§ What is evolution?
§ Adaptation and natural selection
§ Evolution of antibiotic resistance: evolution in a mega plate Petri dish
An owlet moth
A mite A bat
Is a host for Is a prey for
this parasite this predator
Mite lays eggs in only one ear of the moth
Moth uses the other ear to escape from the bat
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
What is happening to the SARS CoV-2
virus to cause these waves of infection?
Delta wave
Omicron wave
[Link]
Lactose tolerant
Lactose intolerant [Link]
§ Lactase persistence
• A dominant Mendelian trait
• Confers the ability to digest the milk sugar lactose in adults
§ Frequency of this trait has increased in the last 20,000 years in
central and northern Europeans
• Likely to have conferred a selective advantage in individuals
who consume appreciable amounts of unfermented milk
Evolution is the process of change that has transformed
life on earth from early beginnings to what it is today
§ Study of virus evolution, cancer progression, bacterial drug
resistance, etc. can save thousands of lives
§ Evolutionary concepts are a major part of modern biology
experiments
§ Essential for the progress of biology
Evolution is the fundamental organizing principle of biology
Nothing in biology makes sense
except in the light of evolution
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Ukranian / Russian
1900-1975
Image: Wikipedia
On
THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION
OR THE
PRESERVATION OF FAVORED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE
FOR LIFE
By Charles Darwin
1859
Image taken from the Internet
§ Organisms that can interbreed in nature and produce viable,
fertile offspring constitute a species
§ Organisms that divide to multiply: excluded from this definition!
Some new observations may not conform to the above definition
Test of time is awaited
Offspring of a male donkey and a female horse: mule
Offspring of a female donkey and a male horse: hinny
Both mule and hinny are sterile i.e., not fertile
Donkey and horse are distinct species
A complete definition: A biological species is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature
and produce viable, fertile offspring but do not produce viable, fertile offspring with members of other such groups
Similarity between different
species
Eastern meadowlark Western meadowlark
Sturnella magna Sturnella neglecta
Similar: body shape, coloration
Not similar: songs and other behaviour
Cannot interbreed
Figure 24.2 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Diversity within a species
Figure 24.2 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Darwin presented evidence that the today’s
organisms are descendants of ancestral species
Darwin proposed a mechanism for the
evolutionary process: natural selection
Image taken from the Internet
Before Darwin
Religious belief that God created animals, plants, etc.
Darwin in 1840,
after his return
December 1831–October 1836
HMS Beagle in port
from the
voyage
Great
Britain EUROPE
NORTH
AMERICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
The AFRICA
PACIFIC
Galápagos Pinta OCEAN
Islands
Genovesa Equator
Marchena
SOUTH Malay
Equator AMERICA
Santiago Archipelago PACIFIC
OCEAN
Andes Mtns.
Daphne
Islands Chile Brazil
Fernandina
Pinzón AUSTRALIA
Isabela Santa Santa
PACIFIC Cape of
Cruz Fe San OCEAN Good Hope
Cristobal
0 20 40 Argentina Tasmania
Florenza Española
Kilometers
Cape Horn New
Zealand
Figure 22.5 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Darwin saw many different animals and birds
Many endemic species are still found
Land iguana Giant tortoise
Great frigate bird
[Link] [Link] [Link]
§ Darwin collected birds, insects, spiders, plants, and fossils
§ These specimens came from all over the world
§ Especially from islands i.e., isolated populations
Image taken from the Internet
Species: Cactus ground finch
Beak: Long and sharp
Adaptation for: tearing and eating
cactus flowers and pulp
Cactus eater
Geospiza scandens
Figure 22.6 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Species: Green warbler finch
Beak: Narrow and pointed
Adaptation for: grasping insects
Insect eater
Certhidea olivacea
Figure 22.6 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Species: Large ground finch
Beak: Large but short
Adaptation for: cracking open seeds
that fall onto the ground from trees
Seed eater
Geospiza magnirostris
Figure 22.6 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Adaptation
Inherited characteristics of organisms
that enhance their
survival and reproduction
in specific environments
Charles Darwin
In this case: a trait that provides better camouflage
Observation #1
Members of a population often
vary in their inherited traits
Beetles that camouflage well have
lesser chances of being predated
They out-survive those which do
not camouflage well Asian ladybird beetles
Figure 22.10 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Individuals whose inherited
traits give them
a higher probability of
surviving and reproducing
in a given environment
tend to leave more offspring
than other individuals
Asian ladybird beetles
Figure 22.10 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
§ The enzyme that replicates DNA makes mistakes!
§ Estimated error rate: ∼1 for every 104 – 105 nucleotides added.
• Error rate varies for enzymes from different sources
§ Number of errors (for a diploid mammalian cell): at least 100,000
and up to 1,000,000
• Many errors are repaired by the cell, but some errors remain
• Basis of variability
Observation #2
All species produce more offspring spore cloud
than their environment can support
Many (or most) of these offspring fail
to survive and reproduce puffball
fungus
Figure 22.11 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Unequal ability of individuals
to survive and reproduce in a given environment
leads to accumulation of favorable traits spore cloud
in the population over generations
puffball
fungus
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766 –1834)
British Economist
Populations increase exponentially when food supply increases linearly
Figure 22.11 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Location: Daphne Major Island
Medium ground finch
part of the Galapagos islands
Figure 23.1 in Biology. A global approach
Medium ground finch Before a long drought in 1977
∼1200 birds
After the drought
∼180 birds survived
During drought
Small, soft seeds in short supply
Large, hard seeds were plentiful
Figure 23.1 in Biology. A global approach
Average beak depth (mm)
10
Medium ground finch
0
1976 1978
(similar to the (after
Finch population evolved prior 3 years) drought)
by natural selection
Figures 23.1 and 23.2 in Biology. A global approach
Medium ground finch Individual finches did NOT evolve!
