Logarithm Summary Notes

This document provides a comprehensive overview of logarithms, including def-

initions, properties, common types, and applications, along with illustrative
examples and practice questions.

1. Introduction to Logarithms
1.1 Definition of Logarithm
A logarithm is the inverse operation to exponentiation. It answers the question:
“To what power must a fixed number (the base) be raised to produce another
given number?”
In simpler terms, if we have an exponential equation 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑥, where 𝑏 is the base,
𝑦 is the exponent, and 𝑥 is the result, the logarithm expresses this relationship
as 𝑦 = log𝑏 𝑥.
Key components: * Base (b): The number being multiplied by itself. It
must be a positive real number and 𝑏 ≠ 1. * Argument (x): The number for
which we are finding the logarithm. It must be a positive real number (𝑥 > 0).
* Logarithm (y): The exponent to which the base must be raised to get the
argument.
Relationship between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms:
𝑏𝑦 = 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑦 = log𝑏 𝑥
Examples:
1. Exponential Form: 23 = 8 Logarithmic Form: log2 8 = 3 Explana-
tion: The logarithm base 2 of 8 is 3, because 2 raised to the power of 3
equals 8.
2. Exponential Form: 102 = 100 Logarithmic Form: log10 100 = 2
Explanation: The logarithm base 10 of 100 is 2, because 10 raised to the
power of 2 equals 100.
3. Exponential Form: 50 = 1 Logarithmic Form: log5 1 = 0 Explana-
tion: The logarithm base 5 of 1 is 0, because any non-zero number raised
to the power of 0 equals 1.
4. Exponential Form: 3−2 = 19 Logarithmic Form: log3 ( 19 ) = −2 Ex-
planation: The logarithm base 3 of 1/9 is -2, because 3 raised to the power
of -2 equals 1/9.

2. Properties (Laws) of Logarithms

Logarithms follow several fundamental properties that are derived directly from
the laws of exponents. These properties are crucial for simplifying logarithmic
expressions and solving logarithmic equations.

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Let 𝑏 be a positive real number, 𝑏 ≠ 1. Let 𝑀 and 𝑁 be positive real numbers.
Let 𝑝 be any real number.

2.1 Product Rule

Formula: log𝑏 (𝑀 𝑁 ) = log𝑏 𝑀 + log𝑏 𝑁
Explanation: The logarithm of a product is the sum of the logarithms of the
individual factors.
Example:
1. Simplify log2 (4 × 8). log2 (4 × 8) = log2 4 + log2 8 = 2 + 3 = 5 (Check:
log2 32 = 5 since 25 = 32)
2. Express log10 (100𝑥) as a sum of logarithms. log10 (100𝑥) = log10 100 +
log10 𝑥 = 2 + log10 𝑥

2.2 Quotient Rule

Formula: log𝑏 ( 𝑀
𝑁 ) = log𝑏 𝑀 − log𝑏 𝑁

Explanation: The logarithm of a quotient is the difference between the loga-

rithm of the numerator and the logarithm of the denominator.
Example:
1. Simplify log3 ( 81 81
9 ). log3 ( 9 ) = log3 81 − log3 9 = 4 − 2 = 2 (Check:
2
log3 9 = 2 since 3 = 9)
𝑦 𝑦
2. Express log5 ( 25 ) as a difference of logarithms. log5 ( 25 ) = log5 𝑦 −
log5 25 = log5 𝑦 − 2

2.3 Power Rule

Formula: log𝑏 (𝑀 𝑝 ) = 𝑝 log𝑏 𝑀
Explanation: The logarithm of a number raised to a power is the power mul-
tiplied by the logarithm of the number.
Example:
1. Simplify log2 (83 ). log2 (83 ) = 3 log2 8 = 3 × 3 = 9 (Check: log2 512 = 9
since 29 = 512)
2. Express 2 log10 𝑥 as a single logarithm. 2 log10 𝑥 = log10 (𝑥2 )

2.4 Logarithm of 1
Formula: log𝑏 1 = 0
Explanation: Any non-zero base raised to the power of 0 is 1.
Example:

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 1. log7 1 = 0
2. log0.5 1 = 0

