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 Second Edition

I n t e

Eric W. Macintosh, PhD

University of Ottawa

Gonzalo A. Bravo, PhD

West Virginia University

Ming Li, EdD

Western Michigan University

Editors

Fa
HUMAN
i) KINETICS
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: MacIntosh, Eric W., 1977- editor. |Bravo, Gonzalo A., 1959- editor. |
Li, Ming, 1959- editor.
Title: International sport management / Eric MacIntosh, Gonzalo Bravo, Ming
Li, editors.
Description: Second Edition. |Champaign, Illinois : Human Kinetics, [2020]
Previous edition: 2012. |Includes bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018029543 (print) |LCCN 2018030727 (ebook) |ISBN
9781492556794 (e-book) |ISBN 9781492556787 (print)
Subjects: LCSH: Sports administration--Cross-cultural studies.
Classification: LCC GV713 (ebook) |LCC GV713 .1585 2020 (print) |DDC
796.06/9--de23
LC record available at https://Iccn.loc.gov/2018029543

ISBN: 978-1-4925-5678-7 (print)

Copyright © 2020 by Eric W. MacIntosh, Gonzalo A. Bravo, and Ming Li

Copyright © 2012 by Ming Li, Eric W. MacIntosh, and Gonzalo A. Bravo

All rights reserved. Except for use in a review, the reproduction or utilization of this work in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including xerography, photocopying, and recording, and in any
information storage and retrieval system, is forbidden without the written permission of the publisher.

The web addresses cited in this text were current as of November 2018, unless otherwise noted.

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please visit our website: www. HumanKinetics.com
ISAS
We dedicate the second edition to the memory of Dr. Earle Zeigler, a pioneer, leader,
and instrumental figure in sport management who helped pave the way for many
scholars in the field.
 Contents

Foreword ix Preface x

“Part | Issues in International Sport Management

1 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers:
Key Concepts and Emerging Trends
intintemmational’SPOrtsas..
3s eoaateoelee nee ee eS
Michael Pfahl, PhD; Ming Li, EdD; Eric W. MacIntosh, PhD

Key Concepts 4° Emerging Sports 8 ® Emerging Markets 9 * Development of

International Competencies for Sport Managers 9 Summary 12

Q The Globalized Sport Industry: Historical Perspectives. .15

James J. Zhang, PhD; Demetrius W. Pearson, EdD; Tyreal Y. Qian, MS;
Euisoo Kim, MBA

Growth of Sport During the Industrial Revolution 16 ® Soread of American

Sporting Values 18 ® International Athletic Arms Race and Militarism 20
Globalization of Sport in the Late 20th Century 20 ® Globalization of the Sporting
Goods Industry 91 ® International Migration and Sport 923
Sport Labor Movement 23 ® Benefits of International Athletes in Sport
Teams and Leagues 27 *%Summary 28

“Part Il Field of Play in International Sport

ReSportininorth America... <6. ...4:05 0s eee ee
Michael Odio, PhD; Shannon Kerwin, PhD

Geographical Description and Demographics 35 ® Background and Role of

Sport 36 * Governance of Sport 37 ® Management of Sport 40
Major Sport Events 44® Summary 45

4 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean............47

Gonzalo A. Bravo, PhD; Charles Parrish, PhD

Geographical Description and Background 49 ® Role of Soort 50 ® Governance

of Sport 52° Economics of Sport 55 ¢ Management of Sport 56 @ Major
Sport Events 59 Summary 60
 Contents V

SPORUINEWesterm
earner ae
EULOD
extes es...
er. OT
Brice Lefévre, PhD; Guillaume Routier, PhD; Guillaume Bodet, PhD

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 63 «

Role of Sport 64 ® Governance of Sport 65 Economics of Sport 66 «
Management of Sport 71 © Major Sport Events 74 @ Sport Participation 76 @
Summary 79

Sportin.Easterm
Europe. ek ela ee
Peter Smolianov, PhD

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 83 «

Role of Sport +84 ® Governance of Sport 85 * Economics of Sport 88 «
Management of Sport 89 ® Major Sport Events 902 Summary 91

SPOKE INGA TrICa nis, Mee or eC ae OA Bie wk OS

Jepkorir Rose Chepyator-Thomson, PhD; Samuel M. Adodo, PhD;

Emma Ariyo, MS

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 95 ®

Role of Soort 96 ® Governance of Sport 98 ® Economics of Sport 98 @
Management of Sport 100 @ Major Sport Events 102° Summary 102

Sport'in the Arab’ World: 0 0. See eee. 5105

Mahfoud Amara, PhD

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 107 ®

Role of Soort 108 ® Economics of Soort 111 ® Governance of Sport 112
Major Sport Events 113 e Management of Soort 114° Summary 115

SOORIMOCCaniat
ko co ew.wens or rete neia yah,
Trish Bradbury, PhD; Popi Sotiriadou, PhD

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 119

Role of Soort 119 ® Governance of Sport 120 ® Economics of Sport 125 «
Management of Sport 126 * Major Sport Events 126 ¢ Summary 127

10 Sport in South Asia and Southeast Asia.............129

Megat A. Kamaluddin Megat Daud, PhD; Wirdati M. Radzi, PhD;
Govindasamy Balasekaran, PhD

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 131

Role of Soort 132 * Governance of Sport 134 ® Economics of Sport 135 ®
Management of Sport 136 ® Major Sport Events 137 ® Summary 138
vi Contents

11: Sport in‘Northeast Asians, (uereee aeeee. ©... 149

Yong Jae Ko, PhD; Di Xie, PhD; Kazuhiko Kimura, MS

Geographical Description, Demographics, and Background 143 ®

Role of Soort +145 * Governance of Sport 150 ® Professional Sport 158 ®
Major Sport Events 160 ® Summary 160

Part Ill Governance in International Sport

12 Olympic and Paralympic Sport.............2.++++ 165

David Legg, PhD; Laura Misener, PhD; Ted Fay, PhD

Formation of the IOC and IPC 166 ® Olympic and Paralympic Organization
Structure and Governance 167 @ Relationships With Outside Stakeholders 168
® History and Commercial Development of the Olympic and Paralympic
Games 170 ® Considerations for Staging the Games 171 ® Social and Ethical
Issues in Olympic and Paralympic Sport 174 ® Summary 180

13 International Sport Federations...................181

Li Chen, PhD; Chia-Chen Yu, EdD

What Are International Federations? 182 @ International Federations and

National Federations 187 ® Management of International Federations 188 e
Summary 193

14 The World Anti-Doping Agency and Ethics in Sport ...195

Clayton Bolton, EdD; Samantha Roberts, PhD

Ethics and Ethical Behavior in Sport =196 @ Performance-Enhancing Drugs in

Sport 201 ¢ World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) 204 e Challenges in the Fight
Against PED Use in Sport 208 e Summary 209

15 Professional Sport Leagues and Tours..............211

James Skinner, PhD; Jacqueline Mueller, MSc; Steve Swanson, PhD

Structure and Governance 212 e Economic Nature 215 ® Revenue

Sources 2291 * Competition Among Leagues 293 Summary 295

16 Youth Sport Events and Festivals..................2Q7

Anna-Maria Strittmatter, PhD; Milena M. Parent, PhD

Governance and Stakeholders 298 © Value of Youth Sport Events 9235

Implications for Sport Managers and Researchers 241 Summary 249
 Contents Vii

~ Part IV Management Essentials in International Sport

17 Intercultural Management in Sport Organizations:

The Importance of Human Resource Management .. . . 247
Eric W. Macintosh, PhD; Gonzalo A. Bravo, PhD

Why Intercultural Management Matters 9248 National Culture 254

® Organizational Culture 257 © Culture Shock and the Role of Human
Resources 258 ° Employee Socialization 259° Summary 262

18 Macroeconomics of International SDOr 3. ee 20D

Holger Preuss, PhD; Kevin Heisey, PhD |

Role of Sport in a National Economy 266 ® Macroeconomic Effects of Sport 268

® Tangible and Intangible Effects 269 © Primary Impact of a Sport Event 272 «
Multiplier Effect 9274 ® Long- and Short-Term Benefits From Sport and the Legacy
Effect 978*Summary 279

19 The Business of International SHOKUS SY ay ily or e200

David J. Shonk, PhD; Doyeon Won, PhD; Ho Keat Leng, PhD

Amateur Participant Sports 282 ® Spectator Sports 285 ¢ Summary 294

“Part V_ International Sport Business Strate

gies
20 international Sport Marketing ....................299
Gashaw Abeza, PhD; Benoit Seguin, PhD

Nature and Unique Aspects of Sport Business 301 ® Sport Marketing Basics 302
e Nature of the Professional Sport Team Product in a Global Setting 306
Nature of Sport Consumption 306 ® International Sport and Sponsorship 310
Olympic Brand 312° Summary 312

21 Digital Media in International Sport: Engaging Fans

Through Social Media and Fantasy Sport............315
Michael L. Naraine, PhD; Adam J. Karg, PhD

Engagement 316 ¢ Social Media 317 ® Fantasy Sport 321 ® Future of Digital
Media Engagement 329 ® Summary 331
Viil Contents

QQ International Sport Tourism. ..........-2e eee eee 6 333

Kamilla Swart, EdD; Douglas Michele Turco, PhD

Core Principles and Terms 335 ® Economic Impact 338 ® Social Costs
and Benefits 341 e Legacy Effects 346 @ Planning and Evaluation 34/7
Summary 347

Part VI Frontiers and Challenges in International Sport

22 Corruption in International Sport..................353
Samantha Roberts, PhD; Clayton Bolton, EdD

Defining Corruption 354 @ Types of Corruption 357 @ To Cheat or Not to

Cheat? 359 © Implications for Stakeholders 362 @ Tackling Corruption 366
Gray Area 366%Summary 367

24 Corporate Social Responsibility, Sport,

and. Developmentisc. se-10ii so. SRL OAT ee. s S69
Mitchell McSweeney, MA; Bruce Kidd, PhD; Lyndsay Hayhurst, PhD

Defining Corporate Social Responsibility 370 ¢ Emergence of Corporate

Social Responsibility 372 ¢ Corporate Social Responsibility in Soort 373 ¢
Understanding Corporate Social Responsibility in Sport 373 * Corporate Social
Responsibility, Soort, and International Develooment 380 ® United Nations
Global Compact 3832 Summary 384

25 International Sport Management: A Way Forward .... .385

Alison Doherty, PhD; Tracy Taylor, PhD

International Sport Management Research Agenda 386 ® Conducting

International Sport Management Research 392 eSummary 394

References 395 e Index 433

About the Editors 441 e Contributors 443
Foreword
s one who has been associated with the field since its beginnings, I have the great pleasure
to be writing the foreword to this book, which signifies the ever-expanding domain of sport
anagement around the world. That this book is the second edition is a testament to its
quality as well as its utility as a textbook. I would also like to point out that the most esteemed Dr.
Zeigler wrote the foreword for the first edition. Because he is indisposed, I have been asked to write
the foreword. I am thankful for the opportunity. It is indeed an honor to follow Dr. Zeigler and take
his place in the book. He is my mentor and benefactor.
Sport management as a specialized field of study and practice has grown considerably since it was
initiated in 1985. Although North America was the birthplace of the field under the leadership of the
venerable Dr. Zeigler, the growth of the field is exemplified by the existence of a sport management
association to represent every continent. More significantly, the North American Society for Sport
Management reports that more than 95 journals deal directly with sport management, its subfields
such as sport marketing, and allied fields.
Although sport management has at its core the management of sport as it is practiced and purveyed,
it is also shaped by the political, legal, technological, competitive, and cultural factors that shape the
organizations worldwide. Thus, these nuances need to be understood and managed appropriately
for the benefit of clients and customers. Those who want to promote and manage sport around the
world will find this book helpful because it outlines the rudiments of sport on the world scene.
More important, the book serves to educate students and managers on the intricacies of managing
sport organizations in different cultural and political contexts.
Eminent authors have contributed to this book by writing chapters covering sport management
as it is practiced in all continents, including the Arab world. The chapters span the spectrum of
Olympic sport, Paralympic sport, youth sport, professional sport, and so on. In addition, some of
the chapters deal with the international sport federations that manage the variety of sport offerings.
Note as well that some of the chapters cover critical negative influences in sport, such as doping,
which is discussed regarding the role of the World Anti-Doping Agency and its management. I am
sure that the book will serve as a comprehensive introduction to sport management as it is practiced
across the globe. Students are exposed to key management theories and practical examples from
around the world.
The editors, Eric MacIntosh, Gonzalo Bravo, and Ming Li, renowned scholars in their own right,
should be congratulated on assembling an outstanding cast of authors to write chapters on carefully
selected contexts and contents. Note that two of the editors hail from continents other than North
America—Gonzalo Bravo from Chile in South America and Ming Li from China. All three editors
have traveled widely around the world, and those experiences have served them well in distilling
the content and context to be covered, and in selecting the authors to write the various chapters.
The chapters stand as testament to the scholarship of the authors who wrote them.
This book fills a void in texts dealing with sport management as practiced around the world.
Although students and their teachers are the prime beneficiaries of this edition, scholars will also
find the book enticing because the book as a whole and the chapters within will stimulate critical
thinking on additional conceptualizations and research in international sport management.

Packianathan Chelladurai, PhD, LLD, FNAK

Distinguished Professor
Troy University
Troy, Alabama, United States
Professor Emeritus—University of Western Ontario, Canada
Professor Emeritus Ohio State University, United States
Preface
ublished in 2012, the first edition of Interna- and ethics for clean sport, youth sport events and
tional Sport Management was the first book to festivals, digital media and fantasy sport, corruption
/ deal specifically with the topic of international in sport, and a challenge presented by international
sport in a systematic way. To our delight, the first scholars on the way forward in sport management
edition was well received. Adopters of the textbook research. We have also expanded part II, Field of
spanned the globe. Since then, interest in the topic Play in International Sport, to include new chapters
of international sport management has grown. A on North America, Latin America and the Carib-
quick scan of sport management programs around bean, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Africa, the
the world reveals that the topic is taught in many Arab world, Oceania, North Asia, and South and
undergraduate and graduate programs in Europe, Southeast Asia. We believe that these additions
North America, South America, Oceania, Africa, complement the existing roster from the first edition
and Asia—a testament to just how international of chapters, all of which have undergone updates
the topic of sport truly has become. and revisions to reflect the various continental shifts
A consequence of this growth was a need to in sport management.
revise the first edition to provide what we hope is The world of sport management continues its
another quality product from leading sport manage- growth with the sharing of information at the
ment scholars around the world. In this, the second disposal of researchers around the globe. The
edition, we have revised the book to address some unprecedented availability of knowledge and the
of the suggested changes to help truly international- cross-pollination of disciplines of research continue
ize this contribution. This volume has 55 authors to challenge sport management research and prac-
who are native of or currently work at universities tice. Consequently, this new edition is in response
in Europe (Germany, England, other), Australia, to those challenges and the suggestions of the first
Chile, Canada, Asia, Norway, the United States, adopters of the text who provided insightful feed-
and Africa. back and commentary to ensure that this revised
Although we do not attempt to define the consis- edition meets the needs of the modern classroom.
tently debated geographical boundaries of a region, Similar to the first edition, this edition introduces
we have made every effort possible to put together a the principles and practices of the business and
textbook that speaks to the vastness of sport overall management of international sport and discusses
ina region such as Europe by retaining authors who sport governance, business activities, and the cross-
have centralized experience as researchers and sport cultural context of sport. We have included several
management teachers for that region. In the revised new illustrations and cases embedded in the chap-
edition, we have included further details on the ters to reflect the current situation in sport. Each of
development of sport management internationally the 25 chapters has several case studies and learning
and additional material on the academic societies activities that illustrate a multitude of real-world
currently in practice. examples in international sport. The case studies,
As editors to this volume, we bring with us life drawn from primary industry sources, newspapers,
experiences in various regions of the world, schol- and journals, are intended to provide the student
arly work in those regions and others, and different with the opportunity to apply concepts outlined in
cultural perspectives generally as researchers and the chapters to real-world situations.
practitioners. We believe that these varied experi- In addition, we have included a new instructor
ences help with the content of the book and chal- guide that will help the teacher use the course con-
lenge us in our own ways to come up witha product tent and develop a curriculum for students.
we believe is much more international in scope. The instructor resources available at www.
Revisions in this book include new chapters on Humankinetics.com/InternationalSportManage-
a history of international sport, world anti-doping ment include a sample syllabus and a section on
 Preface Xi

how to integrate case studies from Case Studies in international business and organizational manage-
Sport Management into teaching a course. Each chap- ment literature and pedagogy in a manner that
ter in the instructor guide includes ideas for class either undergraduate or graduate students in sport
activities, essays, suggested readings or resources, management can easily comprehend. To meet this
and tips for teaching specific topics. The test pack- goal, each chapter is organized to assist the student
age offers over 200 questions in multiple choice, through the inclusion and highlighting of chapter
fill-in-the-blank, true—false, and short-answer objectives, key terms, learning activities, and review
or essay formats. Each question is identified by and discussion questions. The text includes exten-
topic. Instructors may use each chapter’s bank of sive bibliographies and reference sections to help
test questions as is or create customized tests. The support the work of researchers and practitioners
presentation package contains PowerPoint slides in the field. This text is intentionally written for
of the main ideas of each chapter. These slides use by students in sport management programs
may be used as is or incorporated into customized throughout the world and is not limited to a North
classroom lectures. American perspective. As editors, we hope that this
A goal of this revised edition of the book is to orientation provides a solid account of international
combine relevant theoretical and practical insights sport management in a way that is easily digestible
from scholars that demonstrate the importance of and interesting for students around the globe and
international sport management. This text strives that will help advance the field in general.
to incorporate the relevant theoretical advances in
i
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more than 1 million fans attended the 40 games
that were played in six venues across the globe,
including Seoul, Tokyo, Miami, Zapopan (Mexico),
San Diego, and Los Angeles. Broadcasts of the 2017
WBC reached 415 million viewers in 182 countries.
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Development of Globally
Competent Sport Managers
Key Concepts and Emerging Trends in International Sport

Michael Pfahl, PhD

Bangkok University

Ming Li, EdD

Western Michigan University

Eric W. Macintosh, PhD

University of Ottawa

Cha pter Objectives

PLEO ALELIS ELI OE SLL IIE
LEDE r Uojec SLRS
PELL LEBEL AELEE DIL LEN LSI LEA LIE DIE ASL LENSE II SEP LIL NEA SS SRR IR SRILA DSHS HODES HEIN STUNG AISLE ISOS IHL LNALLIS LIEGE SED EN ISI DSIS ISONSESSION DONG

After studying this chapter, you will be able do the following:

e Understand the importance of globalization and its effect on the sport industry.
e Be familiar with the terminology and key concepts related to the globalization
of sport.
e Appreciate and understand emerging global sports and markets.
e Understand the basic competencies and skills required to manage a sport orga-
nization in an international environment.

globalization localization
glocalization regionalism
internationalization nationalism
commodification
4 Pfahl, Li, and MacIntosh

he international nature of modern sport the globalization of sport (Olympic Day, 2010).
requires sport organization personnel to Rather than allowing money to be the sole driving
modify their personal and management prac- force behind the Olympic Movement, the IOC and
tices to remain effective and competitive. Although related national Olympic committees strive to use
modern sport has always had an international ele- educational, cultural, and athletic experiences to
ment to it in events like the World Cup and Olympic facilitate social development and change.
Games, numerous forces have given rise to a greater Yet the economic incentives of hosting an Olym-
diversity in sport coverage, events, and participants. pic Games are touted as a primary reason to bid for
Technological changes and advancement have them. Although the economic and cultural elements
transformed broadcasting revenues, creating more are often seen as being in conflict with each other,
sport entertainment options for fans and more the IOC strives to show how they can be combined
revenue streams for organizations than ever before. for the betterment of all the world’s peoples.
Capital investment has moved with great speed, Despite the importance of culture in globaliza-
creating new stadia, teams, and merchandising tion debates and in sport, economic considerations
opportunities. Athletes are perceived (and often- do play a significant role because of the need to
times act) like entertainment celebrities, moving expand markets and drive profits by international
from place to place employing their skills and apti- companies using sport as a sponsorship platform
tudes for the masses. This introductory chapter to (Coakley & Donnelly, 1999, in Horne, 2006). The
International Sport Management is intended to help economic impact of sport can be felt in the areas of
sport managers develop an understanding of some media, the aforementioned corporate sponsorship
key concepts and critical issues of managing sport and influence, branding and celebrity culture, and
business around the world. the general sense of commercialization of sport
(Horne, 2006).
Key Concepts _ When sport managers are driven by the search
for diversification in assets, capital flows, and new
In this section, key concepts are defined to aid in
markets to enter with existing products or product
understanding the terminology used in the interna-
associations, changes to sport occur. For example,
tional sport world. These terms include globaliza-
corporate sponsorship and influence have moved
tion, internationalization, regionalism, nationalism,
beyond supporting sport, and corporate entities
glocalization, and localization.
can now be found in the offices of current sport
Globalization ownership where interest in controlling sport
organizations is increasingly falling to those who
“Globalization is a process of political, economic,
have amassed the largest fortunes. To illustrate, AC
and cultural penetrations among nations. In the
Milan (Italian Serie A), one of the largest and most
context of sport, globalization refers to the increased
popular football clubs in the world, is owned by
interactions and integration among sport organiza-
Yonghong Li, a Chinese business tycoon; Chelsea
tions and enterprises around the world” (Eschen-
(English Premier League) is owned by Russian-
felder & Li, 2006, p. 211).
Israeli billionaire Roman Abramovich; Manchester
Globalization in sport has been described as
United (English Premier League), another success-
being driven by economic considerations more often
ful and globally popular football team, is owned
than not, although cultural elements play a role. The
by American Malcolm Glaser, who also owns the
balance between the two is difficult to find. A search
Tampa Bay Buccaneers (National Football League):
for such a balance can be seen in the emphasis
Aston Villa (English Premier League) is owned by
that the International Olympic Committee (LOC)
Chinese billionaire Tony Jiantong, who is the owner
places on culture as part of its governing ideology.
of Recon Group; and Manchester City (English
The demonstration of cultural uniqueness through
Premier League) is owned by Sheikh Mansour, a
hosting the Olympic Games (i.e., Opening and
member of Abu Dhabi’s ruling Ali-Nahyan family.
Closing Ceremonies) and through the local efforts
The result is the need to recoup the initial invest-
for disseminating broader Olympic values through
ment through actions to accumulate profit (in the
Olympic Day all speak to cultural elements within
interest of the owners), perhaps at the risk of fielding
 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers 5

competitive teams or pursuing championships (in

internationalization
the interest of the fans).
Sport ownership also can contribute to a com- Internationalization is a term used to describe the
pany’s global expansion. Recently, Lizhang Jiang, a worldwide dissemination of sport, driven, in part,
Chinese real estate investor and general manager of by the development of the 20th-century consumer
Shanghai Double-Edged Sports, became a minority culture. In addition, the term refers to the move-
ment of athletes around the world in the pursuit
owner of both the Minnesota Timberwolves and
the Minnesota Lynx. The involvement of a Chinese of work (Magnusson, 2001). This trend occurred
despite “sport not being controlled or produced in
owner would help open the Chinese market to these
a single country” (Keys, 2006, p. 187). Sport, as
two sports franchises, along with various merchan-
an element in the internationalization of cultures,
dising, broadcast, marketing, and sponsorship
Opportunities. This move solidifies the NBA’s quiet
could be claimed by nations (both politicians and
citizens) as “an expression of intrinsically national
work for “an international group to become involved
characteristics” (Keys, 2006, p. 188). Coakley
in ownership on a minority level” (Withers, 2009,
(2003) identified three main areas that paved the
p. 7), part of its decades-long move toward creating
way for the internationalization of sport: market
a global market for its products. For more than 20
economies, changing demographics including
years, the NBA has been slowly making inroads
increased disposable income and greater leisure
with its brand around the world. The NBA has
time, and large-scale capital investment by public
hosted international tournaments, played exhibition
and private sources. Although these elements could
games outside America, and welcomed numerous
not, and cannot, be found in every country in the
international players to its teams. Although other
world, they do indicate the driving forces behind
professional leagues have engaged in international
the last 100 years or so of growth in the popularity
markets, the NBA has arguably been the most suc-
of sport, participation in sport (and athletics and
cessful to date.