Each bird had a beak of a particular size,
which did NOT grow larger during the
drought.
Rather, the proportion of birds with
large beaks in the population increased
from generation to generation
i.e., the population evolved, not its
individual members.
Finch population evolved
by natural selection Figure 23.1 in Biology. A global approach
Two populations of mice that belong to the same species Peromyscus polionotus
Florida
Inland population
GULF OF
MEXICO Beach
population
Beach population Inland population
Figure 1.24 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
§ Hypothesis
Coloration provides camouflage and hence protection from predation
§ Experimental design
1. Spray-paint mouse models to match colour patterns of mice
population
2. Place equal number of both models randomly in each of the two
habitats
3. Count damaged or missing models the next morning
Beach habitat
100
attacked models
Percentage of
§ Mouse models resembling the
50
native mice in the beach habitat
are the control group
0
§ Mouse models resembling the
native mice in the inland habitat
are the experimental group
Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged
(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)
Figure 1.25 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Beach habitat
100
attacked models
Percentage of
50 § Observations: Brown coated mice
models had more predation than
0 white coated mice
• Bites and gouge marks +
disappearance
Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged
(control) (experimental) (experimental) (control)
Figure 1.25 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Inland habitat Inland habitat
100
attacked models
Percentage of
§ Mouse models resembling the
50 native mice in the inland habitat
are the control group
0
Dark models Light models
Light models Dark models
Dark models § Mouse
Light models models
Dark resembling
models the
native mice in the beach habitat
are the experimental group
on-camouflaged Camouflaged
Non-camouflagedNon-camouflaged
Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged
experimental) (control)
(experimental) (experimental)
(control) (experimental) (control)
Figure 1.25 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
Inland habitat Inland habitat
100
attacked models
Percentage of
50 § Observations: White coated mice
models had more predation than
0 white coated mice
Dark models Light models
Light models Dark models
Dark models Light models Dark models
• Bites and gouge marks +
disappearance
on-camouflaged Camouflaged
Non-camouflagedNon-camouflaged
Camouflaged Non-camouflaged Camouflaged
experimental) (control)
(experimental) (experimental)
(control) (experimental) (control)
Figure 1.25 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
§ Hypothesis
• Coloration provides camouflage and hence protection from predation
§ Experimental design
• Predation of spray-painted mouse models that match colour patterns
of mice population
§ Inference
• “Fitness” (= ability to leave offspring) depends upon how well coat
colour matched the environment
• Natural selection
Natural selection
Individuals with certain traits
tend to survive and reproduce
at higher rates
because of such traits
Charles Darwin
(1809-1882)
1 of 4. Variation
§ Organisms within populations exhibit individual variation in
appearance and behaviour
§ Variations may involve body size, hair color, facial markings,
voice properties, or number of offspring.
§ Some traits show little to no variation among individuals e.g.,
number of eyes in vertebrates
2 of 4. Inheritance
§ Some traits are consistently passed on from parent to offspring
§ Some other traits are strongly influenced by environmental
conditions
§ These traits are selected by evolution (Darwin vs. Lamarck)
3 of 4. High rate of population growth
§ Most populations have more offspring each year than local
resources can support
§ This leads to a struggle for resources
§ Each generation experiences substantial mortality
4 of 4. Differential survival and reproduction
§ Individuals possessing traits well suited for the struggle for local
resources will contribute more offspring to the next generation
Concept 22.2 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition), p478
1. Natural selection occurs through interactions between individuals and their
environment but
individuals do NOT evolve; populations evolve over time
2. Natural selection can amplify or diminish only those heritable traits that
differ among the individuals in a population
3. Environmental factors vary from place to place, and over time
Traits favorable in one place / time, may be useless or detrimental at some
other place / time
Humans have modified other species over many generations by
selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits
Cabbage
Selection
Brussels for apical
sprouts (tip) bud
Selection for Broccoli
axillary (side)
Selection for
buds
flowers and stems
Selection
Selection for stems
for leaves
Kale Wild mustard Kohlrabi
Figure 22.9 in Campbell Biology by Reece et al., (10th edition)
[Link]
Experimental set up: a
gradient of antibiotic from
the edges to the center of
the Petri dish
No antibiotic
Barely more than what
an E. coli can survive
[Link]
1. Growth by binary division
2. Mutations take place by
design
a) DNA polymerase is
error-prone
b) Makes mistakes during
replication
c) These mistakes are
what we call as
mutations
3. Mutations are cumulative
• Back mutations are
possible
4. Out of the millions of
progeny, a handful become
capable of withstanding
higher concentration of
antibiotic
• This is a truly chance
event
5. Progeny of resistant
mutants survive
• Others get eliminated
• Selection
6. Progeny of resistant
mutants thrive
• No competition for
resources
• Growth is vigorous
7. Mutations continue to
accumulate
• Back mutations (=
revertants) are possible
8. Out of the millions of
progeny, a handful become
capable of withstanding
higher concentrations of
antibiotic
• Another chance event
§ Evolution: what, how, and why
• A couple of definitions – emphasis varies
§ A couple of observations in support of evolution
§ Experiment to demonstrate how bacteria may evolve
• Emergence of antibiotic resistance
