Chapter: 2

Co-ordinate Systems and Map Projections

Introduction:
A coordinate system in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a framework used to
define locations on the Earth's surface. It provides a way to measure positions in a
consistent, standardized manner, enabling spatial data to be accurately represented and
analyzed. Coordinate systems are essential for mapping, navigation, and spatial analysis.
Data is defined in both horizontal and vertical coordinate systems. Horizontal coordinate
systems locate data across the surface of the earth, and vertical coordinate systems
locate the relative height or depth of data. Coordinate system provide a way to assign
unique coordinate (x, y,z) to every point on the earth.
Since the Earth is spherical or, more correctly, ellipsoidal, and usually we work with
plane coordinate representations, geographic data must be projected from ellipsoidal
coordinates to plane coordinates. This transformation is referred to as map projection,
which is defined as a systematic transformation of ellipsoidal coordinates of latitude and
longitude to a plane coordinate representation.
2.1 Fundamentals of coordinate systems:
The fundamentals of coordinate systems in Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
refer to the basic concepts that allow us to define and represent locations on the Earth's
surface. These systems are the foundation of spatial data and are crucial for mapping,
navigation, and geographic analysis.
In Nepal most of the spatial data and maps are based
on two Global Coordinate System (GCS) as a reference. The first one is Everest 1830
which is mostly used in topographic maps and maps produced by governmental agencies
like Department of Survey. The second one is WGS84 as most of the images and maps
available over the internet are referenced in this system.

Figure: Geographic reference system with coordinates of latitude and longitude

Some key elements of coordinate system are given below:
1. Coordinate Axes:
➢ X-axis: Typically represents the east-west direction.
➢ Y-axis: Typically represents the north-south direction.
➢ 2D Cartesian coordinate system, these axes form a grid on the map.
➢ 3D systems, a Z-axis is added to represent elevation or depth.

Figure: coordinate axes

2. Origin:
➢ The point where the coordinate axes intersect is called the origin.
➢ In a Geographic Coordinate System (GCS), the origin often refers to the
intersection of the Equator (0° latitude) and the Prime Meridian (0°
longitude), which is at Greenwich, England.

3. Coordinate Units:
➢ Degrees: In Geographic Coordinate Systems, locations are measured in
angular units—degrees of latitude and longitude.
➢ Meters or Feet: In a Projected Coordinate System (PCS), positions are
usually given in linear units like meters or feet, suitable for 2D mapping.

2.2 Geographic and Projected Coordinate System:

❖ Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) is a reference system used to define
locations on the Earth's surface using angular measurements of latitude and
longitude. It is one of the primary coordinate systems used in Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and provides a way to describe positions in a global,
three-dimensional context. The GCS uses a network of imaginary lines
(longitude and latitude) to define locations. This network is called a graticule.
Latitude:
➢ Latitude measures the angular distance of a point north or south of the Equator.
➢ Values range from 0° at the Equator to +90° at the North Pole and -90° at the South
Pole.
➢ Also called parallels.
➢ Run horizontally around the Earth.
➢ Examples:
o Equator (0°): Divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres.
o Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) and Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S).
o Arctic Circle (66.5° N) and Antarctic Circle (66.5° S).

Figure: Latitude

Longitude:
➢ Longitude measures the angular distance of a point east or west of the Prime
Meridian.
➢ Values range from 0° at the Prime Meridian to +180° east and -180° west.
➢ Also called meridians.
➢ Run vertically from the North Pole to the South Pole.
➢ Examples:
o Prime Meridian (0°): Passes through Greenwich, England.
o International Date Line (~180°): Opposite the Prime Meridian.