2.5 Logarithm of the Base

Formula: log𝑏 𝑏 = 1
Explanation: Any base raised to the power of 1 is itself.
Example:
1. log10 10 = 1
2. log𝑒 𝑒 = 1

2.6 Inverse Property

Formula: 𝑏log𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥
Explanation: The exponential function and the logarithmic function with the
same base are inverse functions of each other.
Example:
1. 5log5 12 = 12
2. 𝑒ln 7 = 7

3. Common and Natural Logarithms

While the base of a logarithm can be any positive real number (not equal to 1),
two bases are particularly common and have special notations.

3.1 Common Logarithm

Definition: A common logarithm is a logarithm with base 10. It is usually
written as log 𝑥 (without a subscript base) or log10 𝑥.
Formula: 𝑦 = log10 𝑥 ⟺ 10𝑦 = 𝑥
Examples:
1. log 100 = 2 (since 102 = 100)
2. log 0.001 = −3 (since 10−3 = 0.001)
3. If log 𝑥 = 1.5, then 𝑥 = 101.5 ≈ 31.62

3.2 Natural Logarithm

Definition: A natural logarithm is a logarithm with base 𝑒 (Euler’s number,
an irrational constant approximately equal to 2.71828). It is usually written as
ln 𝑥.
Formula: 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑥
Examples:

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 1. ln 𝑒 = 1 (since 𝑒1 = 𝑒)
2. ln 1 = 0 (since 𝑒0 = 1)
3. If ln 𝑥 = 2, then 𝑥 = 𝑒2 ≈ 7.389

4. Change of Base Formula

Sometimes it is necessary to convert a logarithm from one base to another,
especially when dealing with calculators that typically only support common
(base 10) or natural (base 𝑒) logarithms. The change of base formula allows this
conversion.
log𝑎 𝑥
Formula: log𝑏 𝑥 = log𝑎 𝑏

Explanation: This formula states that the logarithm of 𝑥 to the base 𝑏 can be
found by dividing the logarithm of 𝑥 to a new base 𝑎 by the logarithm of 𝑏 to
the new base 𝑎. The new base 𝑎 can be any valid logarithm base (e.g., 10 or 𝑒).
Common Applications: * To calculate logarithms with unusual bases using
log 𝑥
a calculator: log𝑏 𝑥 = log10 𝑏 or log𝑏 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
ln 𝑏
10

Examples:
log10 10
1. Evaluate log2 10 using a calculator. Using base 10: log2 10 = log10 2 =
1 ln 10 2.3026
0.3010 ≈ 3.322 Using base 𝑒: log2 10 = ln 2 = 0.6931 ≈ 3.322
log5 5 1
2. Convert log3 5 to a logarithm with base 5. log3 5 = log5 3 = log5 3

5. Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Solving logarithmic equations and inequalities often involves using the definition
of logarithms and their properties to convert them into exponential or algebraic
forms that are easier to solve.

5.1 Logarithmic Equations

General Strategy: 1. Isolate the logarithmic term. 2. Use the definition of
logarithm to convert the equation into exponential form. 3. Solve the resulting
algebraic or exponential equation. 4. Crucially, check your solutions in the
original logarithmic equation to ensure that the arguments of the logarithms
are positive. Logarithms are only defined for positive arguments.
Examples:
1. Solve log3 (𝑥 + 1) = 2.
• Convert to exponential form: 32 = 𝑥 + 1
• 9=𝑥+1
• 𝑥=8
• Check: log3 (8 + 1) = log3 9 = 2. The solution is valid.
2. Solve log2 𝑥 + log2 (𝑥 − 2) = 3.

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 • Use the product rule: log2 [𝑥(𝑥 − 2)] = 3
• Convert to exponential form: 23 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
• 8 = 𝑥2 − 2𝑥
• 𝑥2 − 2𝑥 − 8 = 0
• Factor: (𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
• Possible solutions: 𝑥 = 4 or 𝑥 = −2
• Check:
– For 𝑥 = 4: log2 4 + log2 (4 − 2) = log2 4 + log2 2 = 2 + 1 = 3.
Valid.
– For 𝑥 = −2: log2 (−2) is undefined. So, 𝑥 = −2 is an extraneous
solution.
• The only valid solution is 𝑥 = 4.