Development of Formula One’s Global Reach

Formula One is the world motorsport championship By the 1990s the sport had grown in popularity,
that began in 1950. Steve Matchett, former Benet- and the governing body, the Fédération Internationale
ton Formula One team mechanic and current color de |’Automobile (FIA), and the marketing entity for
commentator for the Formula One broadcasts on the sport, Formula One Management (FOM), began
Fox’s Speed Channel in the United States, said that to set eyes on emerging global markets. The driver
the sport “has grown to become one of the leading of this expansion was the broadcast rights sold by
sport businesses in the world, a colossal multi-billion- FOM across the world and the increasing sponsor-
dollar industry” (Matchett, 2005, p. 22). With even the ship money that followed the massive international
smallest components costing substantial sums and broadcasting and fan base of the sport. FOM pushed
the race prize amounts kept relatively secret, Formula for new tracks to be built in rising economies such as
One is built on mystery, excess, politics, and glamour those of Malaysia, Turkey, and China. By 2009 the
(Pfahl & Bates, 2008). Formula One cars are argu- championship boasted a 17-race schedule that ran
ably the world’s most exotic automotive machines. In from March to November and raced in 19 countries
years past, the championship was run primarily on (including, for example, Italy, Bahrain, Hungary, and
European race circuits, although a handful of races Brazil). Although some have questioned the viability of
were run in countries such as Australia, Brazil, South the FIA and FOM’s strategy, Formula One remains the
Africa, and the United States (depending on the year). top motorsport competition in the world.
The teams operated from bases in England, Germany,
and France, although the drivers were from all over
the world.
SSS SS LIL ESEE IISEES SLO D NSE LEE ISLET IIS SESS ILSEAA
6 Pfahl, Li, and MacIntosh

exercise in general), and importantly, the com- unique content for fans in different countries to
modification of sport and athletes. In this case, maximize sponsorship and marketing opportuni-
commodification refers to the influence of economic ties, especially merchandise sales. Overall, many
forces on the structure and practice of sport. Today, professional sport leagues and teams engage in
with the available technology, commodification of internationalization strategies.
sport is at an all-time high.
As many sport leagues, teams, athletes, and Regionalization
companies become more internationalized, various Within the framework of internationalization lies
cultural elements taken from the home country or regionalization. Blocs of countries or market areas
local region emanate across the world by television, within a specific geographical, cultural, or eco-
radio, and computers. For example, the English nomic condition have developed in the modern
Premier League is the most popular football league era. Although groups of nations have come together
(domestically, regionally, and internationally) not for various purposes throughout history, in the era
only because of the quality of play in the league of globalization formal entities such as the Euro-
but also because of the associated English cultural pean Union, the Association of South East Asian
elements broadcast around the globe with each Nations, and the Non-Aligned Nations (Baghdadi,
match (e.g., language, fan culture). These elements 2009) have developed in response to various forces
are evident in the United States where, for example, of globalization and internationalization. In the
the official supporter organization of the Colum- world of sport, regionalization has also taken hold
bus Crew (Major League Soccer) has adopted the as governing bodies for various sports have created
chanting and singing of songs during match play, confederations and regional tournaments in addi-
an international occurrence, but one with special tion to the larger, global ones run by international
connections to British football. British hooliganism federations such as Fédération Internationale de
(see Giulianotti, Bonney, @ Hepworth, 1994) has Basketball (FIBA).
even found its way to Columbus, Ohio, as 100 Crew For example, the Union of European Football
supporters, ironically named the Hudson Street Associations (UEFA) is the powerful European foot-
Hooligans, clashed with 30 or so supporters from ball confederation that runs the UEFA Champions
the English Premier League side West Ham United League and other competitions that are broadcast
during a friendly match (Leonard, 2008). Although worldwide. These events receive almost as much
this image is not the one that English football would attention as the World Cup itself. Although the
prefer to present to the world, it does show that the competitions draw from European domestic leagues
cultural characteristics of the British version of the (e.g., England, Italy), the tournaments themselves
sport find their ways to other communities through are broadcast around the world. Fans are able to
the internationalization of sport. cheer their teams at an entirely different level of
The internationalization of sport has increased competition than in the domestic leagues. For the
opportunities for fan involvement and enjoyment sponsors, the championships are an important
and has provided exposure to cultures from around advertising platform, although not quite at the
the world, because of developments in television, cost level of the Olympics or World Cup. Although
satellite, computer, and computer-mediated tech- other regional confederations host similar tourna-
nologies. For example, American fans of the Italian ments (e.g., African Nations Cup, Asian Champions
Serie A football league can watch league matches League), none generate the excitement that sur-
from the comfort of their homes on the Fox Soccer rounds the European championships.
Channel, Thai fans can wake up early in the Regionalism, based on a geographical area (e.¢.,
morning to watch live broadcasts of the American Southeast Asia) made up of a set of countries with
National Football League games by satellite tele- similar characteristics, plays an important part in
vision, and soccer enthusiasts all over the world international culture, specifically in sport. Regional
watched the 2018 FIFA World Cup games being competitions and teams maintain an international
played in Russia live by online streaming. Many presence at a lower cost of operation than large,
major sport teams around the world have multiple- international competitions. Thus, they can be run
language websites (e.g., NBA in Chinese) that offer more frequently and have the benefit of generating
 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers 7

neighborhood rivalries among countries or commu- nection between national team and nationalism is
nities. Examples of regional sport include the South- associated with the men’s World Cup football tour-
east Asian Games and the Pan American Games. nament. Countries with long, sometimes violent,
But anytime that international cultural flows (of any historics with each other—for example, Japan and
kind) move through countries or regions, the pos- Korea, and Germany and Poland—tend to see a rise
sibility exists that not everyone will understand and in nationalism ahead of an actual match as media
accept the inherent diversity of ideas or practices. references to the history and other memories are
Despite the global nature of modern sport, at its dredged up (Maguire, Poulton, & Possamai, 1999:
heart, sport remains locally centered. McCormack, 2002).
The pressures of globalized cultures can weigh
Nationalism heavily on local cultural elements. Individuals
As the various forces of globalization developed, must negotiate the tensions inherent within a web
expanded, and exerted their influences over local of local, national, and international connections.
cultures, a countermovement developed with the Local cultural traditions and the need to retain
intention of retaining or promoting a national iden- cultural identity can clash with increasing capi-
tity (nationalism). Nationalism, or a shared sense talist ideals (wealth, status, stardom) (Friedman,
of what a country stands for or is composed of, is 1990). Sometimes, the outside cultural forces are
a socially constructed concept with ever-changing rejected, sometimes they are embraced, and other
rituals, practices, and historical foundations times hybrids of both are accepted. Hybrid forms
(Horne, 2006). It is closely linked with individual are known as glocalization (Giulianotti & Robert-
and community perceptions of national identities, son, 2009), or “the combining of global and local
although nationalism takes many forms (e.¢., civic, themes” (Horne, 2006, p. 133), which creates a
ethnic) (Bairner, 2001). The most common form of new entity out of one or more cultural elements. In
nationalism is promoting the characteristics of the New Zealand, for example, the 20th century saw
nation-state itself. For example, although what it the rapid development, spread, and popularity of
means to be an American varies by person, there is rugby after its introduction to the country in the
a mainstream, some might say hegemonic, version 19th century. The country used the national team
of being an American, which includes loyalty to as a springboard to encourage social integration,
family, country, and religious or traditional values. culminating in the All Blacks rugby team, through
Additionally, a common expression of nationalism which “distinctions between social classes, between
includes language that refers to we or us used in town and country, between regions, between colo-
relation to another, a them. nisers and colonised, were both dramatized and
Naisbitt (1994) characterized the tension bridged” (Perry, 2005, p. 159).
between local and global as a paradox in which “the
more universal we become, the more tribal [local] Localization
we act” (p. 131). By tribal, Naisbitt is referring to the Closely related to glocalization is localization.
local cultures of communities, which includes the Localization is the adaptation of nonlocal elements
nation (Maffesoli, 1996). Arguably, the increased to the local context (e.g., language, rules). Local cul-
globalization occurring in the 21st century has put ture should be seen in terms of the global cultural
nationalism into question in terms of whether or flows of which it is a part (Appadurai, 1990; Wake-
not globalization has led to the increase or decrease ford, 2003), meaning that the interconnectedness of
in nationalism. Bairner (2001) viewed globalization global and local communities influence each other
and nationalism as opposite sides of the same coin and require knowledge ofboth to understand each.
whereby increased knowledge of other cultures Most major sporting teams and leagues have links
helps to raise awareness and understanding of local on their main websites to specific language websites
cultural elements. (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Spanish). Slowly, these enti-
Sport is arguably the most popular form of ties are also producing exclusive content for these
nationalist behavior given the masses of people local sites rather than merely translating what was
that become emotionally charge in support of their presented on the main English (or Italian or Korean)
Olympic team. Perhaps, the most visible of the con- page. Mobile telephones, computer-mediated com-
8 Pfahl, Li, and Macintosh

munication, and wireless devices have redefined of these facilities now can use it to attract new fans
local to mean a focus on individual preferences of and demographics that may be less enthusiastic
content, and platforms such as Twitter and YouTube about traditional sports playing within those same
allow users to generate their own content such as facilities.
current news and reports. Although developments Newzoo (2018) defined e-sport as “competitive
such as YouTube might be driven by profit motives gaming at a professional level and in an organized
and used to attract additional sponsorship monies, format (a tournament or league) with a specific goal
they also speak to the tightening of global ties that (i.e., winning a champion title or prize money) and
are a part of internationalization and globalization a clear distinction between players and teams that
discussions with local situations. are competing against each other” (p. 7). The British
In sum, within the duality of global and local, Esports Association sees it as “competitive video
sport managers must make strategic decisions to gaming, where people [amateurs or professionals]
establish a brand presence in local markets while play against each other online and also at spectator
identifying ways in which to establish or increase events in indoor arenas, usually for a cash prize”
an international presence. Differences in global, (British Esports Association, 2017, p. 3). There is
national, regional, and local communities make this little question that e-sport is emerging at breakneck
task a challenging one. Sport managers responsible speed. “[It] is on course to become established as one
for making the strategic, cultural, political, and of the leading global sports” (Nielson, 2017, p. 6).
economic decisions for sport teams or organiza- Performance Communications (n.d.) concurs with
tions must be prepared for the challenges of the such claim with a number of statistics:
new sport landscape. They must be equipped with
In 2013, people spent 1.5 billion hours watch-
skills, abilities, and worldviews that are inclusive
ing Activision games being played, compared to
yet can differentiate cultural elements.
the NFL seven billion. Sky Sports has already
broadcast the FIFA Interactive World Cup,
Emerging Sports Amazon paid $1 billion for games streaming site
Twitch. .. . If we accept that participation is an
Although established leagues and their teams in
important driver of fandom—an estimated 260
professional sport (e.g., EPL, La Liga, NBA, and so
million people play football, while 1.2 billion
on) and mega and major sport events (e.g., Olym-
play computer games—some futurists believe
pics, FIFA, PGA tour events, Wimbledon, and so eSports could become the world’s most popular
on) are now mainstays of international sport, several pastime. (p. 26)
sport entities are increasing in size and prominence.
For example, stand-up paddling, adventure racing, It was estimated that in 2018 e-sport enthusiasts
ultradistance competitions, and bouldering (now worldwide will number 165 million and the e-sport
on the Olympic program) are emerging sports that audience will be around 380 million. In the same
highlight physical and athletic prominence. Emerg- year, the global e-sport industry will realize $906
ing sports lack the mass exposure (for the moment million in revenues, 77 percent of which will come
at least) and monetization of major sports leagues from investments of other industries (Newzoo,
or events (Socolow, 2016). One such sport entity, 2018; p. ¢).
e-sport, is emerging at so rapid a rate that the IOC The viewership or spectatorship for e-sport tour-
is grappling with the decision of whether or not naments continues to grow. For example, the Season
to include it within the Olympic program. Some 4 Finals of League of Legends was held in the Seoul
professional sport leagues (e.g., NBA) have already World Cup Stadium, Asia’s largest soccer stadium
started to venture into partnerships and business with a seating capacity of 40,000 in 2016. All seats
Opportunities with this technology sector. were taken. According to Newzoo (2018), 588 major
Another example of an emerging sport that show- e-sport tournaments were held worldwide in 2017,
cases technological advancements is drone racing. and ticket revenues collectively reached $59 million.
Like e-sport, drone racing can be played in sport The prize money for those tournaments was about
stadia or arenas, creating additional entertainment $112 million.
and revenue streams within sport facilities. Owners
 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers 9

The emergence of e-sport, where video and real- more than two decades (Bode, 2014). For example,
life play converge, challenges the traditional defini- for growth of its brand the NBA has strategically
tion of sport (Delaware North, 2015) and provides targeted China, one of the top emerging markets
tremendous opportunities for brands to tap into in the world. As such, the NBA has sent players to
some key demographics. In 2014 Amazon acquired conduct clinics and participate in public appear-
the e-sport streaming network Twitch for $970 mil- ances. The increased fan base and viewership will
lion in part because the network attracts over 100 likely lead to greater consumption of NBA products.
million viewers a month, allowing Amazon to grow Besides the NBA, the NHL, NFL, and MLB have also
their brand. Many professional sport teams and been establishing and maintaining their physical
leagues see e-sport as an excellent opportunity to presence in China and many European countries
cultivate their fan base. “The top-tier soccer league for some time, again highlighting the internation-
in the Netherlands was among the first national alization of sport.
sports leagues to launch a full FIFA league season Nielsen Sports, an international sport market-
with esports teams branded by the soccer clubs” ing company, in its annual report released in 2017
(Newzoo, 2018, p. 10). titled Commercial Trends in Sports, gives three pieces
Finally, e-sport will feature at the 2022 Asian of advice about the emerging international sport
Games as a medal event, raising this question: Will markets:
the Olympics be next to feature e-sport? 1. The sporting landscape is changing, opening
ee
up major opportunities in new markets.
~ Emerging Markets 2. A deep understanding of how emerging mar-
Developing nations with high economic growth kets are approaching sport is required—right
rates and potential are commonly referred to as up to state level.
emerging markets (Khanna @ Palepu, 2010). With 3. Knowledge transfer from mature to emerging
this criterion in mind, Brazil, China, India, and markets will be an increasingly valuable asset
Russia, commonly known as BRIC nations, along (Nielson, 2017, p. 3).
with a number of other countries, are often cited as
emerging markets. The economic growth in these
emerging markets offers tremendous opportuni-
Development of
ties for sport organizations to expand into these International Competencies
_ for Sport Managers
nations (PWC, 2011). More and more international
sports events are being held in emerging markets.
“Emerging markets are increasingly engaging with The modern sport world requires sport managers to
and investing in top-level sport: the next three be knowledgeable and aware of the importance of
Olympic Games will be staged in Asia” (Nielson, their own and other's cultural preferences. Hanvey
2017, p. 2). Major sport event properties have chosen (1976, p. 2) identified five main areas that influence
these emerging markets to host their events includ- international sport understanding:
ing, for example, Russia’s hosting of the 2018 FIFA 1. Perspective consciousness (understanding
World Cup and the 2014 Winter Olympic Games, differences)
China’s hosting of the 2008 Summer Olympics
2. State-of-planet awareness (understanding
and the 2022 Winter Olympic Games, and Brazil’s
global issues)
hosting of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016
Summer Olympic Games. The sport market in the 3. Cross-cultural awareness (understanding cul-
aforementioned four BRIC countries outpaced the tural diversity and similarity)
overall global sport markets between 2006 and 2010 4, Systematic awareness (operations of interna-
with a compound annual growth rate of 7.7 percent tional organizations)
Pw GrOlin nls): 5. Options for participation (conducting sport
American professional sport leagues have been business)
capitalizing on the large populations and the grow-
Sport managers need to have competence in these
ing middle-class base of these emerging markets for
skill sets if they wish to work within the modern
10 Pfahl, Li, and MacIntosh

sporting landscape. For emerging sport managers, for sport managers working within international
these experiences will teach them as much as dis- sport). The self is social and socially constructed,
cussions regarding theoretical skill sets will. The yet a person takes her or his own journey, one on
skill sets include personal reflexivity, sensitivity to one with the environment. Thus, to understand
cultural differences, and flexible expertise. others, we must begin by understanding the self
because understanding ourselves provides ways of
Personal Reflexivity understanding others.
First, sport managers need to be reflexive about
themselves, their actions, and their worldviews. Sensitivity to Cultural
Reflexivity describes the state of being self-critical Differences
or analytical. It encompasses personal reflection on
Second, sport managers need to be receptive and
attitudes or actions to understand why they came
sensitive to cultural differences (Harris @ Moran,
about and what outcomes they produced. Why
1991). Most people are aware of the legislation
should a person examine the self when the goal is
against discriminatory hiring or promotion prac-
to understand others? Primarily, a person needs
tices as well as the more severe laws against racially
to be able gauge where he or she stands on issues
or ethnically motivated hate crimes. Sport managers
and what knowledge is known versus inferred.
face a more subtle challenge in relation to cultural
As social beings, humans are a balance of self and
sensitivity, one that usually places one set of cul-
other, (co)constructing life each day. In other words,
tural values at odds with another. For example, an
we are individuals within communities of other
NBA team’s use of Spanish language onjerseys can
individuals who interact and share ideas to create
be seen as a sincere outreach gesture to an excited
understandings of the world around us. As George
but underserved fan community. But the action
Mead (1934), the father of modern sociology, noted,
might be insulting to others, who view it as using
No individual has a mind which operates simply culture to sell tickets without a sincere interest in
in itself, in isolation from the social life process Hispanic culture.
in which it has arisen or out of which it has Another example comes from the 2010 World
emerged and in which the pattern of organized Cup and the infamous vuvuzela horn. The vuvuz-
social behavior has consequently been basically ela is a descendant of a traditional cultural musical
impressed upon it. (p. 222)
instrument found across Africa. Many observers
Further, nothing in this world is absolute, isolated, in the media and football fans called for the horns
or permanent because we are all linked together in to be banned, mostly because of the high levels
some way, especially with our natural environment of noise that they produce, which could endanger
(Pfahl, 2002; Plamintr, 1994). a person’s hearing with prolonged exposure and
When we take the time to learn more about our- interfere with broadcast commentary. Former FIFA
selves, we can learn about our relations to and with president Sepp Blatter squashed all notions of ban-
others and even about other people in deeper and ning the instrument, saying,
meaningful ways. In terms of sport, you might be I have always said that Africa has a different
a person who cheers for the underdog at a sporting rhythm, a different sound. . . . I don’t see ban-
event and considers such an action a part of who ning the music traditions of fans in their own
you are or something you value. But this behavior country. Would you want to see a ban on the fan
is associated with cultural values from the com- traditions in your country? (Baxter, 2010, p. 2)
munity in which you were raised. Learning this
lesson about yourself helps you gather information Blatter’s decision lay at the intersection of cultural
from others (e.g., dialogue, observation) and begin traditions in one community and standards of
to understand how they view the world or, in this behavior in another (most negative complaints and
case, a sport league, team, or event. Of course, new comments came from Western or Caucasian cor-
experiences and lessons mean that changes can ners). If Blatter banned the horns, he risked having
occur to existing beliefs or value structures, but the move being viewed as racially motivated or,
this change is only natural (and probably useful at the very least, culturally insensitive, especially
 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers 11

because the event was the first World Cup held and critical analysis expertise that are grounded in
in Africa (and one that he championed). Yet his technical, human relations, and conceptual skills
comments, however positive, can be interpreted in and the principles of learning organizations (Katz
another way because he praises the difference of & Kahn, 1978; Senge, 1994), although they differ
Africa, a continent with numerous cultures. This slightly in size and scope. Operational expertise
account illustrates the complexity of culture in involves knowledge of marketing, sales, finance,
international sport. Hence, culture has been broadly accounting, economics, and personnel manage-
used in this chapter. It might mean traditional con- ment—the foundations of business practices. The
ceptualizations of cultures (e.g., nations, regions), combination of the foundations with integrated
it might be used to explain what it is like to work strategic thinking (i.e., systems and critical analysis
within an organization (i.e., organizational culture), expertise) is the ultimate expression of operational
or it might mean cultures within cultures (e.g., surf expertise. Remember, however, that these skills are
culture). In any case, sport managers must balance gained through both education and experience.
the notions of difference and similarity; homogene- Effective sport managers must have communica-
ity and heterogeneity; and local, regional, national, tion expertise to be able to communicate thoughts,
and international aspects. Sport managers need to ideas, and concepts from around the world or from
appreciate that culture has a strong influence on their own backyard. Finally, international sport
how a person perceives the world, and acts and managers need well-developed systems and criti-
reacts when dealing with others. cal analysis expertise to see the interrelationships
In a vast world of numerous cultures, how can among various organizational and market variables
this be done effectively? Newspapers, magazines, as well as the ability to balance macro and micro
journals, mediated programming, and other sources perspectives within a given issue.
provide constant access to international issues in The first component to flexible expertise is
sport and beyond. In terms of direct industry prac- operational expertise. To some extent in a market
tice, sport managers can examine the methods that system, operational expertise is understandable
sporting events and teams around the world use and translatable across cultures. But some nuances
to engage fans, to market themselves, and to exist must be addressed. Examples include accounting
within different cultural realms. Such an investiga- and financial regulation that differ across countries
tion will provide a solid base from which to reex- or regions (e.g., European Union), approaches to
amine practices in a person’s own organization or sales and marketing that vary along a continuum of
industry and adapt them to international contexts relationship, and perhaps most difficult, the chal-
in a culturally sensitive way. lenges of working for or managing people from other
countries or cultures where different regulations or
Flexible Expertise laws govern work.
Third, a sport manager requires a flexible exper- A second expertise is communication. Communi-
tise. Understanding oneself and others and then cation involves the knowledge of oneself and how to
communicating with them involves a fundamental communicate various messages because the world is
worldview that values flexibility and adaptation. (co)constructed among individuals within commu-
Opening up oneself to other cultures, influences, nities (Baxter @ Montgomery, 1996). Communica-
and knowledge requires a person to challenge tion expertise can be thought of as communication
personal (and perhaps deeply held) beliefs or prac- competence, or the ability to “effectively exchange
tices, find information that runs counter to belief meaning through a common system of symbols,
systems, or learn something not previously known. signs, or behaviors” (Bourhis, Adams, Titsworth, &
Sport managers who maintain flexible and adapt- Harter, 2004, p. 28). Communication competence
able behaviors and practices will be better placed is difficult to achieve because others have different
to seize opportunities, create them where they have perspectives, sense-making processes, and goals.
not been capitalized on, and manage challenges to Understanding and developing strong communi-
operations. cation skills allow sport managers to interact with
Sport managers, then, must develop operational others to make sense of the world and communicate
expertise, communication expertise, and systems with others in their organization to achieve goals
12 Pfahl, Li, and MacIntosh

and effect change. Cultural and international dif- efforts. Although they cannot overcome all barriers,
ferences such as distance, language differences, and cultural and otherwise (e.g., time), this example
cultural practices (e.g., silence, relationship develop- demonstrates the importance of cultural sensitivity
ment) create noise, which affects the ability to com- in sport business practices.
municate with others. A sport manager can develop In conclusion, developing all three expertise
communication skills to deal with these issues by areas is a never-ending process. The journey is
using a systems approach—one that simultaneously the key to the development of a sport manager.
understands person, culture, and context (Hersey, Throughout this journey, sport managers have
1984). For example, the National Football League numerous opportunities to use these expertise areas
(NFL) has several international websites (Canada, in relation to the issues explored in this chapter and
China, Japan, Mexico, United Kingdom, and NFL- throughout the book.
Latino.com). To overcome distance issues (time,
too, because NFL games are shown in the middle of ~ Summary
the night or early in the morning in some of these
The concepts and current issues within the world of
countries), each site is complete with videos, broad-
cast schedules, local news and information, and
international sport discussed in this chapter and the
community content (e.g., user-generated content) to competencies necessary to work within and among
keep the game alive within each community. The them are of supreme importance to sport managers.
Chinese and Japanese websites are created using Sport managers who are able to understand and
a template that accounts for stylistic needs for the work with the numerous social forces affecting sport
characters in each language. Creating websites in will be able to play important roles in creating the
this manner shows that the personnel at the NFL future of international sport.
understand the importance of integrating cultural Issues such as globalization, regionalism, and
practices into their marketing and information localization place a responsibility on sport manag-
ers to reach across country and cultural borders
and learn about other people and communities.
Enabling and constraining these efforts are com-
plex issues including politics, economics, laws,
The chapter discussed the importance of and cultural beliefs and practices. Communication,
communication and communication com- then, becomes a significant key to success. Time,
petence. Reflect on recent interpersonal patience, open mindedness, and a willingness to
learn and develop personal skill sets will all serve
Or group interactions that you have had
a sport manager well in the international sport
yourself or witnessed with others in terms
world. The remainder of this book is dedicated to
of interactions with people from another
building on the issues discussed in this chapter. By
country. Are you able to identify interac-
the end of the book, the reader should have a better
tions that were not effective? Why? Can understanding of the complexities inherent in the
you identify ones that were effective? Why? modern sport landscape and a deeper knowledge of
his or her place within the international sport world.
 Development of Globally Competent Sport Managers is

How does globalization influence sport today?

Describe the tension that exists between homogeneity and heterogeneity in terms of sport and
culture.
What are the differences between global, international, and regional sport? Provide examples of
sport in each.
4. Discuss the global trends in emerging sports and markets.
5. What are three competencies needed by international sport managers? Provide examples of each.
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The Globalized Sport Industry:
Historical Perspectives

James J. Zhang, PhD

University of Georgia

Demetrius W. Pearson, EdD

University of Houston

Tyreal Y. Qian, MS
University of Georgia

Euisoo Kim, MBA

University of Georgia

Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

e Define the concept of globalization and recognize its impact on the sport industry
as a whole.
e Recognize that certain aspects of contemporary global sports have emerged from
the past and are connected with many different sport forms today.
e Understand the historical evolvement of modern sports from indigenous, local,
or regional games to become global competitions.
e Identify major forces and critical junctures that have contributed to the intensi-
fication of sport giobalization.
¢ Comprehend the sport industry as a growing global business and understand
issues and challenges surrounding the demand and supply of sport in a global-
ized marketplace.