Figure: Longitude
 Projected Coordinate System is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface. Unlike a
geographic coordinate system, a projected coordinate system has constant lengths,
angles, and areas across the two dimensions. A projected coordinate system is always
based on a geographic coordinate system that is based on a sphere or spheroid.
Projected coordinate systems provide several advantages for mapping and spatial
analysis. Calculations of distances between points are straightforward and accurate
in a PCS. Similarly, calculations of areas are relatively easy, which is essential when
measuring land areas or determining the size of spatial features. Graphic
representations on maps and screens are also more realistic when using a PCS, as long
as the area covered is not too large.
Difference between Geographic and Projected Coordinate System:
S. Aspect Geographic Coordinate System Projected Coordinate System
N (GCS) (PCS)
1. Definition Represents the Earth's surface Represents the Earth's surface on a
using latitude and longitude on a
flat, 2D plane using a map
spherical or ellipsoidal model. projection.
2. Coordinate Degrees (latitude and longitude).
Linear units like meters, feet, or
Units kilometers.
3. Surface Curved (3D, based on a sphere or Flat (2D, planar representation)
Representation ellipsoid).
4. Accuracy Accurate for global locations but Accurate for local/regional areas but
unsuitable for precise introduces distortions based on the
measurements of distance, area, or projection used.
angles.
5. No projection distortion; only Distortion depends on the type of
Distortion reflects Earth's shape projection (shape, area, distance, or
approximation. direction).
6. Suitable for local or regional
Suitable for global-scale mapping
Applications mapping requiring precise
(e.g., GPS, satellite data).
measurements.
7. UTM, State Plane, Web Mercator,
Examples WGS84, NAD83, ETRS89.
Lambert Conformal Conic.
8. Uses mathematical transformations
Mathematical Uses spherical/ellipsoidal
to project the curved surface onto a
Basis coordinates.
plane.
9. Locations are represented as Locations are represented as points
Visualization
points on a globe or ellipsoid. on a flat, Cartesian grid.
2.3 Coordinate transformations and map projections:
Coordinate transformations and map projections are essential concepts in geodesy,
cartography, and GIS (Geographic Information Systems). These processes convert
spatial data from one form or coordinate system to another, enabling accurate
mapping, analysis, and visualization.

Coordinate transformations:
Coordinate transformations involve converting coordinates between different spatial
reference systems. This process includes transformations between geographic
coordinate systems (GCS) and/or projected coordinate systems (PCS).
Types of Transformations:
1. Geodetic Datum Transformation:
✓ Converts coordinates from one datum to another (e.g., from NAD83 to
WGS84).
✓ Necessary because different datums define Earth's shape and size
differently.
✓ Example Methods:
❖ 3-Parameter Transformation (translation only):
The 3-Parameter Transformation is a simple geodetic transformation method used
to convert coordinates between two different geodetic datums. It involves shifting
the origin of one coordinate system to align with another by applying translations in
three dimensions: X, Y, and Z.
❖ How its work:
The transformation shifts the coordinates of a point from one datum to another
using three translation parameters:
• ΔX: Translation along the X-axis.
• ΔY: Translation along the Y-axis.
• ΔZ: Translation along the Z-axis
The new coordinates (X′,Y′,Z′)(X', Y', Z')(X′,Y′,Z′) are calculated using the original
coordinates (X,Y,Z)(X, Y, Z)(X,Y,Z) as follows:
X′=X + ΔX
Y’=Y + ΔY
Z’=Z + ΔZ
Where:
➢ (X, Y, Z): Coordinates in the source datum.
➢ (X′, Y′, Z′): Coordinates in the target datum.
➢ (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ): Translation parameters defining the shift between the
two datums.
❖ 7-Parameter Transformation (Translation, Rotation, and Scale Factor):