5.2 Logarithmic Inequalities

Solving logarithmic inequalities requires careful consideration of the base of the
logarithm, as it affects the direction of the inequality sign.
Rules: * If 𝑏 > 1: log𝑏 𝑥 > 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑥 > 𝑏𝑦 (and 𝑥 > 0) * If 0 < 𝑏 < 1:
log𝑏 𝑥 > 𝑦 ⟺ 0 < 𝑥 < 𝑏𝑦
General Strategy: 1. Ensure all logarithmic terms are defined (arguments
must be positive). 2. Isolate the logarithmic term. 3. Convert to exponential
form, reversing the inequality sign if the base is between 0 and 1. 4. Solve the
resulting algebraic or exponential inequality. 5. Combine the solution with the
domain restrictions from step 1.
Examples:
1. Solve log2 (𝑥 − 3) < 4.
• Domain restriction: 𝑥 − 3 > 0 ⟹ 𝑥 > 3
• Convert to exponential form (base 2 > 1, so inequality direction
remains): 𝑥 − 3 < 24
• 𝑥 − 3 < 16
• 𝑥 < 19
• Combine with domain restriction: 3 < 𝑥 < 19.
2. Solve log0.5 (2𝑥 + 1) ≥ −1.
• Domain restriction: 2𝑥 + 1 > 0 ⟹ 2𝑥 > −1 ⟹ 𝑥 > −1/2
• Convert to exponential form (base 0.5 < 1, so inequality direction
reverses): 2𝑥 + 1 ≤ (0.5)−1
• 2𝑥 + 1 ≤ 2
• 2𝑥 ≤ 1
• 𝑥 ≤ 1/2
• Combine with domain restriction: −1/2 < 𝑥 ≤ 1/2.

6. Practice Questions: Definition and Basic Conversions

1. Convert the following exponential equations to logarithmic form:

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 a) 43 = 64
b) 70 = 1
c) 10−2 = 0.01
d) 𝑒5 = 𝑥
2. Convert the following logarithmic equations to exponential form:
a) log5 25 = 2
b) log3 81 = 4
c) log10 1000 = 3
d) ln 1 = 0
3. Evaluate the following logarithms:
a) log2 16
b) log3 9
c) log10 0.1
d) log7 7
e) log6 1

7. Practice Questions: Logarithm Properties

1. Use the properties of logarithms to expand the following expressions:
a) log2 (𝑥𝑦3 )
2
b) log10 ( 𝑎√𝑐𝑏 )
4
𝑥
c) ln ( 𝑦𝑧 2)

2. Use the properties of logarithms to condense the following expressions into

a single logarithm:
a) log3 5 + log3 7
b) 2 log 𝑥 − 3 log 𝑦
c) 12 ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑏 − ln 𝑐
3. Given log𝑏 2 = 0.301 and log𝑏 3 = 0.477, find:
a) log𝑏 6
b) log𝑏 9
c) log𝑏 ( 32 )
d) log𝑏 8

8. Practice Questions: Change of Base

1. Evaluate log3 7 using the change of base formula (use common logarithms).
2. Evaluate log5 12 using the change of base formula (use natural logarithms).
3. Show that log𝑎 𝑏 ⋅ log𝑏 𝑎 = 1.

9. Practice Questions: Logarithmic Equations and Inequal-

ities
1. Solve the following logarithmic equations:
a) log4 (𝑥 − 5) = 2
b) log2 𝑥 + log2 (𝑥 − 1) = 1

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 c) ln(𝑥 + 2) − ln(𝑥 − 1) = ln 3
d) log10 (𝑥2 − 3𝑥) = 1
2. Solve the following logarithmic inequalities:
a) log3 (2𝑥 + 1) < 3
b) log0.5 (𝑥 + 4) ≥ −2
c) log2 (𝑥 − 1) > log2 (5 − 𝑥)