Industrial Revolution labor movement

modern sport sport globalization
sport business

15
| 16 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

lobalization, assimilation, and accultura- Growth of Sport During

tion are elements that have given rise to
how people within their respective soci- _the Industrial Revolution
eties internalize aspects of life through myriad Physical activity contests of many sporting natures
ideologies, including politics, religion, governance, and their ancillary components (¢.g., equipment,
economics, child rearing, education, and social facilities, rules, and training regimens) have been
etiquette. Coakley (2017) operationally defines exchanged, emulated, and inculcated for centuries.
globalization as However, never has globalization or international-
a process through which financial capital, ization of sport been as pervasive and widespread
products, knowledge, worldviews, and cultural as it is today. Nations around the world are now
practices flow through political borders and participating in various aspects of the sport mar-
influence people’s lives. Globalization often ketplace.
involves exchanges of resources and elements “Quasi-sports” (.e., early activities reminiscent
of culture—but those exchanges are seldom of institutionalized sport forms), games, and related
equal, because some nations have more power physical contests can be traced to antiquity in many
to export and infuse their money and ways of countries around the world. According to Sage
life into other societies. (p. 429)
and Eitzen (2013), these activities had a narrow
In fact, globalization is not a new concept. geographical base historically and were tradition-
According to Eitzen (2012), a globalizing economy ally local and endemic to a particular region. Many
has been in existence and evolving for over 500 of them originated within the indigenous culture,
years. This international exchange of life experi- were delivered by nomadic tribesman and trad-
ences, inventions, and ideologies grew exponen- ers, or were inculcated by proselytizing explorers
tially during the late 19th and 20th centuries in and conquerors. According to Howell and Howell
part because of major advancements in transpor- (1988), the first real evidence of sport and games
tation (air, land, and sea), communication (tele- was found in the Early Dynastic period of the Sume-
phone, telegraph, television, film, etc.), and tech- rian civilization circa 3000 to 1500 BC.
nology (satellites, microcomputers, Internet, etc.). Various archeological artifacts depicting early
Consistent with the interchange of consumable forms of boxing and wrestling were unearthed. But
products and services are the migratory patterns Howell and Howell note that some of the archeo-
of people and customs that are both accepted and logical finds depicting such competitive challenges
rejected (Banjeree G Linstead, 2001; Rowe, 2003). may not have been what sport historians would
This chapter explores the many aspects of global- commonly perceive as sport and games. The afore-
ization evolvement and the interconnectedness mentioned physical contests were engaged in, but
that currently exists through international sport many were never recorded, particularly those of the
involvement. In this chapter, we first examine the lower class (Howell & Howell, 1988). Therefore,
growth of sport during the Industrial Revolution many sport historians tend to focus attention on
and the spread of American sporting values. Then, the Greek National Festivals (aka “crown games’),
we trace the development of international athletic and specifically the Olympic Games (Coakley, 2017,
arms race and militarism throughout the 20th Howell & Howell, 1988; Swanson & Spears, 1995;
century and major surge of sport globalization Woods, 2016). These games are noteworthy because
in the late 20th century. Finally, we close out the they incorporated a modicum of organization and
chapter by discussing contemporary development structure. In addition, evidence of their contests
trends in globalization of the sporting goods indus- abounds through etchings, pottery, sculptures, and
try, international migration and sport, sport labor literature.
movement, and benefits of international athletes Arguably, the most notable acculturation of
in sport teams and leagues. indigenous games and quasi-sport forms were
 The Globalized Sport Industry 17

the bastardized contests of the Romans usurped during the Industrial Revolution period to the mid-
from the Greeks. Their belligerent ethos was con- 20th century and helped lay a strong foundation for
siderably different from that of their vanquished today’s sophisticated sport marketplace, which is
counterparts, whose sport orientation reflected an currently reflective of international athletic contests
aesthetic appreciation for contests of an athletic and federations as well as their ancillary trappings.
nature that included the love of rhythm, beauty, Maguire et al. 2002) contend that a long-term
and music. The Romans were more pragmatic and historical and comparative approach can help
brutal in their employment of physical contests and explain how certain aspects of contemporary
games. Coakley (2017) noted that these spectacles global sport have emerged from the past and are
created opportunities to hone the skills of the connected with many different sport forms today.
military, entertain a disillusioned citizenry, and This analysis of the development and expansion
rid the empire of social undesirables (e.g., crimi- of sport during the Industrial Revolution must
nals, heretics, POWs, Christians, and disobedient include a discussion of the salient contributions
slaves). In addition, man versus animal and animal of Great Britain and its cultural imperialism. As
versus animal contests, as well as bear baiting and the most powerful country in Europe during the
bull baiting were staged. Thus, the term quasi-sport 19th century, its culture and recreational pastimes
appears to be an appropriate designation for such were instilled within its distant global colonies. At
activities. The orientation of the Greeks and Romans one point, “the countries of the Empire accounted
toward competitive athletic contests was consider- for a quarter of the world’s population” (Woods,
ably different. 2016, p. 215), including colonies in Africa, India,
As noted earlier, globalization of sport forms is Singapore, Hong Kong, Australia, New Zealand, the
not of recent origin (Maguire, 2004), nor is it limited West Indies, Canada, and America. Great Britain’s
to North America. Nonetheless, this section of the sporting values and influences were so pervasive
chapter will use the onset of sport globalization pri- that it was dubbed “The Mother of Sport” (Glassford
marily during the Industrial Revolution in Europe & Redmond, 1988, p. 134) even though its many
(1780s) and North America (1820s) that subse- contributions were more in the areas of structure,
quently led to the Gilded Age and the exponential formalization, and standardization. Suffice it to say
growth of sport in the United States (Barney, 1988; that most major sports of the 19th century were
Coakley, 2017). This era is often referred to as the organized and exported from Great Britain. Other
age of progress (Glassford @ Redmond, 1988, p. countries noteworthy for their influence on early
140). This quintessential period in the development sport forms included Germany, Sweden, Denmark,
of contemporary sport (Coakley, 2017) enabled it to and Norway. They resented British culture and
become a major global commodity. rejected the concomitant sporting customs in favor
Born during the Industrial Revolution, modern of their own national sport systems that embraced
sport developed extensively during the 19th and gymnastics and sundry winter sports (e.g., skiing,
20th centuries (Glassford & Redmond, 1988). figure skating, curling, etc.).
Technological advances in various areas spurred the Great Britain’s contribution to international
development and expansion of diverse sport forms. sports can also be attributed to its spread of soccer,
This seminal period (1875-1925) is noteworthy as a currently the most popular sport in the world
starting point because it reflects and encompasses (‘The History of Soccer,” n.d.) although the origin
the organization and institutionalization of the of soccer is in question because various forms
many tenets endemic to organized sport. Among of the game were played centuries ago in China,
them were standardized rules and guidelines, docu- Japan, Greece, Rome, and the British Isles. But the
mentation of results and statistics, codes of conduct contemporary form of soccer is believed to have
for participants and spectators, sanctioned facilities begun in England in 1863 (FIFA, 2017). Because
and equipment, appropriate attire, and eligibility of Great Britain’s immense influence internation-
requirements. These milestone changes occurred ally around the turn of the 19th century, the game
18 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

spread rapidly around the world. Football (soccer) a Spread of American

associations were formed in such countries as the
Netherlands and Denmark (1889), New Zealand Sporting Values:
(1891), Argentina (1893), Chile (1895), Switzerland The American influence on sport globalization
and Belgium (1895), Italy (1898), Germany and Uru- primarily occurred concurrently with the Olympic
guay (1900), Hungary (1901), and France (1907). movement. After Canadian-born physical educator
Currently, people in over 210 countries play soccer James Naismith invented basketball, his Young
and vie for the coveted World Cup every four years. Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) disciples
The popularity and pervasiveness of British exported it, as well as baseball and track and field,
games and the English sport system purported to to China and its provinces in the mid-1890s (Cui,
inculcate certain revered values such as honesty, fair 2015; Ling, 2008). The proselytizing missionary
play, sportsmanship, initiative, courage, patriotism, work and sport promotion of David Willard Lyon
and loyalty (Glassford & Redmond, 1988). These and later Robert Gailey in 1898 at Chinese colleges
attributes were perceived to be outcomes of sport laid the foundation for national athletic champion-
participation and elements that would produce lead- ships. The most noteworthy was the 1915 Far East
ers in business and government. In essence, sport Games, a regional variation of the Olympic Games
arguably became Great Britain’s most important (Gems et al., 2017). The Japanese were also early
cultural export during the late 19th century. Its converts and consumers of American sport. Amer-
world prominence was so profound that it became ican-educated Japanese students learned the game
the impetus for the structural underpinnings of at U.S. colleges and in the 1890s brought it back to
the modern Olympic Games. Baron Pierre de Cou- their country, where it became the sport of choice.
bertin, the French aristocrat and architect of the YMCA-endorsed sports were often incorporated
reconstituted Olympic Games in 1896, was instru- into the U.S. War Department's agenda as a conduit
mental in the early international sport movement to channel and rebuff hostile insurgent threats to
(Gems, Borish, & Pfister, 2017; Maguire, 2004). colonial rule and American acculturation. Akin to
Impressed with what he saw and learned during his the Roman Empire’s employment of quasi-sport
visit to England and its public school sport system, contests to entertain and distract a disgruntled
de Coubertin sought to emulate this pedagogical populace, the U.S. War Department incorporated
concept. In so doing, he linked the British system YMCA-sanctioned sports and religious tenets as
of sport and games with the early Olympic credo diversions. This military ploy helped spread Ameri-
to create the modern Olympic movement (Howell can sports and its sporting values after their con-
& Howell, 1988; Woods, 2016). The implications quest of Spain during the Spanish-American War in
of this unprecedented amalgamated concept are 1898. As a result, American sports were spread to
without question one of the most galvanizing and the newly acquired Spanish colonies: Cuba, Puerto
polarizing aspects in sport history. Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands. Filipinos
Originally staged in Athens, Greece, with 14 were most receptive to baseball, basketball, and
participating nations, the Olympics remain as the boxing. Manila, where the Manila Carnival was
most celebrated multisporting event worldwide, held, invited other Asian nations to participate in
with over 200 nations competing (Woods, 2016). what would be known as the Far Eastern Olym-
This international sporting event, predicated on pics. Basketball became the national sport, and
de Coubertin’s Olympic creed, has embodied the boxing produced numerous world champions over
geopolitical and sociocultural issues endemic to all the years (Gems et al., 2017). The U.S. military’s
countries at one time or another. Although plagued sport influence was so pervasive in the Philippines
by boycotts, bombings, hypernationalism, terror- that some military leaders arrogantly contended,
ism, and global warfare that led to the cancellation “Baseball had done more to ‘civilize’ Filipinos than
of three Olympic Games, they have withstood anything else” (Seymore, 1990, pp. 324-325).
these global challenges and continue to rein as the The U.S. Army was also instrumental in the
most prominent purveyor of sport, in spite of the exportation of American sport forms to Europe
multitude of international sporting events that have during their deployment in World War I. Pope
emulated its concept.
 The Globalized Sport Industry 19

The NBA's Road to Globalization

The NBA is seemingly the most rapidly growing sport 320 million fans across the globe (NBA, 2012). The
league in the United States and perhaps across the NBA Global Games, also known as the preseason tours
globe. The influx of international basketball players into or exhibition games, are a series of games featuring
the NBA did not occur until April 8, 1989, when the NBA teams that are played outside the United States
Fédération Internationale de Basketball (FIBA) modified and Canada. Since its outset, the Global Games have
the policy that forbade professional basketball players been a powerful tool to reach out to the passionate and
from participating in FIBA competitions and allowed growing fan base overseas. Along with offering fans
those foreign professionals to play in the NBA without a unique immersive experience, the Global Games
being disqualified from representing their countries in provide a great opportunity for teams and players
the Olympics. The NBA 2016-2017 season witnessed a to experience different cultures and bond with one
record-breaking international presence marked by the another through community service, fan events, and
participation of 113 foreign players from 41 countries social activities.
and territories (NBA, 2016). The internationalization of In addition to mounting an all-out effort to explore
the NBA has greatly enhanced the image of the league foreign markets, teams in the NBA have also been
as a pioneer in terms of promoting diversity and the revolutionizing the way that sport is marketed and
multicultural profile of the teams. consumed by attracting a more diverse and engaged
Internationalization is a slow process, and devel- fan base in the international marketplace to increase
oping a fan base loyal to a sport culture that is not viewership and broaden sponsorship appeal. Over
endemic can be difficult, if not impossible. In 1992 the 287 million people in China watched newly signed
NBA connected to non-American markets by forming Yao Ming play his first game in the 2002-2003 season.
the Dream Team, including Michael Jordan and Earvin Even after Yao Ming retired, the Rockets are considered
“Magic” Johnson. Major efforts like these use cultural China’s NBA team (Blinebury, 2016). The benefits of
heritage, governmental relations, facility infrastructure, maintaining a close tie with the Chinese fan base is
and human resources in local communities. In the past demonstrated by the Rockets’ six major partnerships
25 years, this strategy has helped the league achieve with Companies based in China, including Peak,
phenomenal success. The NBA now broadcasts its Scisky, and ZTE, some of which have moved on to be
games in 215 countries and territories, has established major NBA sponsors (Feigen, 2016).
13 international offices, and has actively engaged with
ALEK LDLGPOIOOS OPNS SIOSE IN I OEI III YN I IESE R IS I EI LITEES IS IIIS IS OSI LILLIE LI IIIS ETE

(1997) maintained that the military personnel semination of American sport forms throughout
deployed were more than soldiers. They were ath- Europe culminated in the Inter-Allied Games of
letes as well. Scientific American noted this point: 1919, in which 29 nations participated. According
“Uncle Sam has created not only an army of soldiers to Pope (2010, p. 200), “Never before had so much
... but an army of athletes” (Pope, 2010, p. 199). information about a sports event reached so many
This sentiment was mirrored by Naismith (1941, publications in so many countries.” Newspapers
p. 140): “The development of the game by military around the world covered the Inter-Allied Games.
forces has been in some measure responsible for The YMCA also facilitated the expansion of Ameri-
the spread of basketball into the foreign countries.” can sporting values by radioing the results of the
The vision linking sport and the military was not World Series to military personnel stationed in
necessarily a new strategy. Sport emerged as a part war zones from 1917 through 1919. In addition,
of the American spirit and traveled wherever the the military also procured large amounts of ath-
U.S. military was deployed. After WWI, all West letic equipment; prepared rulebooks and training
Point cadets were required to engage in major sports manuals; secured specialists, venues, and prizes;
and learn how to teach them. The aggressive dis- and constructed contest brackets and schedules.
20 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

In essence, the military became international mis- ensuing athletics arms race (Gems et al., 2017). The
sionaries of American sporting life. United States, the Soviet Union, and allies of both
countries employed sport, somewhat as Germany
i International Athletic Arms had done several decades earlier, to promote their
sociopolitical agenda. Globalization occurred not
Race and Militarism only in sport forms and their structural aspects but
Throughout the early decades of the 20th century, also with athletes, equipment, apparel, coaching
sport became more prominent, political, and per- techniques, and performance enhancers.
vasive worldwide in spite of the Great Depression
and a propagandized Berlin Olympic Games in Globalization of Sport
1936. Infamous for its anti-Semitic stance and racist
ideology, the 1936 Olympic Games contributed
in the Late 20th Century
to the expansion of sport through early television Since the late 1980s the world economy as a whole
broadcasts and Leni Riefenstahl’s film coverage. has become significantly more international;
Her state-of-the art slow-motion and underwater exports and imports have grown over one and a
photography in Olympia proved to be a major half times faster than GDP (Kobrin, 2015). Besides
breakthrough for coaches and athletes seeking to the escalation and dissemination of globalization
improve athletic performance (Gems et al., 2017). in areas such as transportation, communication,
Telecast of baseball and football in America in 1939 technology, and international migration of labor
also helped spread those sport forms nationally and and residents, the world economy is becoming
internationally. For example, Negro League baseball more closely integrated at a faster pace than ever
teams traveled to Japan, Hong Kong, Hawaii, and before. Economic globalization and integration are
the Philippines in the 1920s and 1930s; during the influenced by such components as international
1940s, touring Black all-star teams played through- trade of goods and services, capital and financial
out Latin America and in winter baseball in the investment, multinational corporations, and labor
Mexican Leagues (Heaphy, 2003). migration. Internationalization of sport has been
Sports and political ideology gained greater significantly strengthened in the last decades as
significance during the 1930s and 1940s in fascist manifested in the prosperity of the sporting goods
regimes in Europe and Asia, notably in Italy, Ger- industry and the sport labor market, the popularity
many, Spain, and Japan. Even during the buildup of professional sport teams and leagues, and the
and onset of World War II, sports were expand- increasing prominence of international sporting
ing globally. American professional baseball clubs events. Simultaneously, ethical concerns and con-
were playing teams north and south of its borders, troversial issues associated with this growing trend
as were Canadian hockey teams. Both leagues have arisen (Zhang, Pitts, @ Kim, 2017).
(MLB and NHL) received government approval to Sport is widely considered a universal language
continue playing during the war years to maintain that transcends national boundaries. At its best,
public morale. Although the Olympic Games were sport brings people together, teaching teamwork
canceled in 1940 and 1944, they resumed in the and tolerance regardless of participants’ origin,
country that contributed most to its revitalization: background, religious beliefs, or economic status
Great Britain. Politics were a salient factor in deter- (Dyreson, 2003). The age of mass communication
mining which nations participated, and this factor and interplanetary technology since the 1960s has
would be a cornerstone of future Olympic Games. contributed immeasurably to the ever-expanding
The postwar years ushered in a more modern sport industry. The rapid advancement of new infor-
world as major advancements in technology mation, communication, and transportation tech-
occurred (e.g., nuclear armament). Growing politi- nology, which eliminates the formidable obstacles
cal tensions, international territorial disputes, and for sport exchange created by time, space, language,
the space race brought about a Cold War between and ideology, and an interconnected global market
former WWIlallies: the United States and the Soviet that enables free mobility of capital, knowledge,
Union. This rivalry ultimately led to an unprec- labor, and culture, have greatly enhanced the sport
edented military buildup in both countries and an business opportunities at the individual, organiza-
 The Globalized Sport Industry 21

tional, and national levels (Andreff & Szymanski,

2006; Zhang et al., 2017). EOE NPSL NEILLANE,

Internationalization is a nonnegligible phenom- Students form groups. As a group, iden-

enon in recent decades as sport-related businesses tify one sport and discuss the historical
have mushroomed worldwide with the involvement evolution of the sport. Use index cards
of governments, ventures, companies, and organi- or computer graphing to build key time
zations. Many governments look for opportunities blocks to illustrate how the sport evolved
to host international sport events, hoping to boost from an indigenous, local, or regional
economic development and secure up-to-date game to a global competition. Identify the
facilities and infrastructure. For instance, the host major forces that contributed to the sport’s
country of the 2018 Winter Olympic Games, South globalization.
Korea, was one of the bidding countries for the 2010
and 2014 Winter Olympics. After South Korea was
selected as the host country, extra highways and
high-speed trains to Pyeongchang, the host city, order, and raised both challenges and oppor-
were constructed and some sport facilities such as tunities (Armijo, 2007; Jain, 2006)
a bobsleigh track were built for the first time in the The internationalization of sport has also
nation’s history. Sporting goods enterprises operate increased the exposure and extended the outreach
affiliate companies internationally, aiming to secure of professional sport teams whose marketing strate-
competitive advantages in such areas as low operat- gies can consider both the international and home
ing and labor cost. One of the most famous sport- markets. The rising spending power of middle-class
ing goods companies, Adidas, is known to operate households in the developing economies (along with
145 subsidiaries throughout the globe, including their large populations) has enticed major profes-
the continents of Europe, Asia, and North and sional sport franchises to those countries. Examples
South Americas as of 2015 (Adidas Group, 2016). of professional teams and leagues’ marketing efforts
International sport organizations such as FIFA and to broaden the base of fans and supporters inter-
IOC have tremendous influence on some of the nationally include globally renowned soccer clubs
sport policies that sport organizations in individual such as FC Barcelona and Manchester United host-
countries must follow. For instance, FIFA banned ing preseason tours abroad and providing youth and
countries such as Indonesia, Kuwait, and Benin club training that focused on the Asian continent,
from participating in international soccer matches MLB scheduling its season-opening games abroad,
because they broke the FIFA rule that a govern- and the NBA playing regular-season games in some
ment cannot interfere with its football association of the emerging economies (Zhang et al., 2017).
(BBC, 2016).
Over the last few decades, three salient themes ~ Globalization of the
appear to have emerged in the process of interna-
tionalization:
Sporting Goods Industry
With today’s globalized economy, geographical and
1. Geographical shifting of the production and
cultural boundaries are continuously transcended.
consumption of sport goods and services
Many nations and regions have strategically devel-
2. Promotion of diversity and inclusiveness, as oped and adopted a comprehensive plan to use sport
well as compliance with international produc- events and sport participation as catalytic agents
tion and consumption standards, to remain to transform communities, revitalize urban envi-
competitive in the global marketplace ronments, improve public infrastructure, promote
3. Rapidly growing influence of the emerging project destination images for tourism and business,
economic powers, notably the BRICS countries enrich residential quality of life, nurture an active
(Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa), lifestyle, enhance societal harmony and solidarity,
which have extensively shaped the contours of and promote interorganizational collaborations and
the global economy, challenged the existing work efficiency (Zhang, Huang, @ Wang, 2017).
22 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

Internationalization of sports has also played a key to brands and licensors (Baker, Liu, Brison, & Pifer,
role in enhancing the global awareness of a city or 2017). Issues surrounding trademarks, copyrights,
country, and building a harmonious sense of com- and licensing rights lead to interesting research
munity within the region (Garcia, 2004). Sport tour- streams with empirical significance for sporting
ism, for example, has redefined the extrinsic value goods companies and law firms. Moreover, the
of sport, suggesting that hosting international sport recent clashes between large sport organizations
events or tournaments could stimulate economic and student-athletes in terms of the use of personal
growth, enhance destination image and branding, image and likeness illustrate the controversies and
generate positive publicity, and showcase the devel- complexities behind the sizable financial gains
opment of local society (e.g., Hallmann, Kaplanidou, generated by the sport-related companies, rais-
& Breuer, 2010; Huang, Mao, Wang, & Zhang, ing questions about whether student-athletes are
2015; Richard & Jones, 2008). Mega sport events appropriately compensated for their contribution to
such as the World Cup and the Olympic Games the sport enterprise as sport revenues and coaches’
command considerable international attention and salaries have soared in the past decades.
accommodate the growing interest in sport tourism Few people foresaw the exponential growth of
(Green & Chalip, 1998). Similarly, Preuss and Alfs the sporting goods industry. In the early 1980s,
(2011) analyzed how China used the 2008 Olympics only brand names like Wilson, Spaulding, Rawl-
and worldwide media coverage to convey messages ings, and Titleist enjoyed public recognition (Lipsey,
related to promoting better business relations, 2006). By 2017 the sporting goods industry was
attracting more foreign investment and potential ranked as one of the top revenue producers; over
future tourists, and accumulating symbolic capital. 20 companies had sales surpassing US$1 billion
To some extent, hosting mega sport events can help (Lipsey, 2006). As the scale and scope of sporting
the host send tailored information to focal external goods businesses have grown exponentially, the
audiences and improve the image and the perception industry has become more sophisticated, extend-
of certain aspects of the host city or nation. ing into goods and services above and beyond the
Because sport contests and athletes are promoted traditional jersey, T-shirt, and collectible items. The
and covered extensively through global media early sport equipment and apparel manufacturers
lenses, what athletes wear, endorse, and use as like Adidas, Spaulding, Penn, Everlast, Wilson,
equipment are of paramount concern. All these Hillerich & Bradsby, and others, whose products
items have become internationalized commodities were sold around the globe before the mid-20th
in the landscape of sport. The global sporting goods century, gave rise to a sport marketplace that is more
industry, which consists of sporting equipment, competitive and pervasive than ever. The global
apparel, and athletic footwear, is one of the most sporting goods industry has grown steadily over
conspicuous facets of the internationalization of the past decades. European and North American
sport because it is a highly structured, differenti- brands, including Adidas, Nike, Puma, Reebok, and
ated, and labor-sensitive segment. Because people Under Armour, to name a few, dominate the indus-
around the world enjoy playing, following, and try. Although some Asian brands such as Mizuno
participating in sport, sport leagues and some sport- and Li-Ning, are growing in popularity, they are
related organizations are among the top 150 global comparatively focused on domestic or regional
licensors. Examples of these licensors include the markets. The international nature of modern sport
PGA Tour, Major League Baseball (MLB), National brought about a volatile mix of opportunities and
Basketball Association (NBA), English Premier challenges to the extremely competitive sporting
League (EPL), German Football Association (DFB), goods industry and its relevant businesses (Nadvi,
The Enthusiast Network (sport media platform), and Lund-Thomsen, Xue, & Khara, 2011). On one
Kawasaki (motorsports bikes and goods) (License hand, the booming sponsorship market provides
Global, 2017). Yet in some parts of the world where unprecedented venues for major sporting goods
trademark protection and royalty payments are brands to promote and associate their products with
not effectively regulated and monitored by the law, professional sport clubs, leading sport tournaments
piracy and trademark infringements are prevalent, and events, and superstar players through various
causing serious reputational and financial damage types of sponsorship deals. On the other hand, the
 The Globalized Sport Industry 93

Learning Activity _ popularity of diverse sport forms offer additional

opportunities for sport and nonsport organizations
Pick any sporting goods company. Con-
and businesses domestically and internationally to
duct a comprehensive review of literature penetrate new markets and demographic segments.
through print and online resources. Outline In the meantime, migration has also resulted in
the trajectory of the migration of this com- slave-like conditions, drained talent from their
pany in terms of its manufacturers. Present homes to richer countries, and produced inequal-
your findings to the class. ity. The negative perspectives of talent migration
are included in further discussions in this chapter.

‘ Sport Labor Movement

popularity of the brands and subsequent increased
Historically, noticeable transcontinental patterns in
demand for their products also give rise to ethical
the recruitment and subsequent retention of sport
and legal concerns pertaining to the supply chain.
talents were initially identified in the late 1980s
Poor working conditions, unfair labor standards,
and early 1990s when a sport labor movement
and questionable regulatory practices have caused
occurred between North America and Europe in
international outcry and protests in the past (Van
professional football, basketball, and ice hockey
Tulder & Kolk, 2001).
(Butler @ Dzikus, 2015; Maguire, 1996, 2008).
For instance, Maguire (1996) found that Canadian
_. International Migration migrants who had experience with Canadian ice
_and Sport hockey leagues contributed significantly to the
development of British ice hockey leagues in the
Without a doubt, technological advances in broad- 1990s, which had a low standard in play and mar-
casting and communication have helped transcend ginal status as a sport. Ever since, the global move-
national and regional boundaries and made it ment of athletes has become a prominent feature
easy to deliver sport products and services, yet of the internationalization of sport in a variety of
it is today’s convenience of on-site presence of contexts around the globe. Notable examples are
human resources that has ultimately pushed the Ichiro Suzuki, a Japanese professional baseball
sport industry to new heights. Essentially, human outfielder who played for the Seattle Mariners, New
knowledge, skills, capabilities, and talents are key York Yankees, and Miami Marlins of MLB; Kristaps
driving forces for continued internationalization of Porzingis, a Latvian professional basketball player
sport. On the positive side, international migration, for the New York Knicks of the NBA; Diana Lorena
a global phenomenon that is increasing in scope and Taurasi, an American professional basketball player
impact, profoundly facilitates sport inclusion, inter- for the Phoenix Mercury of the Women’s National
action, and integration. It also tends to remove the Basketball Association and UMMC Ekaterinburg of
borders and isolation within sports played world- Russia; and Lionel Andrés “Leo” Messi, an Argentine
wide. For example, Laotian immigrants enjoyed professional footballer who plays for Spanish club
playing sepak takraw and introduced the sport in Barcelona (Zhang et al., 2017). By 2017 over 600
Canada in the 1970s. The sport gained popularity former or current NHL players from many coun-
as a school activity, and the increased interest in tries were employed in 36 different hockey leagues
the sport from the public led to the establishment located in Asia and Europe (Fisher, 2017).
of the Sepak Takraw Association of Canada (STAC)
in 1998 (STAC, 2017). In addition, many Latino Impact on the Competitive
and Hispanic immigrants from Latin America
enjoy playing soccer as a leisure activity in the
Landscape
United States. Targeting these populations around Athletes not only go abroad to play for sport teams
the metro Atlanta area, Atlanta United Football and leagues but also may become citizens of a for-
Club joined Major League Soccer (MLS) and began eign country to compete in international sporting
playing in 2017 as a member of the Eastern Confer- events. For example, Korean-born short-track speed
ence (Henry, 2015). The emergence and growing skater Hyun-soo Ahn, also known as Viktor Ahn,
24 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

became a Russian citizen in 2011] after he failed to Shanghai SIPG for £52 million [about US$70 mil-
make the Korean national team for the 2010 Winter lion]), and Carlos Tevez (Boca Juniors to Shanghai
Olympics. He also had conflicts with the Korean Shenhua for £71 million [about US$96 million])
Skate Union. As a member of the Russian national (O’Rourke, 2016; Price, 2017; Telegraph, 2016). In
team, he won three gold medals during the 2014 fact, the signing of some of the best international
Winter Olympics. A growing number of countries players brought enough experience and strength
grant citizenship to talented athletes in an effort to the top Chinese clubs that they could compete
to build their competitiveness internationally. against their counterparts from other Asian coun-
Therefore, migration has significantly influenced tries in the AFC Champions League; eventually
the landscape of the sport industry (Schwartz, some Chinese clubs were able to win championships
Jamieson, & Pitts, 2015). Talented international (Duerden, 2015).
athletes and coaches provide teams with better
performances, higher quality of games, and hefty Athletes as Commodities
financial returns. In this respect, professional sport With respect to athletes, significant numbers of
teams in both developed and emerging economies them move between cities, countries, and conti-
naturally search for the best athletes around the nents for better career opportunities. Contemporary
globe within the budget allowance. sport settings are as diverse and distinct as profes-
Some football clubs within the EPL have experi- sional soccer in Europe and South America, col-
enced the effect of talented international players and legiate sport, professional baseball, and basketball
coaches on team performance and beyond. After in North America, as well as professional soccer
Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed al-Nahyan took over and basketball in Asia where more opportunities
Manchester City Football Club in 2008, the club for international athletes are available. The liquidity
signed high-profile players and coaches with the of sport labor has been one of the most symbolic
capital investment from the new owner. Since then, characteristics of the internationalization of sport
Manchester City enhanced its competitiveness and as the flows of global sport labor have become
won the EPL championship during the 2011-2012 increasingly multidirectional. According to research
season after 44 years of waiting and again during published by the International Center for Sports
the 2013-2014 and 2017-2018 seasons. The club Studies (CIES), an independent study center based
was financially successful as well. Manchester City in Switzerland, in 2013 in the major soccer leagues
announced a record high profit of £20.5 million in Europe, ranging from the “big five” leagues of the
(about US$30 million) in the 2015-2016 season, EPL, Germany’s Bundesliga, Spain’s La Liga, Italy’s
with its fourth place finish in the EPL and qualifica- Serie A, France’s Ligue 1, to other top divisions from
tion into the semifinals of the Champions League Austria to Ukraine, the number of nonresident alien
for the first time in its history (Conn, 2016). The players reached record levels; 36.1 percent of all
Chelsea Football Club followed a similar path as players were internationals in the leagues in which
Manchester City within the EPL. As a consequence, they played (Harris, 2013). In 2017, as suggested by
the competitive landscape within the EPL changed the follow-up study, at least one national represen-
greatly. Newly rising teams placed within the top tative from each of the 174 countries surveyed in
four and pushed traditionally well-performing the research was playing overseas (Poli, Ravenel, &
teams like Liverpool Football Club out of the top Besson, 2017). Brazil is the top exporter of soccer
four for an extended period. Likewise, Chinese pro- talent in the world (1,202), 65 percent of whom
fessional soccer clubs spent huge amounts of money play in UEFA leagues. France (781) and Argentina
and made headlines with astonishing transfer fees (753) secure second and third place in terms of
and weekly salaries. World-class players who have the number of players representing clubs abroad,
moved to the Chinese Super League (CSL) include followed by Serbia (460), England (451), and Spain
Jackson Martinez (Atlético Madrid to Guangzhou (362) (Poli et al., 2017). Table 2.1 lists the country
Evergrande for £32 million [about US$43 million]), of origin of NBA international players during the
Ramires Santos do Nascimento (Chelsea to Jiangsu 2016-2017 season, which depicts a record of 113
Suning for £20 million [about US$27 million]), international players from 41 countries or territo-
Oscar dos Santos Emboaba Junior (Chelsea to ries. These numbers indicate that the globalization
 The Globalized Sport Industry 95