The 7-Parameter Transformation is a more sophisticated geodetic transformation

method used to convert coordinates between two different geodetic datums. Unlike the
simpler 3-Parameter Transformation, it includes translation, rotation, and scale
factor adjustments to account for differences in position, orientation, and scale between
two coordinate systems.
Parameters of the Transformation:
The 7-Parameter Transformation uses the following adjustments:
➢ Translation Parameters (ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ):
▪ Shift the origin of one datum to align with the other along the X, Y, and Z
axes.
➢ Rotation Parameters (R_X, R_Y, R_Z):
▪ Correct for the difference in orientation (tilt) between the two datums.
▪ Rotations are applied around the X, Y, and Z axes in radians or arc-
seconds.
➢ Scale Factor (ΔS):
▪ Adjusts for differences in scale between the datums.
▪ Expressed as a small value in parts per million (ppm).
Steps of the Transformation
• Translate the original coordinates by applying ΔX, ΔY, ΔZ
• Rotate the coordinates to correct for misalignment between the datums.
• Scale the coordinates to match the size of the target datum.

❖ Grid-Based Transformations (Uses Interpolation for Precise Shifts):

A grid-based transformation is a geodetic transformation method that uses
precomputed grids of transformation parameters (such as shifts in latitude,
longitude, and height) to achieve high precision. This method is especially useful
for transforming coordinates between datums or reference systems that have
complex, localized distortions not captured by simple mathematical
transformations like the 3- or 7-parameter methods.

Precision: Achieves sub-meter or even millimeter-level accuracy. Especially

valuable for high-accuracy applications like cadastral mapping, engineering, and
geodetic surveys.

Interpolation: Grid files contain transformation values at predefined grid points.

Interpolation (e.g., bilinear or bicubic interpolation) is used to estimate
transformation values for coordinates located between grid points.
Localized Distortions: Accounts for irregularities caused by variations in the Earth's
crust, measurement errors, or differences in how datums were defined. Particularly
useful for transformations involving regional datums.

❖ Interpolation Methods:
✓ Bilinear Interpolation: Uses the values of four surrounding grid
points to calculate the shift for the desired location. Suitable for
regular grids with small grid spacing.
✓ Bicubic Interpolation: Uses 16 surrounding grid points for smoother
results. Better for larger grid spacing or when higher precision is
needed.
✓ Nearest Neighbor: Uses the shift value of the nearest grid point. Less
accurate but computationally simpler.
2. Coordinate System Conversion:
✓ Converts between GCS (latitude/longitude) and PCS (X, Y on a plane).
✓ Example: Converting from WGS84 (GCS) to UTM Zone 33N (PCS).
3. Affine Transformation:
✓ Used to adjust local datasets, applying translation, rotation, scaling, and
shearing.
✓ Commonly used in image georeferencing.

Map Projections:
A map projection is the process of transforming and representing positions from the
earth's three-dimensional curved surface to a two-dimensional (flat) surface. Since the
Earth is a sphere or ellipsoid, this transformation inevitably introduces distortions.
Distortion:
When transforming coordinates or projecting maps, distortions occur due to the
challenge of representing the 3D Earth on a 2D plane. These distortions affect distance,
shape, area, and direction, depending on the type of projection or transformation used.

Causes of Distortions:
a. Flattening a spherical surface onto a
plane inherently causes distortions,
b. Transforming between datums (e.g.,
WGS84 to NAD83) can introduce
errors.
c. Different projections preserve some
properties while distorting others.
d. In grid-based transformations,
interpolation can introduce minor
inaccuracies.
Why Map Projections?
The shape of the earth is spherical, therefore the best model that used to represent the
earth is a globe, Disadvantage of the model:
❖ Difficult to handling,
❖ Having problem to make measurement on it (e.g. distance, area, angle).

Types of Map Projection:

1. Cylindrical Projections:
Cylindrical projections are a class of map projections that represent the Earth's
surface by projecting it onto a cylinder. These projections are widely used in
navigation, world maps, and GIS applications due to their ease of use and ability
to represent large areas.

❖ Key Features of Cylindrical Projections:

✓ Straight latitude and longitude lines (Meridians and parallels intersect at right
angles).
✓ Distortions increase towards the poles due to stretching.
✓ Used for navigation, world maps, and thematic mapping.
 2. Conic Projections:
Conic projections are map projections where the Earth's surface is projected
onto a cone placed over the globe. The cone is then unrolled into a flat map,
making it suitable for mid-latitude regions.

