of menstruation, which is crucial for implantation of the blastocyst hCG maintains the decicual cells in the eni about 3 to 4 months (after which progesterc ACG also has a thyrotropic effect, which res o Wdometrial lining via sustained production of progesterore for jone production is taken over by the placenta, ults in increased thyroid size and thyroxine production. ic somatomammotropin (ncs) Human chi Estrogen ACS is a protein hormone produced by the Closely related to prolactin and GH * Believed to be involved in breast development and lactation. This action of hCS has been proven in animal models, but has not been shown to cause lactation in humans, Due to this function, ACS was initially known a human placental lactogen (HPL), Hlacenta from approximately the Sth week of pregnancy, Itis Ant-insuln effects and decreased insulin sensitivity inthe mother: the developing fetus, which ses glucose as its major substiate for growth, ACS increases levels of free fatty acids in the ‘mother providing an alternative source of ‘energy during pregnancy. Heroge,s secreted by the synctal tophobast cel, and is derived fiom androgen steroid precursors Gehydroepiandrosterone and hydroxydehydoepiandrosterone These are then converte estradiol, estrone and estriol by the trophoblast cell, Responsible for enlargement ofthe uterus breasts and breast cucsas wll asthe external genitalia of the mother faes.he ease of parturition via relaxation ofthe pevcigaments inthe mother which allows the sacoliac | Joints and the pubic symphysis to become more limber Do not cause contraction of uterus, but increase the increasing the number of prostaglandin/oxytocin rece Increases sensitivity of myometrit ‘This avails larger quantities of glucose to Capacity for contraction by the myometrial lining by *ptors and gap junctions, : ium to both mechanical and chemical stimulation Progesterone {radesterone is required if pregnancy sto be steal Tis related is elec oo Gathhe nother and the developing embryo, * Stimulates development of decidual cals in thé endometrium: » * Prevents spontaneous abortions by Inhibiting any contractile actian of the uterus, Increases secretions of:the uterine tubes in’ the mother, which provide nutrition for'the embryo. May also have an effect on cell cleavage in the embryo, " 43 Duration of pregnancy week Fig.: Rates of secretion of est soya Works synetglsticaly with estrogen to prepare for lactation: ‘by causing proliferation of the breast lobules, | _-. Pregnancy test Aes Pregnancy testis any of several methods used todemonstrate: ‘whether or not 3 woman. ‘spregnant. Most pregnancy tests ‘te‘based of the detection of hormone, human chorionic {gonadotrophin (hCG), in the urine. The sample of urine 'S mixed: with: serum. containing, antibodies to hCG and ‘Tharker particles. (sheep red cells or latex Particles) coated With NCG.n the, absence of pregnancy, the antibodies will. tination of the marker particles, If the urine is Atom a presnant woman, the antbodies wll be absorbed and No agglutination will occur These tests may be positive for. pregnancy’ as early ds 30: days after the date of the Fast normal period and are 98% accurate Newer tests Progesterone (mg/24 hr) Estrogens (mg/24 he 12 16 20 24 28 2 36 40 stogens and progesterone, and concentration ‘Using “monoclonal antibodies" (beta hCG) are more asily | human chronic gonadotropin at diferent stages of pregnang,. interpreted. When: carried out on Serum rather than te | these'tests give ever earlier positive results...