Table 2.1. Country of Origin of 2016- in sport has contributed to the active cross-border
2017 NBA International Players and cross-continent movement of sport labor in the
most recent decade, which was not feasible or even
imaginable a few decades ago when the industry
was less integrated.
Argentina Nonetheless, the domination of Western nations
Australia in the capitalist system also renders the interna-
Austria tional sport migration detrimental in a sense that
Bahamas European clubs appropriate soccer talents from
Bosnia and Herzegovina Africa. Obviously, as opposed to their African
Brazil counterparts, European clubs are more powerful
Cameroon financially and capable of manipulating the terms
Canada and contracts on which an African soccer player
Cape Verde is traded. Because the majority of talent-exporting
Congo countries in Africa still struggle against poverty,
Croatia most clubs there are trade dependent, resulting in
Czech Republic the deskilling and underdevelopment of African
Democratic Republic of the Congo soccer. In other words, a vicious circle is formed
Dominican Republic
on terms and conditions established by European
interests (Darby, Akindes, & Kirwin, 2007). Argu-
France
ably, European professional soccer benefits from the
Georgia
unequal trades; they achieve their development and
Germany
prosperity at the expense of those on the periphery
Greece
of the global economy.
Haiti
Labor movement in North American sport
Israel
displays a similar pattern. For instance, MLB has
Italy
witnessed a substantial rise in international play-
Latvia ers over the past two decades. Although only about
Lithuania 10 percent of MLB players were born outside the
Mali United States in 1985 (Tainsky & Winfree, 2010),
Montenegro over 25 percent of MLB players are now foreign
New Zealand born. During the 2016 MLB season, international
Nigeria players from 18 countries and territories outside
Poland the United States accounted for 27.5 percent of the
Puerto Rico entire player pool. The Dominican Republic led the
Russia way with 82 players. Venezuela ranked second with
Senegal 63. Cuba was third with 23. The 15 other countries
Serbia or territories that sent players to the MLB teams
Slovenia were Puerto Rico (17), Mexico (12), Japan (8), South
South Sudan Korea (8), Canada (6), Panama (4), Colombia and
Spain Curacao (3 each), Brazil and Taiwan (2 each), and
Sweden Aruba, Australia, the Netherlands, Nicaragua, and
the U.S. Virgin Islands (1 each) (Thornburg, 2016).
Switzerland
A similar pattern can be observed in North
Tunisia
American collegiate sport. In the 1999-2000 aca-
Turkey
demic year, 5,858 student-athletes participated and
Ukraine
competed in the NCAA Division I, Division II, and
Venezuela KH
WANWWNM
NMDH
MOwWHI-
—-
wo
NY
KH
WwnrnNnrD
WH
—
Division III, as nonresident aliens (NCAA, 2000).
41 countries 113 players
This number jumped to 18,366 during the 2015-
Data from NBA (2016). 2016 academic year (table 2.2) as an increasing
26 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

number of international athletes chose to sign with Table 2.2 2015-2016 NCAA Student-
the NCAA (NCAA, 2016). A diverse and inclusive Athletes Considered Nonresident Alien
environment attracts an influx of talented interna-
tional athletes who have become invaluable assets Nonresident Alien
for programs in their quest for championships.
Likewise, the NCAA also provides competitive Baseball 269 0
scholarships, top-level educational institutions,
Basketball 735 465
state-of-the-art facilities, professional coaches, and
fierce competition for international student-athletes Beach volleyball 0 69
to improve both their quality of play and their lives Bowling 0 9
(Love & Kim, 2011). Besides bringing international
Cross country 422 423
sport talent to the United States, the NCAA has
also been active in reaching out to international Equestrian 0 14
audiences beyond the United States. Through the Fencing 40 39
partnership between the Pacific-12 Conference Field hockey 0 249
(Pac-12) and Alibaba Group Holding Limited, the
Football 273 0
world’s largest online and mobile commerce com-
pany, at least one regular-season collegiate men’s Golf 763 608
basketball game will be played annually in Shanghai Gymnastics 2 39
and streamed online across the country (Soper, Ice hockey 642 344
2015). Besides playing games in China, the Pac-12
Lacrosse 250 99
Men’s Basketball All-Stars paid a visit to Australia
and played against the Australian Olympic team Rifle 3 i
(Pacl2, 2016a). With a growing global impact, Rowing 131 265
the exhibition game has turned into an important Rugby ) 13
marquee event of Pac-12 Global, “an initiative that
promotes goodwill and showcases the Conference Sailing 6 0
and its member institutions in China and around Skiing 96 5/
the world through student-athlete exchanges and Soccer 2,641 923
sport” (Pacl2, 2016b).
Softball 0 130
In an effort to promote sport participation,
organize sport competitions, enhance cultural Squash 84 54
and academic exchanges among college students Swimming 552 966
in the world, and ultimately elevate harmony and Synchronized swimming 0 3
cooperation among future leaders of the world, the
Tennis 1,687 1,589
Fédération Internationale du Sport Universitaire
(FISU) (International University Sports Federation) Track, indoor 735 772
was established in 1949. FISU’s main responsi- Track, outdoor 902 808
Triathlon 0 1

By
Volleyball 66 398
Water polo 62 66
As a Class, discuss four recent examples Wrestling 30 0
of international sport labor movements that
Total 10,356 8,010
have been in the news. Describe how each
of the examples affects the stakeholders Data from NCAA(2016).

involved.
 The Globalized Sport Industry 27

bility is the supervision of both of the Summer upward trend in the number of international stu-
and Winter Universiades (i.e., World University dent-athletes participating in a variety of men’s and
Games), as well as the World University Champi- women’s sports at all divisional levels, international
onships. The General Assembly representing its student-athletes have become a common presence
170 national university sports federations is FISU’s in intercollegiate athletics (Ridinger & Pastore,
main governing body. FISU is funded through 2000). Meanwhile, according to the Association
subscription, organizing and entry fees, television of International Educators (NAFSA), slightly over
incomes, and marketing activities. The Universiade 1.5 percent of all U.S. students studied abroad for
is the second largest participant sport event in the credit during the 2014-2015 academic year (NAFSA,
world, smaller only than the Olympic Games. As 2017). The small percentage represents a lack of
many as 12,000 athletes and delegation members international experience for U.S. college students.
from 170 countries compete for more than 300 Even so, an increasing number of young athletes
sets of medals. Each Universiade can attract over in the United States are seeking opportunities to
100,000 tourists and spectators from all over the play sports internationally. This trend has created
world to the hosting city (International University a new niche market for sport organizations such
Sports Federation, 2017). Influenced by FISU’s as Sport Changes Life, TeamGLEAS, and Global
vision and ideals, increasingly greater numbers of Players, which provide programs, services, and
university students seek athletic participation and scholarships that enable student-athletes to train,
competition opportunities in cross-border or over- compete outside the United States, and develop
seas countries. International higher education has communication and leadership skills in a foreign
developed rapidly in the past two decades. Besides environment (Lipshez, 2017; Sport Changes Life,
benefiting from the surge of globalization, the rapid 2017; Thompson, 2013). The increasing globaliza-
increase of international higher education has been tion of sport and sport businesses has brought
facilitated and governed by the General Agreement about a need for a new emphasis within the sport
on Trade in Service (GATS) among the World business management education community and
Trade Organization (WTO) members. According has set new demands for professional preparations
to the Organization for Economic Co-Operation (Zhang, Chen, & Kim, 2014).
and Development (OECD), in 2003 more than 2.1
million international students were in the OECD - Benefits of International
areas and in other nations that provided data. As
noted in the OECD's statistics, about 4.0 million
Athletes in Sport Teams
students studied outside their home countries in and Leagues
2015 (OECD, 2017). This number has doubled since
The incessant flow of talented players has not only
2000 at an average annual rate of about 7.0 percent.
shaped international cultural exchange but also
It has been suggested that 7.0 million students will
expedited global programming of media coverage
be studying abroad by 2025 (Baker et al., 2016).
of sport and a gradual narrowing of gaps in athlete
International movement of student-athletes is con-
income levels (Maguire, 1996). Early research stud-
sistent with this trend. For instance, over 17,000
ies on team nationality composition have demon-
international student-athletes were studying and
strated that the country of origin is an important
competing at NCAA member institutions in the
factor for sport consumers in evaluating the quality
United States during the 2016-2017 academic year of products (Han, 1989; Hoang & Rascher, 1999).
(NCAA, 2017). These international athletes usually
Further empirical inquiries into the influence of
represent a high level of competition that has raised the presence of international players reveal that
the level of play and significantly shaped the contour sport leagues and teams benefit from increased
of collegiate sport. As a result, colleges and univer- attendance, higher TV ratings, and consequently
sities are increasingly expanding their recruiting elevated revenue by having more foreign play-
efforts beyond their national boundaries. Given the ers (Oates & Polumbaum, 2004; Pedace, 2008;
28 Zhang, Pearson, Qian, and Kim

It has grown to be an important economic sector

on a global scale, and its products and services are
Conduct a literature review on the effect significant contributors to employment generation,
of international athletes on team perfor- wealth creation, and value reorientation.
mance and revenue generation. Using the Today, the world of sport has become a dynamic
methods outlined by Tainsky and Winfree landscape in which the trend of internationalization
(2010), develop regression equations and is an unstoppable force. This chapter sheds light on
calculate stadium, broadcasting, licensed a plethora of topics surrounding the growth of the
product, or social media revenues gener- sport industry in an increasingly interconnected
ated by adding an international player to world. The authors have argued that in today’s soci-
a team’s roster. ety, sport serves as an essential source of social and
cultural exchange, political influence and might, as
well as economic development. With this in mind,
the challenge for policy makers, practitioners, and
scholars is to recognize, identify, and adapt to the
Tainsky & Winfree, 2010). A study by Tainsky
ever-changing international sport environment. The
and Winfree (2010) revealed that every additional
content of this chapter is intended to provide cases
international player added to an MLB roster could
that occurred not only in North America, Europe,
increase stadium revenue by US$595,632 annu-
and Oceania but also in the often-overlooked devel-
ally. Such internationalization of sport labor is an
oping economies. Essentially, the ability of people
important component of creating more inclusive
around the world to participate in and watch sport
and integrated sport marketing efforts, providing
is fundamentally swayed by the socioeconomic
incentives for sport organizations to become more
conditions and political structures within their
international by signing foreign athletes or schedul-
respective countries. In the past, most international
ing more games outside the home country.
Soe marketing and academic efforts have focused on the
sport industry in developed countries. But economic
Summary progress and the rise of developing countries have
With the constant progression and interdependence demonstrated the necessity to commit more atten-
of people and communities around the globe, the tion, resources, and scholarship to recreational,
discussions on internationalization have been not amateur, and professional sport development in this
only a subject at the economic foreground but also a emerging marketplace. The authors have made a
hot topic in the world of sport. The universal appeal concerted effort to present an etiological perspective
of sport contributes to the lucrativeness of the sport of sport internationalization, as well as an overview
industry and the enormous business opportunities of challenges and opportunities in contemporary
for all parties involved. Internationalization and sport management in a somewhat borderless inter-
commercialization have drastically changed the national sport marketplace. We advocate a more
landscape of modern sports, converting them from systematic approach to advance the sport industry
mere recreational or leisure activities that showcase worldwide, calling for future endeavors to promote
physical athleticism and dexterity into a highly the exchange of ideas, to encourage sharing of
remunerative global enterprise. Moreover, the sport best practices, and to support further cutting-edge
industry is becoming increasingly professionalized. research in global sport management studies.
 The Globalized Sport Industry 99

What are the implications of the NBA’s marketing strategies for other major sport organizations if
they look for opportunities in the global market?
What have been key stages in the historical evolution of modern sport from indigenous, local, or
regional games to global competitions?
What major forces and critical junctures have contrituted to the intensification of sport globaliza-
tion?
4. What are the impacts of international migration and athlete movements on the globalization of
sport?
5. Using the NBA as an example, discuss how a professional sport league can effectively penetrate
the international market.
IIIS IOS IAGO ESSE ISLINI ERES UTS I EULESS ESESINNONI ISS ES SLRS TFSI TEI RSSUIS ISSUES SURI RSIS SRO SIR ASSESS OER MESSNER
China versus Thailand during the 2018 Asian Foot-
ball Confederation (AFC) Women’s Asian Cup that
took place in Amman, Jordan. China defeated
Thailand 3-1 for third place. Japan won the gold
after defeating Australia 1-0. The top five teams
qualified for the 2019 FIFA World Cup. The AFC
Women’s Asian Cup is a biannual championship for
national teams’ members of the AFC. The event has
been in existence since 1975, with China winning
the highest number of titles.
sport in North America
Michael Odio, PhD
University of Cincinnati

Shannon Kerwin, PhD

Brock University

Chapter Objectives:
After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

e From a historical perspective, discuss the important trends in the evolution of

sport leagues structure over the past one and one-half century.
e Recognize the economic and cultural importance of sport in North America.
e Identify differences as well as similarities between sport organizational structures
in the United States and Canada versus those in other countries.
e Describe the role the government has in delivering and influencing sport in Canada
compared with the United States.
e Evaluate the role of commercial or professional sport within the American and
Canadian sport delivery systems.
e Explain differences and similarities among sport leagues within the United States
and Canada.
e Discuss the major differences in the approaches to intercollegiate athletics in the
United States and Canada.

Sport Canada Amateur Sports Act (United States)

Canadian Sport Policy Fitness and Amateur Sport Act
NCAA (Canada)
U Sports YMCA
Title IX United States Olympic Committee

33
34 Odio and Kerwin

Canada

Vancouver

<4 montréal
Ss Toronto
United States
New York City
Baltimore
Los Angeles Augusta
Ri Palm Bay
Atlanta¥ *\—Palm Beach

St. Louis/ Chicago Miami

New Orleans Cleveland

NFL Super Bowl. One of the most viewed sporting events U.S. Open Women’s Tennis Championship. Since 1987
in the United States, as well as Canada. The 2018 Super the U.S. Open has been the fourth and final major tennis
Bowl (LI) was held in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on event (internationally) of the Grand Slam each calendar
February 4, 2018. Despite the historical popularity of year. In 2017 the women’s championship gained record-
this event, only 104 million people watched the 2018 breaking television ratings, increasing by 36 percent
Super Bowl, the smallest television audience since 2009 (Haring, 2017).
(CBS News, 2018).
Daytona 500. The pinnacle of auto-racing championships
Major League Baseball World Series. Contested since in the United States, for six decades this auto-racing
1903, this annual fall event consists of a best-of-seven event has presented top-notch races to sold-out crowds.
series of games in which the winner takes home the title The Daytona International Speedway seats 101,000
of World Champion of baseball. people and is home to several national race car events.
Pan American and Parapan American Games 2015. Canadian Women’s Open (Golf). This golf champion-
Forty-one member nations participate in this event, held ship is an official event of the Ladies Professional Golf
every four years in the year before the Summer Olympic Association Tour and is sponsored by Canadian Pacific
and Paralympic Games. The event is the world’s third Railway. The Women’s Open professional golf champi-
largest multisport games (Toronto2015, 2015). onship is managed by Golf Canada and is hosted across
Canada annually.
 Sport in North America 55

Key People
Christine Sinclair, captain of the Canadian national Graham Brown, CEO of U Sports, Canada
soccer team, scored the second-most goals in interna- Carlos Cordeiro, president of the United States Soccer
tional competition Federation
LeBron James, NBA player and activist Serena Williams, tennis player, 23 Grand Slam singles
Scott Blackbum, CEO of the United States Olympic titles
Committee Kevin Plank, CEO of Under Armour
Kirsty Duncan, minister of Sport and Persons With Dis-
abilities, oversees Sport Canada

he main purpose of this chapter is to contribute Canada as well as the current landscape, including
to the general body of knowledge concerning the role of government, the way in which sport is
how sport is organized in North America com- legislated, professional sport leagues, college sport,
pared with other parts of the world. The distinctive and more.
sport organizational characteristics of the United
States and Canada are discussed in the context of - Geographical Description
their historical development through the evolution-
ary process and up to current practices. This chapter and Demographics
also seeks to facilitate an enhanced understanding The United States and Canada are part of the North
of the ways in which environmental influences in American continent. Canada and the United States
terms of management proficiency, government, comprise a wide range of geographic regions and
public, legal, economics, culture, and competition climates, which includes the humid subtropical
have influenced North America’s sport structural climate of Florida, the frigid winters of Winnipeg,
development. This topic is relevant to today’s sport large mountain ranges along the western side of
managers who are striving to establish structural both countries, and the Great Plains, which stretch
frameworks that meet the needs of their constituents from the arctic region of Canada to the southern
and achieve the basic purpose and goals of their United States. The countries have a combined coast-
organizations. line of over 215,000 miles (350,000 km).
The United States and Canada are major play- Sport in the United States and Canada is usually
ers in international sport and have unique and closely associated thanks to the countries’ many
complex domestic sport systems. At the elite cultural similarities, common language, and their
levels, both countries are among the top of the long border, the longest international border in the
medal count for every Olympic and Paralympic world. Although many sports are popular across
Games, and they boast some of the most popular both countries, the diverse geographic and demo-
sport leagues that attract top talent from around graphic characteristics of each country have led to
the world. Sport is also a major part of the cul- many local differences. The two countries differ
tural identity for both countries, stemming from greatly in terms of population; the population of
modern sports invented in the region, indigenous the United States is well over 300 million, almost
games of the region’s native populations, and the 10 times larger than Canada’s population of 36 mil-
growth of sports brought by immigrants. This lion. Both countries are highly urbanized; about 80
chapter explores some of the historical context percent of the population lives in cities. Both have
for the growth of sport in the United States and large immigrant populations; about 13 percent of
36 Odio and Kerwin

the U.S. population and 22 percent of the Canadian Although sport in the United States in its early
population are foreign born. history was more of a pastime and diversion for
soldiers, college students, and others, sport quickly
Background and Role became an important social, cultural, and politi-
cal component of the nation. For example, Jackie
of Sport Robinson’s breaking the color barrier in profes-
Exploring the history of North American sport sional baseball mirrored the country’s struggle with
greatly helps in understanding how a handful of race relations throughout the 20th century (Hill,
unique sports developed and were later exported to 2007). Likewise, the intense rivalry between the
the rest of the world. We begin with a brief expla- United States and the Soviet Union in the Olympics
nation of how certain sports began and evolved. embodied the ongoing Cold War between the two
We then identify significant sport milestones that world superpowers (Guttmann, 1988). Today, the
brought major changes, and finally we provide some role of sport in American society continues because
insight into the cultural and social significance of professional athletes are seen as important public,
sport in North America. social, and political voices (Vasilogambros, 2016).

United States Canada

The most prominent sports in the United States Sport has a long and rich tradition in Canada.
are baseball, basketball, and American football. All Many of the most popular sports in North America
these sports were developed in the latter half of the were first played in Canada and by Canadians. The
19th century, beginning as amateur pursuits that games of the native peoples, such as lacrosse, had
became professional over time and spread in differ- been played long before Canada was established
ent ways. Baseball, the oldest of the major U.S.-born as a nation, and they continue to be played and
sports, likely evolved from a combination of Euro- celebrated in communities across the country.
pean ball and bat games such as cricket and round- Many sport clubs were established in the second
ers (Springfield College, 2015). Originally popular half of the 19th century, and Montréal served as the
in the New York region, the sport spread across the hotbed for organized sport in Canada. Although
country through its popularity among soldiers in the early Canadian sport had been mostly an experience
Civil War who returned home, continued playing, for the upper classes, the growing industrialization
and eventually formed leagues (Schaefer-Jacobs, and urbanization of Canada led to increased free
2012). American football followed a similar evolu- time for the working classes (Metcalfe, 1987). Sport
tion from rugby and association football around served as a popular diversion for many men, and
the same time, but it was spread through college eventually for women as well. The YMCA played
campuses rather than independently owned teams an important part in the dissemination of new
(PFRA Research, n.d.). Unlike baseball and Ameri- games and in the provision of the space and facili-
can football, basketball is not a direct descendant ties needed for many of the most popular sports
from another sport. Instead, it was invented by Dr. Johnson, 1979).
James Naismith as a suitable indoor physical activity Up until the mid-20th century, sport had been
for a physical education class at the Young Men’s mostly a recreational activity pursued by interested
Christian Association (Springfield College, 2015). participants, wealthy benefactors, and, at the higher
The sport spread through other YMCAs in the levels of competition, by those able to afford the
northeastern United States and southern Canada costs associated with many sporting pursuits. In
before being picked up by other organizations and 1961 the federal government of Canada passed Bill
eventually forming into professional teams and C-131, the Fitness and Amateur Sport Act. This
leagues. The forming of multiple leagues in base- formal piece of legislation identified sport as being
ball, the involvement of college administration in a legitimate concern of the federal government.
football, and the grassroots origins of basketball This legislation and the programs and policies that
all influence how these sports were governed, then followed rapidly transformed the Canadian sport
and now.
 Sport in North America Sy.

Carla Qualtrough
Carla Qualtrough is a successful lawyer, dedicated and Accessibility in British Columbia and was an
volunteer, and Paralympic swimmer. Carla has been adjudicator with the Workers’ Compensation Appeals
visually impaired since birth. Through her position Tribunal. Passionate about the power of sport and
within the Canadian ministry, Carla is dedicated to physical activity to change lives, Carla has volunteered
diminishing inequality and championing diversity locally, nationally, and internationally, including with the
initiatives across Canada. Qualtrough has degrees in International Paralympic Committee and for the Toronto
political science from the University of Ottawa and law 2015 Pan and Parapan American Games. She has
from the University of Victoria. Carla practiced human been president of the Canadian Paralympic Commit-
rights law in Delta, British Columbia, Canada, for sev- tee and chair of the Sport Dispute Resolution Centre
eral years, and through her work with the Canadian of Canada. Carla was on the Board of the Canadian
Human Rights Commission, she has been named one Centre for Ethics in Sport, and was vice-chair of the
of Canada’s Most Influential Women in Sport six times. Delta (British Columbia) Gymnastics Society. As an
She received a Queen Elizabeth || Diamond Jubilee athlete, Carla won three Paralympic and four World
Medal in 2012. Championship medals. On November 4, 2015, Qual-
Through her commitment to human rights issues, trough was named the minister of Sport and Persons
Carla chaired the Minister’s Council on Employment With Disability in the 29th Canadian Ministry.
COLES GSIEEE IIE EI EIN EEL BEI LESLIE ELE SEIS IES

system into a state-financed and state-controlled

organism (Macintosh, Bedecki, & Franks, 1987).
Compare and contrast the governance of
Governance of Sport sport in the United States and Canada.
What elements of the free-market system
The governance of sport in North America varies are similar in both countries and what ele-
between Canada and the United States. Specifically, ments are unique?
unlike in most other large and developed countries,
the United States’ government plays a small role
in the management and direction of the nation’s
sport system (Sparvero, Chalip, & Green, 2012). Finally, community sport is the most diverse
This more free-market approach has allowed a level, consisting of recreational leagues and other
diverse mix of public- and private-sector organiza- forms of participation for people of all ages. Because
tions operating at different levels across a variety of the continually rising obesity rates, one of the
of sports to emerge as major components of the most concerning issues has become youth sport par-
sport system. Within the Canadian sport context ticipation. Although participation rates are rising,
(Thibault, 2017), the free-market system is far less the cost of playing sports has limited opportunities
prominent than in the United States counterpart. for many (Rosenwald, 2016). In all, the governance
Within Canada, professional sport is governed in of the sport delivery system in North America is
the free-market system, but amateur sport (the pre- complex and decentralized, consisting of a diverse
dominant form of sport delivery in the country) is set of organizations. Although many great athletes
governed by Sport Canada, a branch of the national are produced by the system, it has many weaknesses
government system housed within the Department and imperfections. The following section explores
of Canadian Heritage. the system further and discusses the role of the
38 Odio and Kerwin

government in delivering sport within the United cil has been expanded to address the physical health
States and Canada. of all Americans through education, programs, and
initiatives involving partnerships between public,
United States Sport Delivery private, and nonprofit entities (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, n.d.).
System
State and local governments play a role in sport
Although the federal government of the United through other means. Because public education
States lacks an explicit and coherent national sport
is mostly governed at the state and local level, the
policy, it is still influential in the overall governance
funding decisions for sport at public schools and
of sport. Public-sector organizations operate at dif-
universities are made at this level of government,
ferent levels of sport and coexist with a number
affecting both varsity sports and physical education
of nongovernmental organizations that have also
for students. Likewise, decisions about facilities,
emerged as leaders at each level of sport. This sec-
programming, and access for sport in the commu-
tion outlines the most notable and influential ways
nity are made through state and municipal parks
that the U.S. government has been involved in sport.
and recreation departments. This financing func-
The federal government of the United States has
tion plays a role for professional and private sport
been directly involved in sport through legislation,
enterprises as well. However, the practice of local
court cases, and through some programming and
governments funding the building or renovation of
policy efforts. In 1978 the Amateur Sports Act was
stadia and arenas for professional sport franchises
passed, taking away the Amateur Athletic Union’s
has become widely criticized (Kennedy & Rosen-
(AAU) power to govern the country’s participation
traub, 2000).
in international competition. The act empowered
A number of organizations have emerged at dif-
the United States Olympic Committee, a private
ferent levels of sport because of the government’s
nonprofit organization, to govern the nation’s sport
hands-off approach. Among them are professional
development including governing bodies for specific
sport leagues, governing bodies for college sport,
sports (Sparvero et al., 2012). Another federal law
travel and club teams for youth sport, and a variety
that directly affected the governance of sport was
of gyms, health clubs, and other organizations that
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972.
focus on different ages and functions.
Title IX, as it is more commonly known, prohib-
At the community and recreational level, over
its sex discrimination in educational institutions
36,000 health clubs and gyms offer opportunities
receiving public funding, which affects most high
for fitness and athletic participation (International
school and college athletics. Despite applying only
Health, Racquet, and Sportsclubs Association,
to educational settings, the law is credited with
2017). Private clubs like Planet Fitness and Cross-
creating a major resurgence in the participation of
Fit, which primarily target adults, are among the
and the support for women’s athletics overall.
most financially successful across the United States
Other influences of the federal government
(Wang, 2016). Other organizations like the YMCA
include major court cases, such as those decid-
and Boys and Girls Clubs of America serve several
ing the legality of players’ unions for professional
functions for people of different ages and abilities,
athletes, and Major League Baseball’s ongoing
but they also play an important grassroots role in
exemption from antitrust laws (Hylton, 1999). The
the development of youth athletes (Green, 2005).
United States Congress has held special investiga-
tions into the performance-enhancing drug poli-
Canada’s Sport Delivery System
cies of professional sport leagues, and hearings on
the governance policies of the National Collegiate Unlike the free-market-driven sport system in the
Athletics Association have altered policy within United States, the Canadian system is largely driven
those organizations. The final way that the federal by government policy. Specifically, Sport Canada is
government directly influences sport is through the the federal government organization that oversees
President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutri- most of the funding, programs, and policies relat-
ing to sport in Canada. Thus, when considering
tion. Originally established in 1956 through an
the constituent parts of the Canadian sport system,
executive order concerning youth fitness, the coun-
understanding the basic tenets of Canadian feder-
 Sport in North America 39