❖ Key Features of Conic Projections:

✓ The cone is placed over the Earth, touching at one or two standard parallels.
✓ Good for mid-latitude regions (e.g., USA, Europe, China).
✓ Distortion increases away from standard parallels (Minimal near standard
parallels).
✓ Meridians converge at a point, while parallels are concentric arcs.

3. Azimuthal (Planar) Projections:

Azimuthal (Planar) projections project the Earth's surface onto a flat plane,
usually touching the globe at a single point. These projections are ideal for
mapping polar regions and radio wave transmissions.
❖ Key Features of Azimuthal Projections:
✓ Plane touches the Earth at a single point (Tangent) or cuts through (Secant).
✓ Distances from the center are accurate.
✓ Distortion increases away from the center.
✓ Used for polar maps, air navigation, and radio signal coverage.

2.4 Commonly Used Map Projections

A map projection is a method of representing the Earth's curved surface on a flat map.
Different projections serve different purposes, balancing area, shape, distance, and
direction.
Here are the most commonly used types:
1. Cylindrical Projections:
➢ Mercator Projection:
• Preserves: Shape and direction
• Distorts: Area (polar regions appear much larger)
• Common Use: Navigation maps
➢ Transverse Mercator Projection:
• Preserves: Shape and direction along a central meridian
• Distorts: Scale away from the central meridian
• Common Use: Topographic and cadastral mapping (e.g.,
UTM system)
2. Conic Projections
➢ Lambert Conformal Conic:
• Preserves: Shape
• Distorts: Scale and distance away from standard parallels
• Common Use: Aeronautical charts, mid-latitude regions.
➢ Albers Equal-Area Conic:
• Preserves: Area
• Distorts: Shape
• Common Use: Thematic and population density maps
3. Azimuthal (Planar) Projections:
➢ Stereographic Projection:
• Preserves: Shape
• Distorts: Area and distance
• Common Use: Polar region mapping
➢ Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area:
• Preserves: Area
• Distorts: Shape, especially near edges
• Common Use: Global and continental maps.
❖ Datum:
A datum is a reference system used to model the Earth's shape and provide a
framework for geographic coordinates. It defines the position of the origin,
orientation, and scale of a coordinate system.
❖ Why is Datum Important in GIS?
• Ensures accurate positioning of spatial data.
• Helps avoid coordinate mismatches when using different datasets.
• Necessary for precise applications like GPS navigation, surveying, and remote sensing.

2.5 Georeferencing and spatial adjustment:

Georeferencing: Georeferencing is the process of aligning spatial data (such as
raster images, scanned maps, or aerial photos) to a known coordinate system so that it
can be used in GIS.
Steps in Georeferencing:
1. Selecting Control Points:
• Identify known locations (latitude/longitude or projected coordinates) on
both the raster image and the reference dataset.
2. Choosing a Transformation Method:
• Common transformations include:
✓ Affine Transformation (scaling, rotating, and skewing)
✓ Polynomial Transformation (higher-order warping)
✓ Rubber Sheeting (localized adjustments)
3. Adjusting and Applying the Transformation:
• The system computes a mathematical relationship to fit the image to the
coordinate system.
4. Resampling the Image:
• The pixels are re-interpolated using methods like:
✓ Nearest Neighbor (preserves original values, used for categorical data)
✓ Bilinear Interpolation (smoothes edges, used for continuous data)
✓ Cubic Convolution (produces the smoothest result).
Why is Georeferencing Important?
➢ Allows overlaying of raster images with vector data.
➢ Enables integration of old maps, satellite images, and remote sensing data
in GIS.
➢ Essential for accurate spatial analysis.

