Introduction
The Earth formed around 4.6 billion years ago from space dust surrounding the
Sun. The clumps of space dust are called planetesimals; the largest became the planets
we know today.
Layers of Planet Earth
The Core
The innermost part of the Earth consists of the solid inner core and the liquid
outer core. This layer is responsible for the Earth’s magnetic field in a process called
Geodynamo. The Earth's core makes up 16% of its volume and 3% of its mass.
- Inner Core - A solid core of the Earth that is made up of iron and nickel.
- Outer Core - The liquid part of the core of the Earth that is also made up of iron
and nickel with the addition of oxygen and sulfur, making the freezing point of the
metals lower, keeping it liquid.
In Geodynamo, as the heat escapes to the crust of the Earth, the metals from the
Inner Core melt and rise to the Outer Core, where they start to become solid again and
sink right back down. The constant cycle of going up and down creates mechanical
energy that gets converted to electricity, generating the planet’s electromagnetic field.
The Mantle
The largest layer of the Earth makes up 82% of the planet’s volume and 68% of
its mass. The mantle is divided into three parts and is mostly made up of magnesium
and other iron-rich minerals. The mantle is also responsible for the movement of
Tectonic Plates.
- D Double Prime - The place where the mantle meets the outer core.
- Lower Mantle - A solid layer of the mantle that cannot melt due to the extreme
pressure in this layer.
- Upper Mantle - Consists of two parts; the Lithosphere which is solid and the
Asthenosphere which is liquid.
The Crust
The thinnest layer of the Earth consists of the remaining volume and mass of the
planet. It is a layer made up of multiple plates that constantly move. The plates itself
has two classifications.
- Continental Crust - The less dense plate of the crust, it is the very land we stand
on.
- Oceanic Crust - The denser plate of the crust, it is usually under the ocean and
made up of similar minerals as the mantle.
How Do Scientists Measure The Earth’s
History?
Geologic Time Scale
For the scientists to determine the age of the Earth or the land, they observe the
radioactive isotopes in the land to determine the age of the land. Generally, scientists
have discovered three major time brackets on the Earth.
1. Archean Period - The oldest period of the Earth, consisting of the time when the
Earth has just formed.
2. Proterozoic Period - The second oldest period of the Earth, consisting of the
time when the Earth starts to become stable and habitable.
3. Phanerozoic Period - The most recent period of the Earth, consisting of the time
when the Earth starts to harbor life. This period is also separated into three major
periods.
- Paleozoic Period - The period where life only thrives in the ocean.
- Mesozoic - The period where life starts to thrive on land.
- Cenozoic - The period where life starts to develop further inland until the
present day.
Plate Tectonics
The Earth’s plate tectonics are also called the crust. It sits right on top of the
liquid Asthenosphere. These plates are separated into 7 massive pieces with several
smaller pieces. The movement of the plate tectonics is caused by the convergent
currents in the mantle.
Major Plates:
1. African Plate
2. Antarctic Plate
3. Eurasian Plate
4. Indo-Australian Plate
5. North American Plate
6. South American Plate
7. Pacific Plate
Minor Plates (examples):
1. Arabian Plate
2. Caribbean Plate
3. Nazca Plate
4. Philippine Plate
5. Scotia Plate
Plate Boundaries
The three different plate boundaries explain why mountain ranges and deep
trenches come into existence.
Convergent Boundaries
Two plates moving towards each other. Two continental plates moving towards
each other will create mountain ranges while a continental plate moving towards an
oceanic plate will cause the denser oceanic plate to sink to the asthenosphere, creating
deep ocean trenches. Meanwhile, the part of the oceanic crust that sinks to the
asthenosphere will melt and rise to the surface as magma, creating volcanoes.
Divergent Boundaries
Two plates that move away from each other. It is usually because of rising
magma from the mantle. This process will either result in deep ridges or volcanoes.
Transform Boundaries
Two plates that slide on each other. This process causes frequent earthquakes
and creates fault lines.
Continental Drift Theory
A theory proposed by Alfred Wegener in the 1913s that hopes to prove the
movement of the tectonic plates. He proposed several pieces of evidence to back up his
claim;
1. Mountain ranges of identical rock types are found on both opposite sides of the
Atlantic Ocean.
2. Ancient fossils of the same species found in rocks of similar ages are found in
continents that are widely separated.
3. Grooves and rock deposits left by glaciers are found near the equator.
4. Ancient coral reef seams and reefs are found in places much too cold for them to
thrive on.
Rock Cycle
Rocks found in the crust can be classified into three types; igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks. These three types of rocks make up the rock cycle.
Igneous Rocks
Rocks that were once magma/lava that eventually cooled down. Igneous rocks
are classified into two; if magma cools down slowly under the Earth, it is an intrusive
igneous rock while if lava cools down fast on the surface, it is an extrusive igneous
rock.
Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks that were formed under the ocean by different materials clumped together
and solidified through cementation and compaction in a process called lithification.
These materials can be other rock types that are weathered down, organic materials, or
deposited minerals.
Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks go through a process called
metamorphism when they change in response to elevated temperature, intense
pressure, and chemical influence.
Internal Processes of the Rock Cycle
- Melting
- Metamorphism
- Plate tectonic movements
External Processes of the Rock Cycle
Weathering - The process in which rocks break down into smaller pieces
1. Physical Weathering
- Abrasion - Rocks are worn down by wind, water, or ice.
- Frost Wedging - Water freezes inside rocks, breaking them.
- Thermal Stress - Rapid changes in temperature cause rocks to expand
and contract, breaking them.
2. Chemical Weathering
- Oxidation - Iron-rich minerals react with oxygen to form rust.
- Carbonation - Carbon dioxide mixes with rainwater to form soluble
compounds when it interacts with other minerals.
- Hydrolysis - Water reacts with minerals to form new minerals.
3. Biological Weathering
- Root-Wedging - Plants break rocks as they wedge their roots.
- Burrowing Animals - Animals break rocks when they burrow into the
ground.
Erosion
1. Water Erosion
- Splash - Raindrops displace the soil.
- Sheet - Floods wash away the soil.
- Rill - As floods get worse, channels form and speed up the erosion.
- Gully - A larger rill.
2. Wind Erosion
3. Glacial Erosion
4. Mass Washing
Soil Formation
Soil formation occurs when small rock particles gather due to erosion or
weathering, as well as additional organic material from dead organisms or their body
wastes.
Soil Horizon
- O Horizon - Organic layer of the soil, composed of organic matter.
- A Horizon or Topsoil - A mixture of minerals and organic matter, most biological
activities occur in this layer, and are dark in color.
- E Horizon or Eluviated - Often light-colored, composed of clay and iron oxides,
not always present in soil profiles.
- B Horizon or Subsoil - Accumulates clay and other minerals from the surface,
denser and less organic.
- C Horizon or Parent Material - Made up of partially weathered parent materials
such as bedrock, has little to no organic matter, and it provides a glimpse into the
geological history of the soil.
- R Horizon or Bedrock - Solid unweathered rock that underlies the soil above.
Soil Composition
Composed of sand, silt, loam, and clay. A soil containing a 40:40:20 mixture of
sand, silt, and clay indicates loam soil, making it the perfect soil for growing plants.