alism is useful. In a general sense, the provincial

governments are responsible for recreation, edu-
Learning Activity _
cation, and health care, sectors that are typically Compare the importance of provincial
responsible for sport and physical activity (Simeon, and territorial governments in Canada with
Robinson, & Wallner, 2014). the importance of governments at a cor-
The Canadian sport system, like the systems in responding level in the United States and
most countries, is influenced greatly by the inter- other countries in terms of delivering and
national sport community. The Canadian national influencing sport.
sport organizations (NSOs) oversee most aspects
of their individual sports, but much of what they
do is dictated by the standards established by
international federations and organizations who
By 2012 Sport Canada revisited their mandate and
act as governing bodies for major games and other
established their vision to be
international competitions. Although control over
the rules governing sport in Canada is mostly deter- the notion that Canada is a leading sport nation
mined by international interests, the majority of the where all Canadians can pursue sport to the
funding and support for the individual NSOs comes extent of their abilities and interests, including
from the public sector (Thibault, 2017). performing at the highest competitive levels;
Specifically, within the federal government there and where sport delivers benefits, for increasing
numbers, to individual health and well-being,
is a sport branch within the International and Inter-
and contributes to socioeconomic outcomes.
governmental Affairs Sector of the Department of (Canadian Heritage, 201 2a, p. 1)
Canadian Heritage. Each of the positions in this
department (e.g., director general of Sport Canada) A desired outcome of the CSP 2012 is to increase the
is occupied by a member of the civil service. The number and diversity of Canadians who participate
current government of Canada has an elected in sport in the 10-year period from 2012 to 2022.
member of parliament (MP) serving as minister of This goal recognizes the importance of manag-
Sport and Persons With Disabilities. ing how people are introduced to sport, how they
Like the sport systems throughout Europe, the engage in recreational sport, and how they engage
provincial governments have given municipalities in competitive sport.
(or regional governments) responsibility, for the Currently a great deal of discussion is occur-
most part, for the service delivery for education, ring about the Canadian sport system. Without
through local school boards, and for recreation, a doubt, the most pressing issue is the question
through municipal parks and recreation depart- of funding. Recently, certain stakeholders, led by
ments. With that being said, the federal govern- the Canadian Olympic Committee, have become
ment also plays an important role in ensuring basic much more organized in their efforts at lobbying
service delivery across the country and transferring the government for increased funding. But with
funds to the provincial governments to support the dramatic cost overruns associated with fund-
these services (Houlihan, 1997). ing high-performance sport and the myriad other
Perhaps the most significant recent develop- issues (e.g., public health, culture, and heritage)
ment in the Canadian sport system is the update that fall under the federal government mandate,
of the Canadian Sport Policy (CSP). In 2012 Sport the private and public sectors will again evaluate
Canada reconvened to expand the CSP from the the significance of funding high-performance sport.
originally drafted 2002 policy. The original CSP, Furthermore, the discussion of the government's
released in 2002, identified a vision of “a dynamic role in funding high-performance sport is becom-
and leading-edge sport environment that enables ing increasingly relevant, because the rising rate of
all Canadians to experience and enjoy involvement obesity in Canadians is a disturbing reality. Specifi-
in sport to the extent of their abilities and interests cally, it has been noted that spectatorship in sport
and, for increasing numbers, to perform consistently was assessed at 40 percent of the population who
and successfully at the highest competitive levels” were 15 years and older in 2010, whereas only 26
by the year 2012 (Canadian Heritage, 2002, p. 4). percent reported participation in sport (Canadian
40 Odio and Kerwin

Sport in Canada
The Canadian Sport Policy (2012) is a federal govern- the appropriateness of public financing of an elite sport
ment policy with a vision for “a dynamic and innovative system that supports a small number of Canadian
culture that promotes and celebrates participation and athletes. Critics of the current funding formula include
excellence in sport” (Canadian Heritage, 2012a). The those who believe that sport should not be a sector
policy provides direction and focus for all governments, that government regulates and funds, as well as those
institutions, and organizations that are committed to who believe that the rising rates of inactivity and obesity
realizing the positive effects of sport on individuals, in Canadians, particularly in the youth population, are
communities, and society. These entities include but deserving of greater attention. These critics believe
are not limited to national, provincial, and territorial any investment government makes in sport should be
sport organizations: sport clubs; ministries; munici- at a grassroots level that promotes physical activity
palities; and event rights holders within the country. for all Canadians.
Furthermore, the policy encourages new partnership As the new Canadian Sport Policy is envisioned and
formations between local and national entities, domes- drafts are developed for 2022, the government must
tic and international sport associations, and sport and critically review (1) organizations and institutions where
nonsport bodies. partnerships will be most effective in the delivery of
As discussed in the chapter, much of the Canadian sport to diverse populations across the country and
sport delivery system relies on federal government (2) the appropriateness of funding allocations at the
support, and the survival of most sport organizations grassroots or high-performance levels of sport in the
depends on the funding programs administered by the country. As sport policy coordinator, you must move
Department of Canadian Heritage. Traditionally, the the policy draft forward. Review the relevant sections of
federal government has been primarily interested in this chapter. Based on this material, develop a memo
supporting sports that appear in the Olympic Games, to your government cabinet ministers that argues for
giving special attention to those sports in which Cana- enhanced federal government support of sport at
dians have the highest likelinood of winning medals. either the grassroots (local) level or high-performance
Although this type of treatment of high-performance (international and national) level. Support your choice
international sport fits with the political goals of the with material from the chapter.
federal government, some debate has begun around
SEASONS SONS LE LEIS LLNS I IEEE LILLE LEIS EIDE LLL LLL ILI ILE EL EES LLL ELI IIEEIEN
IS OEEILIES

Heritage, 2012b). This relatively low participation revenue maximization. In Canada the prominence
rate is further complicated when looking at the low of the community sport sector influences the man-
participation of minority groups such as women agement of sport; many sport organizations are
and indigenous people (Canadian Heritage, 2012a). managed by a small paid staff or a relatively large

_ Management of Spo group of volunteers. The following sections outline

rt
Throughout North America, the management of
the management of sport in professional sport, col-
legiate sport, and community sport within North
America.
sport varies depending on the country and finan-
cial structure of the sporting system (Hums & Professional Sport
MacLean, 2017). Specifically, in the United States
the prominence of professional and collegiate sport Professional sport leagues and competitions are the
(and the profitable nature of those sport sectors) most visible and highly publicized component of
influences how these sport sectors are managed. sport in the United States and Canada. Some of the
leagues (e.g., the NFL and NBA) and tournaments
For example, many of these organizations are man-
aged by paid staff who are directed toward profit or (e.g., Masters Golf Tournament) garner widespread
national and international attention and feature
 Sport in North America 41

domestic as well as international athletes. Although

many of these competitions closely resemble their
counterparts in other countries, North American Do a search of the open-league system of
sport has a few distinguishing features. European sport leagues. What would be
The most prominent professional sport leagues the effect on professional sport in North
are centered on the sports developed and grown American if the leagues shifted to an open-
in North America: American football, basketball, league system like those of Europe?
and baseball. The National Basketball Association
(NBA) and Major League Baseball (MLB) have teams
in both the United States and Canada. On the other
hand, each country has its own professional football
league, the National Football League (NFL) in the
provincial governments have used lottery revenue
to support their professional sport teams, but the
United States and the Canadian Football League
(CFL) in Canada. The two leagues have several dif-
federal government was strongly rebuked in their
ferent rules, vary in league size (the NFL is much one attempt to offer funding support to profes-
sional sport franchise operations. Public opinion
larger in number of teams and in terms of commer-
in Canada is that public money should be spent
cialization and media dollars), and are played on
on grassroots sport development rather than on
different-sized fields. The next most popular sport
billionaire sport owners and millionaire athletes
leagues are the National Hockey League (NHL)
(Sam, 2011):
and Major League Soccer (MLS), which also oper-
The United States and Canada also host many
ate with teams in both countries. Among the other
high-profile individual sport competitions and
notable leagues are the Women’s National Basketball
tournaments such as NASCAR, the Professional
Association, the National Women’s Soccer League,
Golf Association (PGA) and Ladies Professional Golf
and the National Lacrosse League.
Association (LPGA), and several men’s and women’s
Unlike most comparable leagues in Europe and
tennis tournaments including the U.S. Open. Mixed
other parts of the world that have open systems of
Martial Arts (MMA), particularly under the Ultimate
team promotion and relegation, the North American
Fighting Championship (UFC), has also grown a
sport leagues have a closed system in which cur-
large fan base, drawing in massive audiences for
rent team owners in the league make decisions on
their televised events. Although team sports col-
approving the addition of teams to the league as
lectively garner most of the media attention, the
well as their sale or transfer. This style of operation
professional sport landscape in North America is
for the league has been likened to a cartel (Fort
large and diverse.
Quirk, 1995) and is accompanied by other practices
such as revenue sharing and strict rules about player College Athletics
movement meant to maintain a competitive balance
The role of intercollegiate athletics in the United
and parity between all teams. For example, each
States is a unique facet of the country’s sport system.
of the top North American sport leagues holds an
Particularly for basketball and American football,
annual draft to determine what teams new players
which have minimum age limits for entry at the
are allowed to sign with.
professional level, many prospective athletes first
Another notable practice in North American
spend time playing their sport in college before
sport is the trend of using public money from local
advancing. College sport is considered a high level
government to fund the building of sport facilities
of competition that attracts elite athletes, includ-
for professional teams (Povich, 2016). Although
ing many current and future Olympians, in a wide
not unique to North America, this issue intersects
range of sports.
with the team’s relationship with local government,
College sport competition began in the north-
particularly in the United States, thus playing a
eastern United States with rowing, American foot-
role in the practice of franchise relocation. Further,
ball, and baseball in the mid to late 19th century.
the Canadian public has usually been quite reti- In 1906, to protect players from the increasing
cent, if not strongly opposed, to the idea of using injury and death rate of college football, President
public money to support professional sport. Some
4Q Odio and Kerwin

Funding Stadia in North America

Although public financing of stadia and arenas is some- lack of rival professional women’s soccer organiza-
what common in the United States, large-scale public tions and leagues. With the potential of this type of
financing of professional sport facilities in Canada expansion, you realize that a new stadium build may be
has rarely occurred (Church, 2008). As discussed by inevitable in a bid proposal from a Canadian city. Your
Buist and Mason (2010), the media in the United States board of directors assigns you to do some searches
typically frame financing of sport facilities as a positive through media documents and scholarly articles, and
contribution to civic pride and community engagement. complete the following tasks:
In Canada, however, both the media and the public @ Define three pros and three cons of publicly fund-
largely view the funding of new sport facilities as an ing anew stadium in Canada.
economic drain that provides no financial gain to a
@ Define three pros and three cons of privately
community or region (Ligaya, 2013).
funding (corporate sponsorship) a new stadium
Background in Canada.
As the commissioner of the National Women’s Soccer @ Construct a memo to your board of directors that
League, you have decided that you will go through outlines (a) the pros and cons from tasks 1 and 2
a league expansion and add one new team to the and (b) provides a recommendation (with explana-
league. Your director of communications has done tion) regarding which funding structure (public or
some research and has determined that expanding to private funding) would be best suited for a stadium
the Canadian market (i.e., Vancouver, British Columbia) build in an expansion city such as Vancouver, Brit-
may provide enhanced revenue streams because of ish Columbia, Canada.
the popularity of soccer in the country, as well as the

Theodore Roosevelt called for better organization as hosting conference championships and sharing
and governance of college sport (NCAA, 2010). revenue.
As a result the Intercollegiate Athletic Association Other notable governing bodies in college sport
of the United States ([AAUS) was formed. It later are the National Association of Intercollegiate Ath-
changed its name to the National Collegiate Athletic letics (NAIA), the National Junior College Athletic
Association (NCAA). The NCAA is currently the Association (NJCAA), and the National Christian
largest governing body in American college sport. College Athletic Association (NCCAA). Colleges
It has over 1,100 member institutions, including and universities individually negotiate entry into
public and private colleges and universities, and it the various governing bodies based on their pref-
administers championships in 90 men’s, women’s, erences for the organization’s rules, emphasis, and
and coed sports. requirements.
The NCAA is divided into three divisions that The most salient and controversial issue involv-
each have their own legislative abilities and pass ing the higher levels of college sport is the principle
rules that distinguish them from the others (NCAA, of amateurism maintained by the NCAA. Amateur-
n.d.). Division I, the most visible, contains the ism has been a core principle for the NCAA since
largest universities in the country and has a more its inception, but despite many changes to the
spectator-driven format, along with the highest rules over the years, there is widespread criticism
levels of revenues and expenditures compared with of a system that allows the NCAA and its member
the other levels. At each level, member institutions institutions to use the likeness of their athletes in
are organized into conferences that organize the promotional materials for revenue generation while
schedules and can engage in other activities such preventing the athletes from doing the same (Huma
 Sport in North America 43

& Staurowsky, 2012; Southall & Staurowsky, 2013). versation by using every technology possible to
As the Olympics has moved away from amateur- highlight, celebrate, and present the accomplish-
ism and the Amateur Sports Act has removed the ments of these remarkable young individuals
United States’ emphasis on amateurism for inter- who pursue the toughest double major of all;
national competition, the NCAA remains the last full-time scholar and full-time athlete. (n.p.)
major sport organization in the United States that
Currently, U Sports represents 56 member uni-
maintains these ideals.
versities, 12,000 student-athletes, and 7,700 games
In Canada, interuniversity competition also and events per year (U Sports, 2017). The organiza-
exists, where university competition is overseen
tional structure of U Sports, presented in figure 3.1,
by U Sports (formerly Canadian Interuniversity demonstrates the commitment to communication
Sport [CIS]), and competition between colleges is and social media within the U Sports brand.
governed by the Canadian Colleges Athletic Asso- In addition to U Sports in Canada, the Canadian
ciation (CCAA),
Collegiate Athletic Association (CCAA) has been
In the beginning, university sport competition involved in the governance and delivery of high-
was governed by the Canadian Interuniversity level competitive opportunities in intercollegiate
Athletic Union (CIAU), which was reconstituted in sport since 1974 (Canadian Collegiate Athletic
1961 and was represented by the various universi- Association, 2017). Before the formation of the
ties from across Canada (U Sports, 2017). With this CCAA in 1974, national-level collegiate competi-
reconstitution came financial assistance from the tion was initiated in British Columbia, Alberta,
federal government, and universities thus began to Saskatchewan, and Manitoba when the 4-West
commit themselves to excellence in their sport pro- Championships were formed, in seven sports, in
grams. In the 1970s the financial commitment was 1971. Following these competitions, Ontario and
expanded to the CIAU to include funds for travel Quebec initiated similar competitions in 1972. The
equalization, increases for national championship success of these championships resulted in the
travel, and involvement in international competition formation of the CCAA.
(e.g., World University Games). Today, CCAA student-athletes compete in seven
As financial commitment increased from the sports at 10 CCAA national championships, each
federal government, the CIAU recognized their hosted by a CCAA member college (Canadian Col-
mandate was to serve national priorities: lege Athletic Association, 2017). The 94 member
1. Coordination, promotion, and development of institutions of the CCAA include colleges, uni-
high-performance sport versities, and technical institutes located in eight
2. Provision of administration and technical lead- provinces and regionally governed by five member
ership, policy direction, consultative services, conferences.
and financial resources to function effectively
Community Sport
as the primary agent for excellence in sport
policy (U Sports, 2017) The most popular sports and physical activities in
the United States are fitness sports (e.g., walking,
In 2001 the CIAU was renamed to Canadian high-impact intensity training, jogging, and weight-
Interuniversity Sport (CIS). A global rebranding of lifting), outdoor sports (e.g., camping, fishing, and
the CIS was announced in 2016. The goal of the trail running), and individual sports (e.g., triathlon,
rebranding strategy was to give Canadian student- martial arts, golf, and bowling). The settings for
athletes and national championships the visibility, these activities range from private homes to parks,
appreciation, and reward they deserve through the schools, and health clubs. Local governments strive
new name—U Sports (U Sports, 2017). As noted to provide opportunities for sport through schools
on the U Sports website, for children and through parks and recreation
The U Sports brand aims to create a massive departments for people of all ages.
change in the way Canadians see university According to a report from the Physical Activity
sports in the digital era. Our commitment is to Council, 27.5 percent of Americans did not partici-
revitalize our place in the national sport con- pate in sport or physical activity in 2016 (Physical
44 Odio and Kerwin

President and
chief executive

Manager, Manager, Manager, sport, : Manager,

Sonal Senior menacer Manager, Coordinator,
Manager, corporate, compliance, technical, and Hees PETERS eee marketing corporate
finance events, and eligibilty, and _ national cals : and brand partnerships
awards discipline championships operations

hae Coordinator,
Coordinator. website, Coordinator,
“communications _ Statistics, and marketing and
| information social media
technology

Figure 3.1. Organizational structure of U Sports.

U SPORTS

Activity Council, 2017). The report points to specific are present in Canada, high membership fees usu-
trends in physical activity based on income levels; ally limit access for the public.
the lowest income households have the highest rates
of inactivity. As previously mentioned, the rising Major Sport Events
cost of sport participation, especially for youth team
Within North America, states, provinces, and ter-
sports, creates a barrier for many, even with the
services offered by local governments. ritories host many annual or quadrennial sporting
As described earlier, sport and recreation in events. These national and international events
Canada are primarily a municipal concern, because typically have large international viewership.
the education system and municipally operated Regarding professional sport in North America, the
recreation departments are the primary providers World Series (Major League Baseball), Super Bowl
of sport and recreation opportunities. Unlike the (National Football League), Grey Cup (Canadian
European sport system, which includes much more Football League), and Stanley Cup (National Hockey
active involvement by local sporting clubs in provid- League) are all examples of professional sporting
ing opportunities and school systems that place less events that rotate annually to host cities within their
emphasis on competitive sport, the Canadian sport respective leagues. In addition, both the United
and recreation system depends heavily on public States and Canada host amateur sporting events on
financing and support (Macintosh & Whitson, a quadrennial basis. For example, the Pan American
1990). Therefore, community sport is often thought and Parapan American Games are held the year
of as local not-for-profit sport leagues that provide before the Summer Olympic and Paralympic Games
opportunities for children and municipally operated and have been hosted by Toronto, Ontario (Canada);
recreation programs. Although private sport clubs Winnipeg, Manitoba (Canada); and Indianapolis,
 Sport in North America 45 |
Indiana (United States). These events draw large historical development of those countries, sport
numbers of athletes and spectators from across the delivery systems, governmental involvement in
globe and have television audiences in the millions. sport, diverse professional and collegiate institu-
tions, and sport practices. Moreover, differences
summary _ between sport in North American and the rest
of the world were explained through the various
This chapter discussed sport systems within North
roles played by the government, public, economy,
America, specifically addressing the distinctive
competition, and federal and local laws.
and common features of the sport frameworks of
the United States and Canada in the context of the

Seo ss ECTS

1. Evaluate the role of the federal government in the Canadian and American sport delivery systems.
2. Evaluate the role of the state, provincial, or territorial and local government in the Canadian and
American sport delivery systems.
3. Discuss the cultural significance of sport in North America.
4. Discuss the importance of sport clubs like the YMCA in sport delivery and growth in North Amer-
ICa.

5. What has been the most impactful federal action (@g., legislation, court ruling) on the sport deliv-
ery system in the United States?
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Sp ort in Latin America
and the Caribbean

Gonzalo A. Bravo, PhD

West Virginia University

Charles Parrish, PhD

Western Carolina University

Chapter Objectives __
After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

Explain why governments in the region become involved with the sport industry.
Explain the differences between governance and government involvement in
sport.
Discuss the role that sport plays in the development of social identities across
Latin American and Caribbean communities.
Discuss the impact that sport has on the economies in the Caribbean and Latin
America.
Explain the role of sport as both a unification and economic tool in the Caribbean.
Identify major games and sport events held in Latin America and the Caribbean.

ooieasndael

cultural proximity Caribbean Free Trade Association

regional and national identity (CARIFTA)
baseball academies Caribbean Community (CARICOM)
club model public limited sport company (PLSC)

4]
48 Bravo and Parrish

SS =

9 \ O

Cuba ~?
Mexico g aie
Mexico Cit iti
oe Dominican Republic

x Belize ~ — ~= Puerto Rico

Guadalajara i} Honduras Famine .

Guatemala ee x
EI Salvador | Costa Rica ‘ Venezuela
Nicaragua NS 1D)

Guyana
Panama Suriname
French
Colombia Guyana

3 Ecuador

Bolivia

Rio de Janeiro

Chile San Paulo

Curitiba

Argentina Paraguay
Santiago 7 : Uruguay

Key Events
Pan American Games. Hosted every four years since Caribbean Premier League. Established in 2013 by the
1951, it is a multisport festival for members of the Pan West Indies Cricket Board, it is an annual Twenty-20
American Sport Organization (ODEPA). cricket tournament featuring six of the region’s top
Central America and Caribbean Games. Hosted since professional teams.
1926, it involves members of the Central American and Copa América. This event is the main football tourna-
Caribbean Sports Organization (ODECABE). ment for national teams affiliated with the South Ameri-
Caribbean Baseball Series. Hosted since 1949, it is a can Football Confederation (CONMEBOL).
major baseball tournament for club champion members Copa Libertadores de América. This event is the prime
of the Baseball Caribbean Confederation. club championship cup for football club members of the
South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL).
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean 49

Key People _
Edson Arantes do Nascimento (Pelé), Brazil. The Flor Isava-Fonseca, Venezuela. First woman to be
most influential football player of the 20th century appointed as a member of the International Olympic
(1956-1977). Appointed as the first sports minister in Committee. Currently an honorary member of the IOC.
Brazil (1995-1998). Author of Pelé Law, which reformed
Willi Kaltschmitt Lujan, Guatemala. Member of the
professional football in Brazil. IOC Executive Board (elected in 2012). Also member
Whycliffe “Dave” Cameron, Jamaica. President of of the executive board of the World Baseball Softball
the West Indies Cricket Board (WICB) since 2013 and Confederation. President of the Central American Sports
former executive with the Jamaican Cricket Association. Organization (1982-1990).
Marta Vieira da Silva, Brazil. Considered one of the best Sir Frank Worrell, Barbados and Jamaica. Legend-
female footballers of all time. The top scorer in Women’s ary cricketer for the West Indies in the 1940s through
World Cup history through 2018. Named FIFA World 1960s. Perhaps best known for becoming the first black
Player of the Year five times (2006-2010). West Indian to captain the West Indies cricket team in
an international test series.