Spatial Adjustment: Spatial adjustment is the process of refining spatial data

(such as vector layers) to improve accuracy or align with other datasets. It corrects
distortions in maps due to errors in projection, scale, or digitization.
Types of Spatial Adjustment:
1. Transformation:
➢ Moves, scales, and rotates an entire dataset.
➢ Example: Aligning an old cadastral map with a modern GIS base map.
 2. Rubber Sheeting (Non-Uniform Adjustment):
➢ Warps a dataset to fit control points while preserving local accuracy.
➢ Example: Adjusting a scanned paper map to match GPS data.
3. Edge Matching:
➢ Aligns boundary features from different map sheets to create seamless
datasets.
➢ Example: Fixing misaligned roads at the edges of two map sheets.
4. Conflation
➢ Merging multiple datasets by correcting discrepancies in geometry and
attributes.
➢ Example: Combining Road networks from different sources.
Why is Spatial Adjustment Important?
➢ Ensures consistency between spatial datasets.
➢ Reduces errors due to misalignment.
➢ Improves the accuracy of spatial analysis and decision-making.

Question: Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the Mercator

projection for world maps.
Ans:
The Mercator projection is one of the most widely used map projections, especially for
navigation. However, it has both advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages of the Mercator Projection
➢ The Mercator projection maintains accurate local shapes and angles, making it
useful for navigation and maritime purposes.
➢ On a Mercator map, lines of constant compass bearing (rhumb lines) appear as
straight lines, simplifying navigation for sailors and pilots.
➢ Many people are accustomed to Mercator maps due to their historical use in
education and global mapping.
➢ Many online maps (e.g., Google Maps) use a modified Mercator projection,
making it easy for users to interpret and navigate.

Disadvantages of the Mercator Projection

➢ The Mercator projection greatly distorts the size of landmasses, especially near
the poles. Greenland, for example, appears much larger than Africa, even though
Africa is about 14 times bigger.
➢ The distortion of land area can lead to misconceptions about the relative
importance or power of different regions, as northern countries appear larger
than they actually are.
➢ Since it exaggerates the size of regions near the poles, the Mercator projection is
not ideal for accurately depicting global distributions of land, climate, or
population.
 ➢ Countries like Canada, Russia, and Antarctica appear disproportionately large,
while equatorial regions like Africa and South America seem smaller than they
are.
Conclusion

The Mercator projection is highly useful for navigation but is problematic for general
world maps due to its distortion of size and area. For accurate global representations,
alternative projections like the Gall-Peters, Robinson, or Winkel Tripel are often
preferred.

Question:
You are tasked with creating a GIS map of an area with significant elevation
changes. Which projection would best preserve the area, shape and why?

Answer: When creating a GIS map of an area with significant elevation changes,
the best projection depends on the specific needs of the project. However, for
preserving area and shape while minimizing distortion, the following projections
are ideal:

Best Projection Choices:

1. Albers Equal-Area Conic Projection

➢ Why? This projection preserves area, making it suitable for large regions
with elevation changes, such as mountainous terrain. It minimizes
distortion in mid-latitude regions, making it ideal for countries like the
U.S., Canada, and China.
➢ Use Case: Best for thematic and topographic mapping where area
accuracy is important.
2. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
➢ Why? This projection preserves shape while minimizing distortion over
mid-latitude regions. It is commonly used for topographic maps and
aeronautical charts.
➢ Use Case: Ideal when shape accuracy is more critical than area
preservation, such as in detailed elevation mapping for engineering
projects.
3. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Projection
➢ Why? UTM divides the Earth into small zones (6° wide longitude
strips), reducing distortion significantly for local-scale mapping. It
provides accurate area and shape over small regions.
➢ Use Case: Suitable for large-scale, high-precision GIS mapping,
especially for regions with significant elevation variations.
Final Recommendation
➢ If the goal is to preserve area over a large region, Albers Equal-Area
Conic is the best choice.
➢ If shape is more important, especially for elevation models, Lambert
Conformal Conic works well.
➢ For small-scale detailed mapping, UTM is the most practical choice.