his chapter examines how sport is currently history, and colonial experience. Despite these
organized in Latin America and the Caribbean. similarities, Latin America is also diverse and het-
» Specifically, it looks at the role of government erogeneous. In terms of ethnicity, no single group
and other nongovernmental organizations in shap- is predominant. Williamson (1997) identified four
ing a country’s sport structure and system. Although ethnic groups in Latin America: the mestizo (a
important differences exist among the sport systems term that describes someone whose background is
across Latin America and the Caribbean, many European and Native American Indian); people of
similarities are present as well. European descent; Native Indians; and people of
African descent. The predominant group or groups
Geographical Description vary by country.
The Caribbean is also a unique geographi-
and Background cal region rich in cultural diversity. The Carib-
Geographically, Latin America and the Caribbean bean region encompasses the chain of islands
encompasses a vast area within the Americas that situated south of North America, east of Central
extends for more than 8 million square miles Q1 America, and north of South America inclusive
million sq km) from the Rio Grande, the border of the Lucayan Archipelago, Greater Antilles, and
between the United States and Mexico, all the Lesser Antilles. Because of cultural similarities,
way to the southern point in Patagonia. This area Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana on the
represents almost two-thirds of the Americas or South American continent are also considered
one-fifth of the world’s total land area (Wiarda & part of the Caribbean region. The legacy associ-
Kline, 2007). ated with pre-Columbian peoples combined with
The idea of Latin America as a region is not European colonization and North American influ-
strictly geographic; instead it is a concept that ences have had a profound and lasting political,
better relates with the notion of cultural proximity economic, and cultural impact on the region. For
between nations (Ksiazek & Webster, 2008). Latin example, McCree (2016) notes that the region can
America is commonly referred to as the area that be subdivided into four major linguistic zones,
is culturally bound by a common language with a including Spanish (Cuba, Dominican Republic,
strong Hispanic and Portuguese influence, where Puerto Rico), French (French Guiana, Guadeloupe,
most countries share similar cultural and histori- Haiti, Martinique), Dutch (Aruba, Bonaire, Cura-
cal roots (Eakin, 2004). Most notable is Spanish as cao, Suriname), and English (17 countries and
a common language (Brazil being the exception) territories).
and Catholicism as the primary religion. In addi- For the purpose of identifying the nations and ter-
tion, many countries share a common base in law, ritories of Latin America and the Caribbean, we use
50 Bravo and Parrish

the list of member states that are part of the United in cities where American businesspersons relocated
Nations Economic Commission for Latin America or military bases were established.
and the Caribbean (ECLAC), which includes 20 In the Caribbean the situation was not very
countries in Latin America and 13 in the Caribbean. different. As Cobley (2010) notes, cricket “was
In Latin America the countries included are Argen- the quintessentially English game that took root
tina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Para- throughout the British West Indies during the
guay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, Costa Rica, Cuba, nineteenth century . . . football was established in
Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, all four of the European colonial zones” (p. 377).
Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, and Panama. In the Over time these sports evolved from their associa-
Caribbean, the counties are Antigua and Barbuda, tion with the colonial ruling elite to expressions of
Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, popular culture and postcolonial regional identity.
Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, After World War II], many Caribbean societies
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trini- established themselves as independent countries.
dad and Tobago, and Puerto Rico. Although included During this postcolonial era, sports such as cricket,
in this list, Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory football, and athletics (track and field) continued to
of the United States, is only an associate member of gain popular appeal. Of course, other sports, such
the ECLAC. In 2016 the estimated overall popula- as netball, basketball, water sports, tennis, and golf
tion of Latin America and the Caribbean surpassed among others, are common features of the sport and
600 million people (ECLAC, 2015). leisure landscape as well.
Besides the American and British presence in
Role of Sport _ Latin America, immigrants from Germany, Switzer-
land, Italy, Spain, and France also exerted a great
Although several native and pre-Columbian ritual
deal of influence in the diffusion of European sports.
games like the Mesoamerican ball games in Mexico
The creation of social and sporting clubs through-
and the ball game of batey played by the Taino peo-
out the region contributed not only to preserving
ples of the Greater Antilles and Lucayan Archipelago
the cultural identity of their members but also to
(Bahamas and Turks and Caicos islands) existed
introducing new sport practices to Latin Americans
at the time of the Spanish conquest, none of these
(van Bottenburg, 2001). But despite the influence of
activities played a significant role in shaping today’s
the 19th century Anglo-Saxon and other European
Latin American sporting scene because they were
immigrants, over the last four decades a number of
practiced mostly for survival or for celebratory or
other global and domestic forces have contributed
religious rituals. Modern sports, as we know them
to encouraging people to consume new sports. An
today, arrived in Latin America and the Caribbean
overall increase in the standard of living, technolog-
during the postcolonial or modern era, from the
ical advances in communications, more government
late 19th century through the first half of the 20th
involvement, and the expansion of global corporat-
century, particularly with the influx of Anglo-Saxon
ism have all boosted the popularity of sport across
immigrants (Arbena & LaFrance, 2002). British and
the region. Hence, basketball, volleyball, motor
American merchants, militaries, sailors, missionar-
sports, golf, and a wide array of nature-based and
ies, and educators who traveled to the major cities in
adventure sports have become extremely popular
Latin America and the Caribbean created a turning
in many Latin American countries. Today, football
point in defining the cultural basis of what would
is indisputably the most popular sport in most
be the preferred sports in the region. These people,
countries, but baseball is also highly popular in a
along with their religious missions, educational
number of countries, particularly in the Dominican
objectives, military operations, and commercial
Republic, Cuba, Venezuela, Nicaragua, and Panama.
ventures, brought their favorite pastimes and sports
The role that modern sport plays in Latin
(Arbena, 2002). Thus, football, rugby, cricket, and
America and the Caribbean today is not much
tennis became the primary sports practiced in
different from that in other regions of the world.
areas where British immigrants lived, and baseball
Beyond the common attributed values related to
became the preferred pastime for those who lived
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean oy

health, well-being, community development and tion, health, or housing. Many other countries have
social inclusion, economic benefits, and national also recognized the value of sport in their consti-
pride (Chalip, 2015), sport in Latin America and tutions, although they have not elevated sport as a
the Caribbean also plays a powerful role in rein- constitutional right. Thus, Mexico (1917), Panama
forcing social identity for the many different ethnic (1972), Honduras (1982), Guatemala (1985), Para-
groups and communities. Whether by strengthen- guay (1992), Peru (1993), and Ecuador (1998) have
ing individuals’ identification with their neigh- all explicitly indicated in their constitutions the
borhood, town, region, country, social class, or importance of sport for the life and well-being of
gender, sport in general, and football in particular, their citizens (Bermejo Vera, Gamero Casado, &
helps Latin Americans answer the question “Who Palomar Olmedo, 2003).
are we?” (Capretti, 2010, p. 246). From the social In the Caribbean, sport also serves multiple roles
amateur club to the most acclaimed professional throughout many functions, including education,
teams, people across the region highly identify with health, social and economic development, and
the teams or clubs that they have some affiliation diplomacy. Perhaps the most conspicuous role of
with. In many instances, a person’s affiliation to a sport in the region may be regional and national
club serves as a proxy to unravel the social group identity. Houlihan and Zheng (2015) suggest that
or neighborhood or even political affiliation where sport provides an opportunity for small states to
this person belongs (Elsey, 2009). In Latin America, assert national sovereignty, cultural distinctive-
football clubs are often associated with both ends ness, and achieve differentiation from their former
of the social spectrum; some attract the wealthy colonial power. In the West Indies, much has been
and educated, and others have a fan base mostly written about the Windies cricket team and its func-
made up of the working class. Typical examples of tion as a pillar and symbol of postcolonial regional
teams associated with the more affluent are Club sovereignty. As Griggs (2006) highlights, the pro-
Deportivo Universitario de Lima (Peru), Fluminense found success of the West Indies from the 1970s and
in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), River Plate in Buenos into the early 1990s (including a 15-year unbeaten
Aires (Argentina), and Club Deportivo Universi- streak in test matches) is a remarkable achievement.
dad Catolica in Santiago (Chile). Although mostly But perhaps more important than the team’s run of
associated with the working classes, the following dominance was its ability to serve as a structured
popular and successful teams attract fans from every institution that managed to unite the insular West
corner of society: Alianza de Lima (Peru), Flamengo Indies region. When political institutions failed
in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Boca Juniors in Buenos to establish a unified and sustainable nation state
Aires (Argentina), and Colo-Colo in Santiago (i.e., the West Indies Federation), the West Indies
(Chile). Although this spontaneous association of cricket team succeeded in becoming a unifying
football teams and social class might be true, the force for the demonstration of a diverse yet progres-
recent corporatization of professional sport across sive and distinct Caribbean regional identity. But
the region has helped to mitigate this occurrence. the team’s recent decline in test cricket during the
Today, teams like Colo-Colo in Chile and Boca 21st century alongside the failure of basketball as
Juniors in Argentina attract supporters from across a tool for regional integration suggests that sport is
the social spectrum. limited in its ability to bind culturally diverse and
Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean also independent nation states in an era when digital
plays a ubiquitous role as a part of most govern- media have exacerbated the effects of globalization
ments’ broader public policies. Cuba (1976), Nica- (Mandle & Mandle, 2002).
ragua (1986), Brazil (1988), Colombia (1991), and The success of individual athletes and national
Venezuela (1999) have all recognized the right of teams at major international sporting competitions
sport for their citizens in their respective constitu- is a point of national pride and symbolizes the suc-
tions. In those countries sport is much more than cesses attributed to the independence movement of
leisure or fun. Instead, sport is a right that is viewed the second half of the 20th century. Contemporary
as being at the same level of importance as educa- sporting icons, such as sprinters Usain Bolt and
59 Bravo and Parrish

national, and local levels” (Geeraert, 2016, p. 6).

On the other hand, for the hundreds of grassroots,
Choose any three countries from Latin voluntary, and even commercial organizations that
America or the Caribbean and find one do not fall under the umbrella of the Olympic Move-
sport hero (athlete) for each country. Pre- ment, governance of sport occurs in multiple forms,
pare a brief report on these sport heroes such as laws for civil associations, regulations that
and reply to the following questions: What control the standards of business practices, and
sport did these athletes excel in? What did consumer protection laws. The differences between
they do to now be recognized as heroes? government and governance in sport is that govern-
Are these athletes’ fame recognized ment is mostly concerned with the development of
beyond their own countries? To what extent policies and laws related to sport (e.g., laws to pre-
do these athletes contribute to raising vent violence and hooliganism in sport events, laws
awareness of their countries around the that provide tax incentives to companies, laws that
assign a certain percentage of the national budget
world? What happened to these athletes
to the funding of sport events, and so on). In con-
after they retired from sport? Do they play
trast, governance is about the mechanism by which
any other significant roles in their home
sport organizations are steered, managed, ruled,
countries beside sport?
or controlled (O’Boyle & Bradbury, 2013). In Latin
America and the Caribbean, where government has
a strong presence and involvement in sport, these
Elaine Thompson (among many others), are hailed two functions are closely intertwined.
as national heroes for their global achievements The club system, or club model, reflects the
and simultaneously serve as objects of and cause region’s early European influence on sport. The
for the celebration of Jamaican nationalism. Like- club model, as it occurs in other parts of the world,
wise, past successes of Trinidad and Tobago’s Soca is mostly organized around private single-sport or
Warriors national football team served as a vehicle multiple-sport organizations. For the most part, the
for the expression of national pride. Specifically, club model represents the foundation of the Olym-
the team’s historic qualification for the 2006 FIFA pic Movement, which in addition to the hundreds
World Cup in Germany was accompanied by droves of clubs is also made up of associations (local level)
of flag-waving supporters from Port of Spain to and federations (national level), or, as they are com-
Scarborough and beyond. monly known, national governing bodies (NGBs).
Accordingly, although the entire club model and its
~_ Governance of Sport Olympic structure occur outside the government’s
jurisdiction, these structures are heavily influenced
The sport system across Latin American countries by government actions and policies.
has two distinguishing characteristics. First, it is Although government involvement in sport has
made of clubs, associations, and federations or increased over time in a number of countries in
national governing bodies; second, it is supported Latin America (see Bravo et al., 2018; Lopez de
and funded by a government structure. In many D'Amico, 2012), sport is not supported exclusively
countries, government also provides the legal frame- by public funds. The club system, fundamentally a
work in which the sport system operates. Although private structure, has also provided longstanding
governments across the region exert a good amount financial support for the sporting system in many
of influence in the way that sport is governed, the countries. In many Latin American countries the
governance of sport is for the most part autonomous foundation of the sport system resides outside the
from the government, because it falls under the school system, a trend that resembles what occurs
jurisdiction of the Olympic Movement. This is true in European countries and in direct opposition to
for those organizations that are part of the national what occurs in the United States. Currently, sport
Olympic committee in each country. Therefore, the clubs are perhaps the most common way in which
governance of sport is organized in a pyramidal sport is organized in Latin America. Clubs may be
system that runs from “the global to continental, single-sport clubs or multiple-sport clubs. Some
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean 53

Club Deportivo Universidad Catdlica: The Largest Multisport

Club in Chile
In April 2017 Club Deportivo Universidad Catdlica its debut in 1937 in the second division of the Chilean
(CDUC) reached its 80th anniversary. The club is league. In the 1980s CDUC became administratively
among the most important multisport clubs in Chile. independent from the university. During that time, the
Over the years, the club has gained an international club created its own legal and financial structure that
reputation not only within South America but around provided the institution with a firm and lasting financial
the world. Historically, athletes from CDUC competed structure.
internationally ina number of disciplines including track Traditionally, members of Club Deportivo Univer-
and field, boxing, basketball, alpine skiing, field hockey, sidad Catdlica have been associated with the more
rugby, equestrian, tennis, and synchronized swimming. affluent and educated segments of the Chilean soci-
In many instances, these athletes also represented ety. “La Catdélica’” or “la UC,” as the team is commonly
Team Chile in major international sport events such as referred to by their supporters, has won 13 national
the South American Games, Pan American Games, titles in the first division and 2 in the second division,
and the Summer and Winter Olympic Games. In foot- and it reached three semifinals (1960, 1966, 1969) in
ball many of Catdlica’s professional players have also Copa Libertadores de América (South American Cup).
represented Chile’s national team. The Chilean squad In addition, in 1994 La Catdlica obtained a first place
that participated in the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South in Copa Interamericana, a cup played between the
Africa included six players from CDUC, two current champions of the Copa Libertadores de América and
and four former. All these players were developed in the winner of CONCACAF’s Champions Cup (North
the club’s academy system and then went on to play America, Central America and the Caribbean). In
professionally in leagues all over the world including 2009 the football division was separated administra-
Argentina, Italy, Mexico, and Russia. During the 2014 tively from CDUC to become a public limited sport
World Cup in Brazil, CDUC was represented by seven company (PLSC), which is a for-profit organization
players, one player currently playing in CDUC and six formed by stockholders who provide the funds to oper-
others who at that time were under contract for clubs ate the team. Similar to many other teams in Europe,
in Italy, England, Spain, and the Netherlands. La Catdlica has shares that are publicly traded on the
CDUC was launched in Santiago, Chile, under the stock exchange.
auspices of Pontificia Universidad Catdlica de Chile, Unlike other multisport clubs that host professional
which was ranked as the number one university in Chile football in Chile, CDUC became an exemplary model
and among the top three in Latin America. Back in the for Chilean sport organizations as well as others clubs
1930s CDUC served as the athletic department of the across South America. The club directed its efforts to
university. Its purpose was to administer and promote develop not only a world-class football team but also
the participation of students in competitions with other a world-class infrastructure for the practice of Olympic
universities, particularly with its archrival Universidad sports.
de Chile. The professional football team of CDUC made
LLINLOE EEISLES IES LLL TELE LSI EIS EEO

clubs emphasize social benefits through the practice many successful football clubs started as a part of a
of sport, and others focus more on the development major university, such as Club Universidad de Chile
of high-performance athletes. Also, some clubs and Club Deportivo Universidad Catolica in Chile,
support professional sport. The entire club model Club Universitario de Deportes de Lima in Peru,
and its Olympic structure of clubs, associations, Liga Deportiva Universitaria de Quito in Ecuador,
federations, and confederations are, in fact, a fun- and the team Tigres from Universidad Autonoma
damental part of the sport system in any country. de Nuevo Leon in Mexico. Many of these clubs have
But despite the fact that many sport clubs in Latin kept their names and identities linked to their alma
America operate outside the educational system, mater but have replaced their collegiate adminis-
54 Bravo and Parrish

ee

The administration of sport clubs is typically

bound by a set of internal bylaws designed to pro-
Conduct a brief search on the web and mote good governance with oversight from a board
identify three successful sport clubs in of directors or similar committee. Common features
South America. Describe the character- of club governance also include audited financial
istics of each of these clubs. Are these statements for fiscal transparency, the identification
single-sport clubs? Multisport clubs? of club officials and their formal role within the
Private? Public? What types of sports do structure of the club, and a declaration to abide by
these clubs offer their members and sup- rules of domestic, regional, and global regulatory
porters? What are the main sources of bodies. For example, a football club competing in
funding? the national league in Jamaica would be required
to abide not only by its own bylaws but also by the
regulations and guidelines imposed by the Jamaican
National Premier League (national governance),
trative and financial dependence in their business CONCACAF (regional governance), and FIFA
structure with a more professionalized approach. (global governance). Likewise, a track club in the
The structure and governance of sport in the Bahamas would need to ensure that its operations
Caribbean share several key features with those are compliant with the constitutions set forth by
in Latin America because of similarities with past the Bahamas Association of Athletics Associations
European influences and later integration within the (BAAA): the North American, Central American,
global sport industry. For example, a key defining and Caribbean Athletics Association (NACAC);
characteristic of the governance of sport in the region and the International Association of Athletics Fed-
is the role of sport clubs and their relationship with erations (IAAF). Unfortunately, several examples
local, national, and international sport federations. exist to highlight the limitations of governance in
As Cobley (2010) states, West Indian press coverage preventing unethical behavior. Perhaps none are
of organized cricket matches can be traced back to more noteworthy than the recent FIFA corruption
Barbados in the early 1800s. Although the sport had scandal involving numerous Caribbean sport offi-
been around before then, St. Ann’s Garrison Cricket cials. In the wake of the scandal, a renewed and
Club was representative of a broader movement that spirited commitment to good sport governance has
saw the development of many other exclusive British been at the forefront of sport managers in the region,
sport and social clubs during the mid to late 19th spanning the upper ranks of regional governance
century. Today, cricket clubs are accessible to a wider officials, including the Caribbean Association of
segment of the population and, for the most part, National Olympic Committees, and trickling down
are less exclusive in purpose and practice because to member national associations and member sport
they serve as coordinating institutions for both clubs.
elite-level and recreational play. Likewise, football Another characteristic related to the governance
clubs, aquatic clubs, as well as sport clubs in gen- of sport in the Caribbean that is consistent with
eral offer participation opportunities for youth and Latin American countries (and beyond) is govern-
adults of various ages and skill levels. Some clubs ment involvement and influence. The role and
support elite-level professional teams that participate influence of the Brazilian government, highlighted
in national leagues, yet the revenue generated by by the power afforded to the Ministry of Sport, is
most clubs in the region is not sufficient to provide well documented (Bravo, 2013; Rocha, 2016). Many
lucrative wages that would prevent the movement Caribbean countries also feature a ministry of sport
of the most talented domestic players to leagues (or a similar agency that encompasses sport) as a
abroad. In fact, some leagues, such as the Women’s branch of the national government, with both a
Premier (football) League in Trinidad and Tobago, supportive and regulatory function. For example,
fail to generate sufficient revenue beyond govern- in 2018 Olivia Grange, Jamaica’s minister of Cul-
ment subsidies to fund critical league operations ture, Gender, Entertainment, and Sport, promoted
(Cabralis, 2016). a wide variety of initiatives in an effort to enhance
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean 55

women's sports, continue the development of the social, economic, and even political systems are
country’s Special Olympics program, and develop not as stable and developed. All of this means that
an official policy for the safeguarding of children sport, as an economic activity, has not been able to
in sport, among many other activities. Beyond the develop at the same pace across the region.
development of sport policy, which as Darko and Across Central America and the Caribbean,
Mackintosh (2015) emphasize is challenging on where the economic potential of the sport indus-
many levels for small Caribbean nations, govern- try is often underappreciated, the contribution of
ments across the region also invest in sporting baseball to the overall economy of the Dominican
infrastructure in support of grassroots and elite- Republic is an interesting case to examine. Histori-
level sport. In addition, governments have enacted cally, the Dominican Republic has been a consistent
targeted policies and continue to invest funds in source of talent for Major League Baseball (MLB) in
support of hosting mega sporting events. As Keech the United States. In 2013, out of 856 players signed
(2016) emphasized, the government of Grenada in MLB, 241 of them (28 percent) were from outside
demonstrated a unique international collabora- the United States. Of the 241 foreign-born players,
tive approach to finance the reconstruction of the 207 (or 85.9 percent) were from Latin America and
National Cricket Stadium in 2007. The government the Caribbean. The largest single nationality from
later invested US$500,000 to acquire the rights to this group came from the Dominican Republic,
host a 2015 cricket test match between the West which was represented by 89 players (Berry, 2013).
Indies and England. These investments were part Over the years, the 10 to 12 percent proportion of
of a broader tourism policy designed to foster eco- Dominicans playing in MLB has been constant. In
nomic development in Grenada. With respect to the 2016, 83 players in MLB were from the Dominican
stadium project, the Chinese government's mon- Republic (Lagesse, 2016). The presence of Latin
etary investment is one of many examples of BRICS American players is even more evident in Minor
countries’ strategic engagement with CARICOM League Baseball (MiLB). It is estimated that of the
member nations (Montoute @ Abdenur, 2018). more than 7,000 players who play in MiLB, about
In terms of interregional cooperation, Caribbean 25 percent come from the Dominican Republic,
nation states have demonstrated a willingness to making Dominicans the largest group of foreign
develop and enact complex collaborative initiatives players in both major and minor league baseball
in support of economic development, particularly (Gregory, 2010).
in the sport tourism sector. For example, the 2007 The economic impact of MLB on the island today
ICC Cricket World Cup was staged across eight is significant. According to baseball scholar Robert
Caribbean nations. As Rampersad (2011) pointed Ruck, the baseball industry brings in a half billion
out, the logistical challenges were immense, but dollars to the island. Each MLB baseball academy
from a profits and tourism perspective, the event on the island spends roughly “US$125 million a year
generated more revenue than any other previous ... that’s after paying perhaps an additional $200
world cup, despite poor local spectatorship. million in signing bonuses to young Dominican
players, plus whatever comes home from the esti-
Economics of Sport mated $400 million paid to Dominican major leagu-
ers” (Ruck, cited in Lagesse, 2016, pp. 10 and 11).
Although many Latin American countries experi- Baseball academies are full-time facilities operated
ence similar challenges in their attempts to develop by MLB franchises in the Dominican Republic that
their sport systems, several important differences develop baseball talent. Because of the large supply
across the region add to the complexity of the task of talented baseball players available at relatively
for some countries. Larger and more productive low cost, MLB teams began establishing baseball
economies, like those of Brazil and Mexico, have academies in the late 1980s to recruit and prepare
developed a more advanced and multifaceted sport young players for a future life in the United States.
system because of their greater wealth. In contrast, The academies operate similarly to subsidiaries of
smaller economies have not achieved the same level a foreign company (Klein, 1991), and some crit-
of progress in their sporting systems because their ics argue that the economic impact is short lived
56 Bravo and Parrish

mitted to developing its sport industry further

for the purposes of contributing to the nation’s
Go to the MLB of DR (Dominican Republic) gross domestic product (GDP) (Toomer, 2015) m4
website and research how many and what key component of sport as an economic driver
MLB teams have academies in the Domini- in Jamaica and other Caribbean nations centers
can Republic. Select two teams that cur- on the ability of sport events (large and small) to
rently have academies in this country and contribute to tourism in the region. According
investigate how these academies are run to the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), a
and funded. In addition, find out what role consortium of 20 Caribbean countries, tourism
these academies play in the big picture of has become the most significant productive sector
the business of Major League Baseball. with respect to contributions to GDP. The tourism
and travel industry has been identified by leaders
of CARICOM member countries as a high-priority
segment of the economy because of its potential
to drive growth in other economic sectors, such
because it does not provide the needed elements
as construction. Specifically, sport tourism pos-
to ignite a significant change in an impoverished
sesses social and economic value. Local athletic
economy (Spagnuolo, 2003).
championships and other sporting events, such as
As in the Dominican Republic, the sport economy
regional and international tournaments, work to
in other Caribbean countries is underdeveloped.
Rampersad (2011) framed sport as a secondary stabilize arrivals to member countries and account
social institution in Trinidad and Tobago and noted for a notable percentage of the overall tourism and
travel industry (CARICOM, n.d.).
that the sport industry is “at the nascent stage of
development” (p. 99). Consequently, he argues, the Although the size of the sport industry across the
industry is not a primary source of employment and region represents only a fraction of the total industry
may be characterized by amateurish structures and on a global scale (PWC, 2011), in larger economies
organization, poor management practices, and gen- like Mexico and Brazil the sport industry has played
eral reliance on external support (i.e. government
an important part in the economy for years. For
and corporations). Toomer’s (2015) description of example, in 2012 the total size of the sport industry
the sport industry in Jamaica also indicated an in Brazil was estimated at R$31 billion, equivalent to
USS$6.3 billion, or 0.6 percent of the GDP (Menin,
overreliance on government subsidies and grants
and framed the commercial sport industry as “semi- 2013). Moreover, between 1996 and 2000, the eco-
professional in nature because most sporting com- nomic growth rate for the sport industry in Brazil
petitions are heavily reliant on amateur athletes. . . grew at faster pace than the nation’s GDP (Graca &
. Only the sport of horse racing can be classified as Kasznar, 2002). Although sport in Brazil represents
a local commercial sporting industry” (p. 468). This a fast-growing market, it is surprising that few
general description of the economics of sport (i.e., national governing bodies (NGBs) can support their
amateurism, reliance on external support) could operations through private sponsorships. Similar to
apply not only across countries in the Caribbean what occurs in other countries across the region,
but also across Latin America. This circumstance is many Brazilian NGBs still rely on public funding
largely due to comparatively smaller economies that to support their day-to-day operations alongside
are not developed to a level capable of sustaining sponsorship dollars from public companies.
professional sport as a commodity.
Despite the challenges associated with develop- Management of Sport
ing economies, significant financial investments Anecdotal evidence suggests that in Latin America,
and an emphasis on economic development policies managers and employees working in both the
grounded in sport continue to be formalized across public and private sport sectors do not have much
the region. For example, the Jamaican government expertise or sufficient professional background
has identified sport as a critical component to the to operate these organizations effectively. Conse-
nation’s national development plan and has com- quently, poor managerial practices are common
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean 5.

Learning Activity own public administrative civil services but also

on understanding how and where the education
Identify the two most popular sports in
and training of sport sector personnel takes place.
Mexico and Brazil. Also, provide a brief The FIFA scandal on world football that was
description of two professional leagues unveiled in 2015 resulted in 14 people being
in these countries. Are the most popular arrested on the charge of corruption, specifically
sports in each country the same? In terms taking bribes and kickbacks from sport marketing
of the organization of the professional companies that bid on television and marketing
leagues, can you discern any similarity rights. The investigation revolved around collu-
or major differences in the way that these sion between official members of CONMEBOL
leagues are organized and funded in each and CONCACAF regarding media and marketing
country? Can you identify which league in rights. Thirteen of the 14 individuals arrested were
each country is the most successful? from Latin America, including many presidents of
football governing bodies (Perez & Forero, 2015).
Similarly, the former president of the Rio 2016 Orga-
nizing Committee and member of the IOC Carlos
in amateur and community sport organizations Nuzman was arrested in September 2017. Nuzman
as well as among professional sport organizations. was accused of paying bribes in exchange for votes
For the most part, these poor practices are charac- to secure Rio de Janeiro as the host city of the 2016
terized by loose approaches to bookkeeping and Olympic Games (Hyde, 2017). Unfortunately, these
financial management and minimal transparency two cases are not isolated because corruption in
in documentation of operations. A lack of profes- sport today is much more common than it might
sionalization of the people who work in the sport appear to be (Masters, 2015).
sector can partially explain the problems described From a different perspective, and despite the
earlier. An additional explanation can be found in many cases that taint sport in the region, signs of
the lax hiring practices that some governments use maturity and development are apparent. One sign
when appointing civil employees in the sport sector. of maturity is the professionalization of football in
Studies show that public-sector employment in Brazil, at least for the teams that historically have
Latin America is still characterized by the practice a large base of supporters. Thus, the total value of
of patronage, a discretionary allocation of jobs to the 40 largest and most successful teams in 2017
reward followers and fortify political status and reached R$10.26 billion (about US$3.1 billion),
personal relationships (Grindle, 2010). The employ- compared with R$6.29 billion in 2013 (BDO, 2017).
ment of well-trained employees and managers in an Almost 90 percent of the value increment achieved
organization is important because mismanagement in the last five years (2013 to 2017) was due to
and abuse of power often lead to the corruption of the economic performance of the best and better-
an organization (Doig, 1995). positioned 10 teams in Brazil including Flamengo,
Although monitoring malpractice and cor- Palmeiras, Corinthias, Grémio, Atlético MG, Cru-
ruption in sport is not solely the responsibility zeiro, Internacional, Fluminense, Sao Paulo, and
of governments, a recent report of Transparency Botafogo (BDO, 2017).
International states, “Part of the work on sport Despite the significant incremental growth in the
and corruption must focus on how governments value of Brazilian football, critics argue that more
behave” (“Corruption and Sport,” 2009, p. 6). The money does not always result in better manage-
intersection between career professionalization and ment. This conclusion also applies to the Chilean
the remodeling of public service administration football league. Despite an increase in revenue stem-
has been acknowledged as exerting a significant ming from the Television Football Network, which
influence within the process of modernization guarantees an incremental payment to all clubs in
of governmental structures (Nef, 2007). This the first and second division of the Chilean football
breakthrough suggests that governments in Latin league, the improvement and capitalization of clubs
America must focus not only on improving their has not occurred because management practices
58 Bravo and Parrish

Evolution of the Brazilian National Football Championship

The Brazilian National Football Championship, also Brazilian Football Confederation (CBF) was born, which
known as Brasileirao or Série A, is the main profes- started to organize the new national championship. In
sional football competition among clubs in Brazil. It is 2003 the Brazilian National Football Championship
through this tournament, along with the champion of adopted the regular-season system in which all the
the Brazilian Cup, that Brazilian teams are selected for teams faced each other at home and away to differ-
the Copa Libertadores de America, the most important entiate the competition from the Brazilian Cup (also
competition among South American football clubs. The organized by the CBF), which was played in a knockout
format and management of Série A has evolved along- system by 91 clubs representing all Brazilian states.
side changes to Brazilian football throughout history. Currently, the main challenge faced by the Brazil-
Until 1971, unlike other South American countries, ian National Football Championship is overcoming
Brazil did not have a national competition to determine the imbalance that exists between Brazil's different
its champion. The major obstacle to organizing a regions. Of the 20 participants in 2018, 4 (20 percent)
national competition was the travel of teams in a coun- are from the north and northeast, the economically
try with continental dimensions. The distances between poorest regions in the country. The other 16 (80 per-
cities made a national competition logistically chal- cent) clubs are from the south and southeastern part of
lenging. In addition, the difficulty in finding common Brazil, which includes the most developed states in the
schedules to satisfy the multiple constituencies was a country. An additional problem of the Brazilian National
problem because state championships and overseas Football Championship is its schedule of competition,
exhibition games filled the calendars of all Brazilian which runs from April to December. This schedule
clubs. In response to these challenges, in 1971 the conflicts with the European season and causes Bra-
Brazilian Sports Confederation (CBD), which was zillan clubs to lose their main players in the middle of
responsible for Brazilian football at the time, launched the competition because they are often transferred
the Brazilian National Football Championship, which to European clubs during this time frame. The main
over the years became the most important competi- problem that clubs still face, however, is the neglect
tion for football clubs in Brazil. During the 1970s the of the CBF with respect to the national tournament.
national championship served widely as a platform for The main product managed by the CBF is the Brazil-
propaganda serving the interests of the military govern- ian national team. As a result, the Brazilian National
ment that ruled Brazil from 1964 to 1985. Football Championship, and its participating clubs, is
In its earlier years, a main problem with the national a secondary priority. Therefore, in the future the clubs
championship was frequent changes to the rules will have to run their own league that will organize the
governing the tournament. Among the various formats competition according to their own interests.
adopted were the knockout system (1959-1968) and Ary José Rocco Junior, PhD
the mixed groups and playoffs system (1967-2002).
University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
At the end of 1979 the CBD was dissolved and the

have not changed much (Soria & Maldonado, has not evolved at the same pace as their production
2016). Therefore, attendance is still low, violence of high-caliber players. According to the Interna-
in the stands has not been eradicated, minimal tional Center for Sport Studies (CIES), in May of
investment in infrastructure has occurred, and 2018 more than 3,000 Latin American professional
teams’ executives continue spending much more football players were playing overseas (Poli, Besson,
than their budgets allow. Unfortunately, and despite & Ravenel, 2018). A high dependence on transfer
the success of Latin American players in the best fees has been recognized as one of the problems
leagues in the world, management of local leagues affecting the management of football clubs in the
 Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean 59

cea

Investigate the issue of violence and hoo- Choose any of the football championships
liganism in professional football in Latin described in this section and prepare a
America. Which leagues in which countries brief report on the historical and cultural
present the most problems? What have significance of these championships.
governments of these countries done to
curb these problems?

the Caribbean Premier League in cricket, and the

CARIFTA Games in track and field. The Caribbean
region (Miller, 2012). Many clubs invest most of the
Baseball Series, or Series del Caribe in Spanish, is
resources that come from the transfer of talented
an annual baseball tournament played since 1949
players to acquire new players, leaving minimal or
by the national champion teams of Puerto Rico,
no resources to reinvest back into their own clubs.
Venezuela, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and
Mexico. From 1949 to 1960 the Caribbean Baseball
Major Sport Events Series included four countries: Puerto Rico, Cuba,
Over the past 90 years, Latin American and Carib- Panama, and Venezuela. Because Fidel Castro
bean countries have hosted major world sporting banned professional baseball in Cuba in 1961,
events like the FIFA World Cup, Summer Olympic Cuba self-excluded from the Series del Caribe until
Games, and the ICC Cricket World Cup. The men’s 2014. From 1970 until today, participants included
FIFA World Cup has been hosted seven times in the champion teams of the Dominican Republic,
Latin America, including the first version in Uru- Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Mexico (since 1971), and
guay in 1930. The other countries that have hosted Cuba (Latino Baseball, 2015).
the FIFA World Cup have been Brazil in 1950 and The Caribbean Premier League was established
2014, Chile in 1962, Mexico in 1970 and 1986, and in 2013 by the West Indies Cricket Board. The
Argentina in 1978. The Summer Olympic Games annual Twenty-20 cricket tournament features six
have been held twice in Latin America, in Mexico of the region’s top professional teams. The CPL T20
City in 1968 and in Rio de Janeiro in 2016. In 2007 event is unique because the competing teams are
eight Caribbean countries jointly hosted the ICC often from different island nations, which requires
Cricket World Cup. The Caribbean also hosted the strategic logistical planning.
ICC T20 Cricket World Cup in 2010 as well as the Following the dissolution of the West Indies
ICC Women’s T20 World Cup in 2010 and 2018. Federation (1958-1962), the Caribbean Free
In addition, several regional multisport events of Trade Association (CARIFTA) was organized to
medium to large size such as the Pan American foster economic and political integration among
Games, Central American and Caribbean Games, English-speaking countries in the region. In 1972
and South American Games are also organized in the organization launched the CARIFTA Games,
the region. The main football championships are a junior-level track and field event, in support of
Copa América, the South American Champion- this goal. A year later the Caribbean Community
ships of Nations (organized every four years since (CARICOM) replaced CARIFTA as the unifying
1916); Copa Libertadores de América, the South institution for member countries, but the event
American Club Championship (organized every continued and retains its original name to this day.
year since 1960); and the Central American Foot- This tournament showcases some of the top-level
ball Union Nation Cup (organized every two years amateur talent in a region known for its develop-
since 1991). Copa América and the Nation Cup in ment of some of the best track and field athletes in
Central America are men’s only competitions; the the world. Olympic gold medalists such as Usain
Copa Libertadores started a female version in 2009. Bolt, Yohan Blake, and Shaunae Miller Uibo are
Other single-sport tournaments organized in among the list of former champions. Over its his-
the Caribbean are the Caribbean Baseball Series, tory, the CARIFTA Games have rotated among 13
60 Bravo and Parrish

countries in the region, each seeking to capitalize on country. Because governments’ influence is strong,
the economic impact associated with the influx of many countries have raised the status of sport to
visitors that accompanies the event and to enhance a constitutional level. Many governments rational-
its national profile. ize their involvement and subsidization of sport
because they think that sport can serve as a vehicle
to achieve a number of higher social ends. From
Summary _ helping to develop healthy habits in the popula-
Most sports that are popular in Latin America and tion to developing national pride, sport is seen
the Caribbean arrived in the region more than a as a powerful vehicle that helps reinforce social,
hundred years ago. Essentially, sports were cultural regional, and national identity. Despite this per-
imports that were brought from Europe at the end ceived importance, the sport industry in many Latin
of the 19th century or at the turn of the 20th cen- American and Caribbean countries still lags behind
tury. Two distinguished features characterize the when compared with other regions of the world.
way that sport is organized in Latin America and Although the overall social value of sport is high,
the Caribbean. First is the role played by clubs, the economic value of many sport enterprises is still
associations, and national governing bodies, and not significant in terms of the impact to national
second is the supporting role played by govern- economies. In addition, managerial practices in
ments. Clubs represent the actual place where the many private and public sport organizations are
sport activity takes place. Clubs can be of multiple still substandard, or at best are a work in progress.
forms, from single to multiple sports, from public Nonetheless, many governments see the potential
to private, and from recreational to professional to develop an industry that can significantly con-
sport. On the other hand, government involvement tribute to the country’s economic development.
in sport in Latin America and the Caribbean occurs Recent sport mega events hosted, or soon to be
in a way that is not much different from how it hosted, in the region, such as the 2014 FIFA World
occurs in other regions of the world. Governments’ Cup in Brazil, the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio,
presence exists at multiple levels, from municipal the 2019 and 2023 Pan American Games in Lima
and provincial to the national level. Although the and Santiago de Chile, and the 2018 Youth Olympic
extent of this involvement varies from country Games in Buenos Aires, show that many countries
to country, governments main role is to provide
are still committed to raising the standard of the
the necessary funding to the sport system in each
sport industry in this part of the world.

1. How does sport contribute to reinforcing the notion of social and national identity in Latin America
and the Caribbean?
2. How did colonization influence the structure of sport in the Caribbean?
3. What are the differences between government involvement in sport and governance of sport?
4. Discuss the role played by clubs in the entire sport system of countries across Latin America and
the Cariobean. How many types of clulos can you find in these countries?
5. What is a public limited sport company?
6. Explain why various governments in the Cariobean region are involved in the sport industry and
describe two specific roles they play in the administration of sport.
7. |n consideration of the 2007 Cricket World Cup, describe why hosting this sporting event was a
complex undertaking. Do you foresee more international megaevents being hosted in a similar
manner in the future? Why or why not?
8. Explain the main challenges faced by the Brazilian National Football Championship.
9. Explain the relationships among sport events, sport tourism, and economic growth.
LEO EE LIURI RIN ISO EL N HIS
 CHAPTER

sport in Western Europe

Brice Lefevre, PhD
University Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon

Guillaume Routier, PhD

University Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon

Guillaume Bodet, PhD

University Lyon, University Claude Bernard Lyon

Chapter Objectives ss SANCTION LE SORLESS

LA ASRS LS SON OSA SEINE SORES COLON LEROIE IE SAS PRI

After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

e Define Europe and Western Europe geopolitically and culturally in relation to

sport management.
e Outline the region’s common approaches to the philosophy, organization, and
financing of sport.
e |Identify the main trends in terms of viewership of live sport events and participa-
tion in sport or physical activity.
e Identify the main national similarities and differences in terms of sport participa-
tion patterns in Western Europe.
e Discuss the methodological challenges of national sport comparisons in Western
Europe.

sport EU definition of sport

sport participation categories of sport goods and services
European Union (EU) expenditure
work plan for sport traditional pillars of sport participation
traditional sport system in Western Europe
omnivorism
economics of sport

61
62 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

>
Q

United
Kingdom 4,

cy
0
Northern G
Ireland a As) J

fs
roa)
o
Belgium ’ ¥
lreland Berline

London a Germany Leipzig

cs
Brussels

1. Switzerland
2. Greece
3. Luxembourg

Key Events.
1924 Chamonix Olympic Games. Organized by the Bosman ruling, 1993. European Union legal ruling that
French Olympic Committee, the event was designated allowed freer movement of athletes between teams.
by the International Olympic Committee as the first Creation of the English Premier League of football,
Olympic Winter Games. They were organized in the 1992. One of the most watched sport leagues in the
French city of Chamonix, in the Alps. The Games world, its creation represents a turning point for Euro-
gathered 16 nations and 258 athletes. pean professional football and sport, generating high
European Sport for All Charter, 1975. Adopted by the revenues, notably through high broadcasting rights and
sport ministers of European member states, it had the sponsorship deals.
goal of making sport accessible to all people and sup- 1992 Barcelona Summer Olympics. The Olympics was
porting high ethical values in sport. organized in Spain for the first time. These Games saw
Fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989. Event that paved the way the first official participation of professional athletes.
for German reunification and a wave of anti-Communist They are often cited as an example of a positive impact
revolutions across Eastern Europe, which had a signifi- and legacy of hosting the Olympics on the regeneration
cant effect on the landscape of European sport and on of a city.
understanding sport-doping issues.

Key People

Lord Sebastian Coe, former Olympic athlete, political personally intervened on behalf of Formula One to allow
figure, and chief executive of the London 2012 Olympic an exception to a ban on tobacco advertising in sport.
bid team. Andy Burnham, former sport minister for England.
Tony Blair, formerly prime minister of Great Britain, Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), French historian
played a role in the London 2012 Olympics bid and and educator, played a central role in the revival of the
 Sport in Western Europe 63

modern Olympic Games and was a founding father of Games became the megaevent that it is, through spon-
the International Olympic Committee. sorship, broadcasting, and commercialization.
Alice Milliat (1884-1957) was a sportswoman who Sepp Blatter (1936-), a Swiss football administrator, is
strongly contributed to the development and inclusion the former president of the Fédération Internationale
of women in the Olympics, notably through the cre- de Football Association (FIFA) between 1998 and 2015.
ation of an international federation and the Women’s He strongly contributed to the development of football,
Olympics. the FIFA organization, and the FIFA World Cup, but
Juan Antonio Samaranch (1920-2010) was a Span- his tenure was tarnished by numerous controversies
ish sports administrator and minister of sport under and corruption allegations. He has been banned for six
Franco regime and served as IOC president between years from FIFA activities.
1980 and 2001. During his presidency the Olympic

“he overall aim of this chapter is to draw the pic- the signature of the Maastricht treaty. Sixty years
ture of sport consumption in Western Europe. later and after several additions, the EU comprises
In this sense, sport is considered in both its 28 member states: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
social and economic dimensions. Indeed, Andreff Cyprus, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Esto-
(1999, p. 135) observed that sport participation nia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
was “an act of consumption” that engages sport spe- Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
cific expenditures such as clothes, sport products Malta, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
and material, tickets and fees for using sport equip- Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United
ment, traveling, and tourism. According to this Kingdom. But Europe remains a continent that is
view, sport participation and, more broadly, sport- difficult to define because it is simultaneously one
ing and leisure activities create various primary and and several, which is well illustrated in the EU
secondary sport markets (Andreff, Bourg, Halba, & motto “United in diversity.”
Nys, 1994). Sport can then be analyzed though the Because defining Europe is not an easy exercise,
lens of both its economic and social aspects. defining Western Europe is similarly difficult. Tra-
To appreciate the various challenges in relation ditionally, Western Europe is defined geographi-
to the sport sector in Western Europe, this chapter cally but also politically. According to the United
discusses the political and governance dimension Nations (i.e., Western Standard Countries Codes
of sport, demographic considerations in sport con- for Statistical Use), Western Europe comprises 9
sumption, and participation in sport and physical countries: Austria, Belgium, France, Germany,
activity sectors. Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, (the) Neth-
erlands, and Switzerland. But for other standards,
Geographic Description, notably UNESCO’s, Western Europe comprises 23
countries: Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Demographics, and Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Iceland,

_ Background | Italy, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Norway,

the Netherlands, Portugal, San Marino, Spain, Swit-
On March 25, 1957, Germany, Belgium, France, zerland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and Vatican.
Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands signed From a geopolitical point of view, the West—East
the two treaties of Rome, creating the European division also refers to the Cold War, which goes
Economic Community (CEE) and the European beyond geographical boundaries. During the Cold
Community of Atomic Energy, which are usually War (1945-1991), Western Europe comprised the
considered the first two foundational pillars of the countries situated west of the Iron Curtain, which
birth of a political Europe. Later, on February 7, the were the European countries belonging to NATO
CEE entity became the European Union (EU), with with the exception ofTurkey, plus the neutral ones.
64 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

differences particularly influence the development

of outdoor versus indoor sports, and summer versus
Compare the composition of the European winter sports. The performance of Norway at the
Union, the Euro Zone, and the border- Winter Olympics is illustrative of these differences
free area called Schengen. Using a web and specificities. In terms of demography, Western
search, distinguish the countries that Europe comprises the most populated European
belong to all three of these areas from countries: Germany (about 82 million inhabitants
those that do not. in 2018), the United Kingdom (about 66 million),
and France (65 million), as well as sparsely popu-
lated countries like Iceland (about 330,000) and
These countries were allied with the United States Luxembourg (590,000).
of America (USA) and formed what was commonly
Overall, according to our definition Western
called the Western bloc or capitalist bloc. This defi- Europe gathers about 420 million inhabitants. In
nition will be used in this chapter mainly because terms of economies, Germany, the United King-
the political systems in Europe strongly influence dom, France, and Italy are among the top 10 largest
sport and its development as a cultural, social, and economies in the world in terms of gross domestic
economic phenomenon, and because it excludes the product (GDP), and Luxembourg, Ireland, Norway,
very small nation-states that are not representative and Switzerland are among the top 10 economies
of Europe because of their small population (e.g. in terms of GDP per capita. Consequently, we can
Monaco, San Marino, Vatican, and so forth). consider Western Europe a wealthy area.
Consequently, we define Western Europe as
made up of Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Role of Sport
Greece, Spain, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Neth- Because of its important social and economic
erlands, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Sweden, the impact, sport has taken a growing place in European
United Kingdom, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland. development programs and more generally in EU
From a geographic and climatic viewpoint, strategy. Consequently, the EU designed in 2017
Western Europe is extremely diverse, which has a dedicated work plan for sport that comprises
a significant influence on sport consumption and three key challenges: integrity of sport, economic
participation. Europe is often described as a pen- dimension of sport, and sport and society. Essen-
insula of peninsulas, a peninsula being a piece of tially, EU’s aim is to (1) ensure integrity for those
land surrounded by water on three sides. Western under 18 years old and fight against corruption and
Europe has the Arctic Ocean on the north, the doping though the good governance of sport; (2)
Atlantic Ocean on the west, and the Mediterranean stimulate economic activity, especially in terms of
Sea on the south. The European continent is gen- jobs, through support of innovation and the con-
erally divided into seven geographic regions, four struction of a specific sport market; and (3) fight
of which are included in Western Europe as we against exclusion, preserve and improve individu-
defined it: Scandinavia (Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
als’ health, and protect the environment through
Finland, and Denmark), the British Isles (the United
the promotion of sport and physical activity for
Kingdom and Ireland), West Europe (France, Bel-
European citizens. In that sense, sport is used as
gium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg), and a platform to address numerous social, economic,
South Europe (Portugal, Spain, Italy, and few small and political challenges.
states). The fifth and sixth areas, Central and South-
east Europe, integrate several Western European Sport plays a positive role in the cross-sectoral
countries according to our definition: Germany, cooperation at EU level and thereby helps to
Switzerland, Austria, and Greece. The last area ensure sustainable development and to ade-
is East Europe. Climate varies from polar climate quately tackle the overarching socio-economic
in the far north, Atlantic climate for the countries and security related challenges facing the EU,
including migration, social exclusion, radicaliza-
facing the Atlantic ocean, mountain climate in
tion that may lead to violent extremism, unem-
the Alpine region, continental climate in northern
ployment, as well as unhealthy lifestyles and
countries (e.g., Sweden, Finland), and a dry and obesity. (Council of European Union, 2017, p. 3)
warm Mediterranean climate in the south. These
 Sport in Western Europe 65

Learning Activity - Governance of Sport

Although the Council of European Union In 2007 the European Council adopted a resolution
sees sport almost exclusively as produc- institutionalizing new trans-Europe cooperation
ing positive outcomes for populations, about sport named Enlarged Partial Agreement on
reflect on the potential mixed and nega- Sport (EPAS). This platform of cooperation between
tive consequences of sport participation, governments aimed to foster a dialog between EU
attendance, and viewership. member states, public authorities, sport federations,
and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to
contribute to better governance of sport. In that
sense, EPAS constitutes a tool that should help
Regarding sport participation, nonparticipation
Europe tackle current sport threats and challenges.
rates in Europe remain as high as the differences
The Erasmus+ program also supports, notably
between countries, confirming the need for public
financially, development, exchange and transfer,
intervention for the promotion of sport and physical
and the realization of innovative ideas and actions
activity (Downward & Rasciute, 2011). This has been
through Europe. This cooperation between various
the case since the ratification of the European Sport
stakeholders also contributes to the development of
for All Charter that addresses the importance of par-
the European dimension of sport. In the same vein,
ticipation for all, a confirmation of the importance
the European week of sport aims to raise aware-
of sport participation irrespective of geographical,
ness of the benefits of regular sport and physical
social, education, and gender aspects. Sport has to be
activity among European citizens, irrespective of
accessible to everyone to fit with the European idea
their age and level of fitness. In emphasizing local
of sport for all. But because of the strong differences
initiatives, it aims to encourage people to #BeActive
between national and regional contexts, designing
on a regular basis.
global sport policies based on few general indicators
The traditional sport system in Western Euro-
such as participation rates and frequencies appears
pean countries is based on a system of interdepen-
difficult, as well as inefficient.

Sport in France
In France, public authorities are strongly and directly elite athletes for Olympic Games. Last, it gives its
linked to sport federations that are delegated to orga- opinion on the delegation of public service to national
nize the sport and its development within the national federations. The state, through the ministry of sports
territory, although each of numerous actors has a spe- and its decentralized directorates, is centered on the
cific role. For instance, within the sporting movement, functions of coordination and regulation. Specifically, it
national federations are given by the state a direction deals with safety issues in controlling sport equipment
to organize the sport, its rules, and its competitions; to and formations (i.e., role of administrative police). As
deliver local and national titles; and to select athletes for the elite level, the state is the administrative tutor of
to represent the country. This mandate is renewed federations in the sense that it establishes, in coordina-
every four years. The French National Olympic Com- tion with them and the FNOC, the lists of elite athletes
mittee (FNOC) is the representative of the Olympic and conducts the fight against doping. Last, it warrants
Movement and deals with public authorities about the development of sport for all by conducting actions
common-interest issues such as the preservation of such as the Sports Day, supporting small rural clubs,
the Olympic spirit. It collaborates with both sport fed- and ensuring equal access to sport equipment within
erations and public authorities to prepare and select the territory.
EARS ELIS
66 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

Sporting movement -. Public authorities

Olympic
"movement authorities

National level

Regional level

County level
Dapanmeatal Departmental
Regional sport Departmental
------ > P : <-----+ directorate of
organizations OC councils
sports
A A
i a a

Local level Cities

Not-for-profit
and
sport clubs
towns

Figure 5.1. The simplified French sport organization system.

Based on information from Ministére Des Sports. Available: http://www.sports.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/orgasportfrancais_sigleso.pdf

dences between various sport institutions that can factors influencing sports and sporting activities. It
be actors, producers, organizers, managers, and consists, according to Andreffet al. (1994), of look-
administrators. This system is generally organized ing at both sides of a coin by focusing on the origins
as a pyramid. Elite sport is on top, organized by of sport funding, the recipients of these expenses,
international and national institutions (i.e., govern- and the activities that they generate. To shed light on
ing bodies and federations), and grassroots sport these two aspects, surveys and studies are regularly
is at the bottom, organized by not-for-profit orga- conducted to produce relevant data and knowledge
nizations and clubs. Excluding professional sport, that, in turn, should influence policies.
the historic actors of the organization of sport in First, to identify the main European sport
Europe are the ones from the “sporting movement” funders and the amounts invested, we can rely on
comprising the federal system, the Olympic move- a study conducted by the consultancy firm Groupe
ment, and public institutions made up of states and AMNYOS (2008). Second, we focus on sport-related
local authorities. Each of these actors is active at employment in Western Europe using the Labor
the regional and local levels to implement national Force Survey from Eurostat, the statistical office of
sport policies, and interactions occur at each level. the EU. Third, we focus on trade in sporting goods.
Figure 5.1 proposes a simplified structure of the Fourth, we look at households’ sport-related con-
French sport organization system. sumptions and expenses in Western Europe using
Eurostat’s data.
_ Economics of Sport To understand the meaning of the data, the EU
definition of sport is important to keep in mind
The analysis of the economics of sport and its chal-
because it comprises three levels: a statistical, a
lenges in Europe is not an easy task partly because of
narrow, and an extended definition. The statistical
the growing importance of economic and monetary
definition comprises all sporting activities that have
 Sport in Western Europe 67

their own statistical category in the Statistical Clas- Lithuania, and 1.13 percent for Estonia, in compari-
sification of Economic Activities in the European son with Western European countries, which invest
Community classification (NACE, 2002, 2008). more in that sector, for instance, 1.76 percent for
Within this category, we can find, for instance, France, 1.67 percent for the United Kingdom, and
professional athletes, sport coaches, and instruc- 1.42 percent for Germany.
tors. The narrow definition gathers all activities When looking at the funding of sport, the picture
considered as sport inputs, that is, all goods and is clear: Private funding (households and firms)
services necessary to participate in sport, to which represents the most significant share in comparison
we add the elements from the statistical definition. with public funding (state and local authorities).
Finally, the extended definition gathers all activities Sport is on average funded at 63.8 percent from
in which sport is an input, that is, all goods and private funding, and more precisely at 49.7 percent
services related to sport but that are not necessary from households. On average, public funding in
to participate, to which elements from the narrow Europe was about 36.2 percent in 2008, with 24.3
definition are added. percent funded by local authorities. This structure
has been quite stable since 1990.
Structure of Sport Funding The case of France is interesting. Until 2011
According to a study commissioned by EU Direc- household expenditure was on average greater
torate-General Education and Culture (SportsEc- than public administrations’ expenditure (national
onAustria et al., 2012) including the 27 countries, and local, 47 percent and 44 percent, respectively),
sport represented about 1.13 percent of the Euro- while firms’ funding remained relatively low (less
pean GDP when using the narrow definition and than 10 percent). From 2012 the hierarchy was
1.76 percent when using the extended definition. changed mainly because of the economic con-
When considering the more restrictive definition, sequences of the 2007 financial crisis. Although
the statistical definition, which concerns the orga- household expenditure still increased (an increase
nized sport sector, it represents less than 0.3 percent of 7 percent between 2007 and 2013), this growth
of the EU GDP. Furthermore, we can observe that was lower than public administrations’ expenditure
the sport sector when direct and indirect impacts (an increase of 26 percent between 2007 and 2013).
are concerned was evaluated at 2.98 percent of the Therefore, the share of public funding in France
EU GDP and corresponded to 2.12 percent of overall went from 42.5 percent in 2005 to 47.8 percent in
employment. According to the study from Groupe 2013, while the share from household expenditure
AMNYOS (2008), Eastern European countries decreased from 47.4 to 43.6 percent (see table 5.1).
allocate a smaller share of their GDP to sport, for The sport sector is therefore an important sector
instance, 0.21 percent for Bulgaria, 0.38 percent for with significant potential. Moreover, the European

Table 5.1 Structure of Sport Expenditures in France (2005-2013)

Households 47.4% 47.0% 46.8% 46.4% 45.4% 46.6% 45.8% 44.7% 43.6%

Public
administrations
42.5% 42.9% | 43.5% | 44.1% | 44.8% 144.0% | 45.0% |46.0% |478%
Firms 10.1% 10.0% 19.7% 19.8% {9.8% 19.6% 19.2% 19.0% |8.7%
TOTAL 30.6 31.9 33.1 33.8 33.7 34.3 36.0 36.5 38.1
GDP 1772.0 | 1,853.3 |1,945.7 |1,995.8 |1,939.0 |1,998.5 |2,0599 |20869 |2116.6
% of GDP 1.73 1.72 1.70 1.70 174 172 1.75 175 1.80
Data from Bergonzoni (2016).
68 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

sport sector showed strong resilience after the 2007 Those sport organizations are extremely dependent
financial crisis in comparison with other economic on volunteers, and without this “invisible labor,”
sectors, possibly because of the maintenance of not-for-profit organizations could not operate as
effort and expenditure from public actors, especially they do now (Chantelat, 2010). As an example, in
local ones. In France sport expenditure growth was France in 2005, the financial value of volunteers’
greater than GDP growth: Between 2007 and 2013, time and skills in not-for-profit sport organizations
sport expenditure increased by 15 percent whereas was evaluated at €5.6 billion (US$6.9 billion) when
GDP increased by only 9 percent. both direct and indirect (i.e., construction, mainte-
The European sport model (elite and professional nance, and access to sport facilities) funding from
sports at the top and grassroots and mass partici- public administrations was considered (Chantelat,
pation at the bottom) generally uses “trickle-down 2010). Figure 5.2 illustrates the current streams of
effects” to justify funding elite sport, presuming that funding for various types of sport (i.e., elite sport,
success at the elite level will increase mass partici- competitive recreational sport, health and recre-
pation (Bosscher, Sotiriadou, & Bottenburg, 2013). ational sport), demonstrating the plurality of fund-
But this model shows some fragility; expenditures ing origins and the complexity of the sport system.
become increasingly specialized and contribute
more to the top of the pyramid than the bottom Employment in Sport
(Groupe AMNYOS, 2008). Private expenditures When specifically focusing on employment within
(households and firms) mainly go to elite and the sport sector, the Labor Force Survey conducted
professional sports (mostly through broadcasting by the EU provides relevant information regarding
and TV rights), and public expenditures, especially the status of workers and their sociodemographic
those from the states, tend to follow the same ori- characteristics such as age, gender, and education
entation. levels (using the ISED classification). The definition
In the meantime, funding for mass participa- used by Eurostat refers to the statistical definition
tion becomes increasingly complex. Because of that gathers sport activity economic sectors from
the progressive disengagement of public actors, the NACE classification, but it brings another
not-for-profit organizations, which are the basis of dimension through related occupations according
the system, have to develop new strategies and com- to the ISCO classification by integrating sport and
petencies, especially from a financial perspective. fitness workers outside the sport sector. The figures

ela cue |
| eeu
| selaieeculela

Volunteering

_ Local authority or Competitive

recreational —
‘State expenditure
participation

Household or firm
Cyfelclarelivicc,

Elite participation

Figure 5.2 The simplified European sport funding system.

Based on Groupe AMNYOS Consultants (2008).
 Sport in Western Europe 69

presented consider the number of workers irrespec- Last, we observe that the majority of jobs within
tive of their amount of work; no distinction is made the sport sector in 2016 required moderate qualifica-
between full-time and part-time jobs (ie., they are tions; 48 percent of them were upper-secondary and
not full-time equivalent values). postsecondary nontertiary education jobs, jobs of
At first, we can observe that in 2016, 86 percent levels 3 and 4 from the 2011 ISCED classification.
of jobs from the sport sector were located within In comparison, jobs from levels 5 to 8 represented
Western European countries. This portion had only 35 percent of jobs. But the global trend has
remained relatively stable despite a slight decrease been toward an upgrade in terms of qualification
observed starting in 2013 (see table 5.2). since 2011. Specifically, while the number of work-
Within Western European countries, gender bal- ers from levels 0 to 2 decreased by 5.4 percent
ance in terms of workers within the sport sector is between 2011 and 2016, the number of workers
relatively even, even if the portion of males remains with qualifications from levels 5 to 8 increased by
slightly larger (54.9 percent) than that of females. 37.2 percent (table 5.3).
But the gap is being progressively reduced; between
2011 and 2016, the number of male workers Trade in Sporting Goods
increased by 6.1 percent and the number of female Using the COMEXT data published by Eurostat, it
workers increased by 18.6 percent. is possible to assess the value of the sporting goods
Regarding age, most sport workers in Western trade in Europe (imports and exports) within and
European countries are between 30 and 64 years outside the EU. Within this database, sporting
of age, representing about 58.5 percent of workers goods are identified according to the Harmonized
in 2016. The most rapidly growing age group is the System classification and then gathered according
65 and older age group, which increased 107.6 per- to sport disciplines. The following categories can
cent. The 15 to 29 years old age group increased by be found: skis and associated materials; skates;
12.1 percent, and the 30 to 64 years old age group boats and nautical sport materials; golf materials;
increased by 10.6 percent. racquet sport materials; balls; gymnastics, athletics,

Table 5.2 Part of Western Europe in European Employment in Sport

Part of Western
Europe (%)
je |e
Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

Table 5.3. Employment in Western Europe (2015)

Gender

38.5 12.1
Age group 56,0 10.6
3.0 107.3
17.0 -5.4
Education level (ISCED) 48.0 6.1
35.0 31.2

Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

70 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

and swimming materials; fishing materials; bikes; Private Expenditure on Sporting

parachutes; sport clothes; sport shoes; and sport
and hunting guns. Goods and Services
In 2017, 87.2 percent of European imports and To get an idea of household sport consumption in
87 percent of exports were produced by Western Western Europe, the Eurostat data, particularly the
European countries. Imports from these countries 2010 Household Budget Survey, tocusing on house-
increased by 18.3 percent between 2006 and 2015, hold expenditures on sport goods and services, can
while exports increased by 29.2 percent over the be used. This study includes the 28 EU countries
same period. These trends strongly contributed to and provides information regarding five categories
the reduction of the trade balance deficit, which of sport goods and services expenditure: (1) recre-
fell by 70 percent between 2006 and 2017. But all ational and sporting services; (2) major durables for
countries from Western Europe (see figure 5.3) do outdoor recreation; (3) equipment for sport, camping,
not present the same situation of deficit; Italy, the and open-air recreation; (4) maintenance and repair
Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, and Finland pres- of other major durables for recreation and culture;
ent trade surpluses. and (5) major durables for indoor recreation.
Three countries can be considered the big- The overall value of household expenditures is
gest contributors in terms of imports: Germany, estimated at €52,078,000 (about US$70,000,000)
the United Kingdom, and France. In 2016 they (Purchasing Power Standard), representing 1.2 per-
represented 20 percent, 14.8 percent, and 13.6 cent of their overall expenditures. This value also
percent of sport goods, respectively. This result is constitutes 75 percent of the overall expenditures in
not surprising because these are the richest coun- the sport sector in Europe, and it represents 61 per-
ries in Europe, having the largest GDPs in 2016 cent of overall expenditures. In that sense, in Western
(OECD, 2016). As for exports, Germany remains Europe the consumption of sporting goods and ser-
the strongest European contributor, followed this vices takes a bigger place in household budgets and
time by Italy and the Netherlands. In 2015 they expenses in comparison with countries from Eastern
represented 18 percent, 17.5 percent, and 15.8 per- Europe (.e., 0.6 percent of their overall expenditures)
cent of exports, respectively, from Western Europe. (see figure 5.4).

Italy
Netherlands
Belgium
Portugal
Finland
| Iceland
Luxembourg
_ Austria
Greece
lreland
Denmark
_ Sweden
_ Germany
France
~ Spain
_ Switzerland
United Kingdom
-2,000 -1,000 1,000 2,000
Millions

Figure 5.3 Trade balance of Western European countries.

Based on data from Eurostat (2017).
 Sport in Western Europe 71

TOTAL Western Europe

Portugal

Ireland

Luxembourg

Spain

France

Italy

Germany

Belgium

Denmark

Austria

United Kingdom

Sweden }

Finland |

Greece |

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

©) Recreational and sporting services

Major durables for outdoor recreation
@ Equipment for sport, camping, and open-air recreation
@ Maintenance and repair of other major durables for recreation and culture
Major durables for indoor recreation

Figure 5.4 Distribution of household sport expenditure in Western Europe by country and category.
Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

Management of Sport _
participation is executed within a sport structure,
as well as the nature of the structure. Most sport
As indicated in the previous section, Governance participation is individual and self-organized. The
of Sport, the state and public authorities have a management role here of the state and the public
significant role in the traditional sport system in authorities mainly deals with offering public spaces,
Western Europe through the funding and manage- sport venues, and facilities to the public.
ment of elite sport and the funding of recreational For those who participate within a sport organi-
participation. zation, about 25 percent go to commercial places
Keep in mind, however, that the direct man- and about 15 percent join not-for-profit clubs. Com-
agement of sport is related to where and when mercial organizations (e.g., health and fitness clubs,
72 Lefevre, Routier, and Bodet

golf clubs, five-a-side football organizations, indoor EU countries, the privileged place of participation is
climbing structures, and so on) are privately owned at home (+13 points of difference). The other places
and structured (e.g., independent or franchised). do not present remarkable differences.
The following sections provide further information Beyond the classic north-south division observed
about the places of participation and memberships. earlier, there are important differences and speci-
ficities, and the at-home category is the most dis-
Places of Sport and Physical criminant. In Germany (+13 points gap) and in
Activity Participation Sweden (+13 points), at home is the privileged place
of participation for almost half the population (46
Among sport participants in Western Europe, the
percent). In contrast, at-home participation con-
favored places (see table 5.4) tend to be parks or
cerns a little more than | person out of 10 in Italy
outdoors and the home, although fitness centers
(13 percent, -20 points), in Spain (14 percent, -19
and sport clubs are also preferred places for par- points), and in Portugal (14 percent, -19 points).
ticipation.
Part of this difference can be explained by geogra-
This table shows some notable differences for
phy and, consequently, climate characteristics, the
participation preferences between the countries of
latter countries being sunnier and warmer overall.
Western Europe and those of the EU. Participants
Health and fitness centers are used by numerous
in Western Europe favor parks and outdoors +11
Swedish participants (40 percent, +23 points),
points), not-for-profit sport clubs (+8 points), and
whereas they are not much attended by French
health and fitness centers (+8 points). For the other
participants (5 percent, -12 points). One possible

Table 5.4 Places of Sport and Physical Activity Participation in Western Europe (row per-
centages, n = 12,283)

Sweden 46 55 6 3 1
Germany 46 42 4 2 2
Finland 43 72 5 5 1
Austria 43 54 5 9 1
United Kingdom | 40 38 4 6 4
Denmark 39 50 (i 3 3
Belgium 38 32 6 5 4
Netherlands 35 37 6 5 2
Luxembourg 35 36 7 4 3
Greece 31 33 3 4 0
France 27 42 a 5 4
Ireland 27 44 5 6 2
Portugal 14 44 4 5) 2
Spain 14 51 2 4 1
Italy 13 36 4 5 2

farts oe ake i Avant

canes = | 3 eas U
Based on data from European Commission (2014).
 Sport in Western Europe 73

explanation is that the French sporting culture is The Western Europe population is significantly
strongly associated with not-for-profit clubs and more involved (+15 point gap) in sport club and
public funding, and they are more reluctant to join health and fitness center participation compared
commercial organizations. On-the-way is the par- with other EU countries, made up of a +9 point
ticipation place for more than 2 people out of 5 in difference for sport clubs and a +6 point difference
Finland (47 percent, +22 points) and Greece (41 per- for health and fitness centers. Important differences
cent, +16 points), although on-the-way participation are also evident among Western European coun-
concerns only | person out of 10 in Luxembourg tries. Northern European countries demonstrate
(11 percent, -14 points). Last, it can be observed the highest rates of club affiliations, and Southern
that about three-quarters of Finnish participants (72 European countries show less developed not-for-
percent, +30 points) take part in sport and physical profit club networks.
activities in parks and outdoors, indicating a strong With a ratio of four individuals out of five who
cultural orientation toward natural environments. are not members of a sport organization, we find
without surprise the countries of Portugal (88 per-
Membership cent, +18 point gap) and Greece (83 percent, +13
In Western Europe, affiliation with a club (see table point gap). In the northern part of Western Europe,
5.5) concerns about 30 percent of the population. less than half of the population from Sweden (47
Sport clubs (14 percent) and health and fitness clubs percent, -24 points) and Denmark (47 percent, -23
(12 percent) recruit the most. Sociocultural clubs points), a little more than half of the population
(3 percent) and other types of clubs (1 percent) in the Netherlands (54 percent, -17 points), and
represent marginal shares of participants. three out of five persons in Germany (60 percent,

Table 5.5 Rates of Membership in Sport Organizations in Western Europe (row per-
centages, n = 15,689)
Nola | Health orfitness |

Portugal 100
Greece 100
Italy 100
Spain 100
France 100
Finland 100
Austria 100
United Kingdom 100
Belgium 100
Ireland 100
Luxembourg 100
Germany 100
Netherlands 100
Denmark 100
Sweden oowohk
WO
WwW
BR
YOR
OR
WN
OD
= eS
Ry
iS
Se
ee
SS
Re 100
Western Europe oo —k Do
EF
CO
ae
NW
Oo
Fe
MS
Maes
coe
©= 100
(15 countries)
Others 100
(13 countries)

Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

74 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

—13 points) participate outside sport organizations. Considering the diversity of sport interests
When looking at the extremes, the proportion of within Western Europe (see later sections), the
people participating in sport organizations is 4.3 countries’ wealth, the quantity and quality of sport
times higher in Sweden than in Portugal. infrastructures (e.g., stadia, indoor arenas, swim-
Other national differences can also be observed. ming pools, and so on), and the proximity between
For instance, note a stronger role of health and fit- locations and sites, these events are quite regularly
ness centers in Sweden (33 percent, +21 point gap) hosted in Western Europe, even if they have dif-
and Denmark (25 percent, +13 points). In the same ferent audiences and impacts. For instance, the
vein, the Netherlands (27 percent, +13 points) and World Men’s Handball Championship in France,
Germany (24 percent, +12 points) demonstrate a World Women’s Handball Championship in Ger-
stronger role of not-for-profit clubs in comparison many, IAAF World Championships in London,
with other countries of Western Europe. Overall, UCI Road World Championships (road cycling) in
sport participation and place clearly differ among Bergen (Norway), IIHF World Championships (ice
the countries of Western Europe. hockey) in both Koln (Germany) and Paris, and
World Figure Skating Championships in Helsinki
~ Major Sport Events (Finland) were hosted in 2017.
The analysis of participation in live sport events
In terms of regular events, men’s football results
has multiple dimensions. One approach consists
from England, Spain, Italy, Germany, and France
of looking at live attendance, whereas another
are regularly broadcast and dominate media dis-
consists of looking at mediated attendance, par-
course. Annual regular tennis tournaments such
ticularly through television (TV) broadcasting. The
as Roland Garros, Wimbledon, Rolex-Monte Carlo
distinction is important to have in mind because
Masters, and Mutua Madrid Open have national and
the significance of sports and sporting events may
international coverage. Further, cycling races such
vary according to the approach used. Several types
as the Tour de France, the Tours of Italy and Spain,
of data can be used to identify the most popular
and the most prestigious one-day races, called clas-
sports and events to attend and watch. Eurostat data
siques, organized in France, Italy, Belgium, and the
are useful in that regard, especially because they
Netherlands (e.g., Milan—San Remo; the Tour of
allow analyzing these figures according to gender,
Flanders, Paris-Roubaix, Liege-Bastogne-—Liege,
age, and education level.
and the Tour of Lombardy) are followed in many
Overall, we observe that viewership of live sport
countries.
events concerns a large part of the population of
Some of the most prestigious and attractive
Western Europe. Despite the lack of data, we can
events in this region include the Champions League
say that in 2011 about 44 percent of Western Europe
and the Europa League in football, the EuroLeague
inhabitants had taken part in a live sport event at
of basketball, the EHF Champions League in hand-
least once during the previous year and about 15
ball, and the European Rugby Champions Cup. The
percent attended more than six sport events over the
following category deals with regular but infrequent
same period. Behind these global figures, however,
European competitions that are generally organized
huge differences are evident among countries. Data
every two or four years depending on the sport €.g.,
from figure 5.5 show that inhabitants from South-
every four years in football, every two years for the
ern European countries participate less often in
European Athletics Championships) and hosted in
live sport events. At the extremes, we find that 72
various European countries following a bid process
percent of the population of Greece never attended
similar to the Olympics. An exception is the Six
sport events, compared with a rate of 46 percent
Nations Championship, the top European national
for Luxembourg.
competition in rugby, which happens every year.
The popularity of sport can also be evaluated
The final type is international events such as world
through media diffusion and television broadcast-
cups, championships, and the Olympic Games,
ing in particular. Because no comparative data are
which are organized in Western European countries
available, identifying the sports most broadcast in
on an irregular basis.
 Sport in Western Europe VES)

Luxembourg

Finland

Austria

Belgium*

Germany

Portugal

Spain*

Italy |

Greece

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

c Never From 1 to 6 times More than 6 imes |

“Belgium and Spain: 2011 data not available. Data from 2007 used instead. No data are available for Denmark, Ireland, France,
Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom, Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland.

Figure 5.5 Live sport events attendance (over a 12-month period) in Western Europe per countries and
per frequency (2011, persons aged 25 to 64).
Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

Western Europe is difficult. Nevertheless, a focus sports represent more than half of TV sport event
on the case of France is interesting. programs, and 10 sports represent about 85 percent
First, the evolution of TV broadcast in Europe in of the sport event programs, indicating a strong
general and in France in particular has significantly concentration of the market around a small number
influenced the diffusion and consequently the of sports. If the popularity of football, tennis, and
watching of live sport events. In 1995 the French motorsports remains high, their relative share tends
Audio-Visual Superior Council (CSA) counted 7 to decrease on free-to-air channels, whereas rugby
channels broadcasting sport (3 with pay per view). and cycling have increased their share since 2012,
In 2016 the number was 35, with 22 pay-per-view and basketball has increased its share since 2010.
channels, which belonged to 16 media groups. But this structure change in sport event TV pro-
Between 2000 and 2016 the volume of TV sport pro- grams has to be linked with the increasing number
grams increased by a multiple of four, rising from of sports broadcast, and after a reduction between
50,846 to 211,677 hours. This rise is essentially 1994 and 2010, the offers have been strongly diver-
due to the increase of media groups and channels, sified since 2010 as demonstrated in figure 5.6.
especially the number of pay-per-view channels (95 Between 2012 and 2014 in France, the number
percent of broadcast hours), in response to increas- of sports (excluding the Olympics) broadcast on
ing demand from spectators. free-to-air channels increased by 58 percent, from
In France the six sports that are most often broad- 24 to 38 sports. This significant increase is notably
cast on free-to-air channels are football, cycling, due to the arrival of a new channel (LEquipe 21)
tennis, rugby, basketball, and motorsports. These that broadcast 15 sports that were not offered on
716 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

pe)(@)

of
Number
sports

1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
Year

Figure 5.6 Number of sports broadcast on free-to-air channels in France.

other free-to-air channels. Besides the analysis of Learning Activity

volumes and number of sports, audience scores
and rankings are interesting. First, note that since In your own country, identify the top five
1995, all TV programs that gathered more than 11 sport activities that have the highest par-
million spectators in France are sport programs. ticipation rates, that broadcast events the
Second, although women's sports broadcasting is most often (total hours per year), and that
significantly lower that men’s, major women's sport attract the biggest audiences. Explain
events are receiving more and more interest and these results and compare them with the
consequently bigger audiences. A prime example case of France.
is the Women’s Football World Cup; the France—
Germany game gathered 4.1 million spectators in
France. The France—South Korea (2.8 million),
France—USA (2.3 million), and Mexico—France and 2009. The existence of such a tool and the regu-
(2.2 million) games from the same competition larity of its use demonstrate how the sport sector in
gathered several million spectators each, which general and sport participation in particular are of
are noticeable figures for a country of 66 million importance for the EU. This Eurobarometer relies
inhabitants and are among the top 10 audiences ona standardized questionnaire translated into the
of free-to-air channels, when the traditional five various languages of EU country members and a
channels are excluded. Even minor sports that are sample of 1,000 respondents in each country. The
rarely broadcast can attract huge audiences during population at stake comprises individuals aged 15
major sport events, and we may wonder whether years old and above from the 28 member states.
there is a causal link between the two (i.e., scarcity The overall sample comprises 27,919 respondents.
creating interest when finally broadcast) or whether According to our definition, Western Europe
TV channels are missing huge opportunities when comprises northern and southern countries: Fin-
they broadcast only major events. land, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Ger-
many, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, Lux-
Sport Participation embourg, Austria, France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, and
Greece. With the exception of very small countries
The 2013 Eurobarometer (Eurobarométre 412) in terms of population such as Malta and Cyprus,
(European Commission, 2014) provides important the remaining 13 countries (out of 28) correspond
information about sport and physical activity par- to countries from the former Eastern bloc: Estonia,
ticipation. It is produced by Eurostat, EU’s statistical Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia,
service, and it follows previous editions from 2002 Hungary, Romania, Slovenia, Croatia, and Bulgaria.
 Sport in Western Europe TT

Sport and Physical Activities: Sporting activities are defined here according to
four dimensions: frequency of participation, place of
Five Pillars and National participation, membership in a sport club, and the
Specificities motives behind sport participation. In the following
Table 5.6 presents the 10 sports with the highest analyses, estimates for each country are produced
participation rates in France (Lefevre @ Thiéry, using the country-specific weighting proposed by
2010), Spain (Estadistica, 2015), Switzerland Eurostat. These estimates ofthe differences between
(Lamprecht, Fischer, @ Stamm, 2014), and Eng- each country and the overall Western Europe popu-
land (Department for Culture, Media and Sport, lation require using a weighting for this population
2011). Although informative, these results should that respects the demographic share of each coun-
be taken with caution because some sports have try. This calculation is needed because, for example,
different names and are not grouped in the same the over-15-years-old population in Germany is
ways. But the results are quite stable. For instance, 148 times bigger than the one from Luxembourg.
the rankings remained the same in Switzerland Only the biggest differences are interpreted in the
between 2008 and 2014 and in France between following sections.
2000 and 2010.
Walking, swimming, cycling, keeping fit, and
Frequency of Participation
running represent the five traditional pillars of The sport and physical activity definition used in
sport participation in Western Europe. Geog- the Eurobarometer questionnaires is quite restric-
raphy and natural resources, equipment, and cul- tive (oriented toward sport, without a broad tem-
tural aspects explain some of the variance in sport poral reference, and subjective), but its advantage
participation among countries in Western Europe. is that it strongly differentiates individuals. To ease

Table 5.6 Top 10 Activities With the Highest Participation Rates (Over a 12-Month
Period) for France, Spain, Switzerland, and England

Walking Cycling Hiking Walking

Swimming or diving
2 Swimming (leisure) Swimming Cycling (indoors)

; sna ‘demas Health, fitness, gym, or

3 Cycling (leisure) Walking, hiking Swimming conditioning activities

; Cycling (health,
4 Gym and well-being Running Skiing recreation, training,
abwities competition)
Gym and well-being Swimming or diving
9 Running activities OOM (outdoors)
, Snooker, pool, billiards
6 Winter sports Football Fitness, aerobic (excluding bar billiards)

it Hiking, mountaineering Body toning, bodybuilding |Gymnastics Tenpin bowling

8 Bowls Padel Football Football

Dancing (with jazz Jogging, cross-country,
9 Football Tennis dance) road running

Keepfit, aerobics, dance

10 Body toning, bodybuilding | Basketball Walking, Nordic walking | exercise (including
exercise bike)
Samples: Residents 15 years old and older except for Switzerland (15-74 years old) and England (16 years old and older)
Reading: In Spain the fourth activity in terms of participant numbers for the last 12 months is running.
78 Lefévre, Routier, and Bodet

the interpretations, frequencies are gathered for

four categories: DK (don’t know), never, sometimes
(less than once a week), and regularly (at least once Conduct a web search and compare the
a week). rates of sport participation in your country
In Western Europe (see table 5.7), nonparticipa- with those in Western Europe.
tion concerns two persons out of five 39 percent),
occasional participation is evaluated at 16 percent,
and regular participation concerns more than two
persons out of five (44 percent at least once a week). general and sport-specific cultures, political his-
People from Western Europe participate more than tory (for instance, social democratic or conservative
people from Eastern Europe do. Nonparticipation political regimes), and democratic systems, in terms
rates differ by 12 points, and the gap for weekly of economy and religion (for instance, Protestant
participation is larger at 15 points. versus Catholic countries).
Beyond the overall figures, important differences Countries in general, and European countries
can be observed between countries from Western in particular, are rarely culturally uniform and
Europe. Specifically, populations from northern homogenous, and this characteristic has a strong
Western Europe participate the most, whereas in influence on sport participation and consumption.
certain southern Western European countries, more The complexity is also present at the level of par-
than half of the population does not participate ticipants who increasingly participate in multiple
in sport and physical activity. These differences sports and activities (Bodet, 2009). This multiple
in terms of participation are the consequence of practice pattern is called omnivorism (Lefevre
numerous factors such as cultural differences, © Ohl, 2012). In this case, sport participations

Table 5.7 Frequency of Sport Participation in Western European Countries

(row percentages, n = 15,689 for Western European countries)

Sweden 0 |9
Denmark 0 14 18 68 100
Finland 1 15 19 66 100
Netherlands 0 29 13 58 100
Luxembourg 0 29 17 54 100
Ireland 0 34 14 52 100
Germany 0 29 23 48 100
Belgium 0 31 21 47 100
United Kingdom 0 35 19 46 100
Spain 0 44 10 46 100
Austria 0 27 28 45 100
France 0 42 19 43 100
Greece 0 59 10 31 100
Italy 0 59 10 30 100
Portugal 0 64 8 29 100
West (15 countries) 0 39 16 44 100
Others (13 countries) 1 eo 20 29 100
Reading: 69 percent of Swedish people claim to participate regularly in sport (at least once a week),

Based on data from Eurostat (2017).

 Sport in Western Europe 719

Learning Activity _ Sport is a focus of European Union’s policies.

Nevertheless, although these countries belong to
In your own country, what are the regional the same political entity, and common European
differences in terms of types and rates of Union tools have been developed, comparing
physical activity and sport participation? countries in relation to the diverse issues of sport
Which factors and variables can explain consumption is a difficult exercise because of the
these differences? What is their nature lack of uniformity in the objectives and methods
(e.g., geographical, historical, cultural, used. In addition, despite communalities in terms
economic, and so on)? of sport funding structure, employment rates in
sport, and economic importance, national dif-
ferences are significant in terms of viewership of
live sport events and participation in sport and
should not be considered independently, but com- physical activity. For instance, walking, swim-
bined, which is the case of the portfolio approach ming, cycling, keeping fit, and running represent
that focuses on the number of sports and physical the five traditional pillars of sport participation
activities performed (Sullivan & Katz-Gerro, 2007) in Western Europe, but the popularity of certain
and their types (Lefevre & Ohl, 2012). Last, sport sports is observed only in certain countries. In the
participation and consumption are also strongly same vein, sport participation frequencies vary
influenced by individual and sociological charac- strongly according to country, and the Northern
teristics such as age, gender, social position, and European ones show higher rates than their South-
place of residence. These variables should also be ern European counterparts. This north-south divi-
considered when comparing countries and cultural sion is observed in relation to many sport issues
groups such as Scheerder & Vos (2011) did for Bel- and sport structures in this area. Consequently, if
gium and Llopis-Goig et al. (2017) did for France Western Europe is compared with other regions
and Spain. of the world in regard to sport issues, the reader
/ should keep in mind the heterogeneity of these
_ Summary _ m countries and their cultures, which have sig-
nificant influence on the way that sport is defined
One definition of Western Europe is the region and consumed.
that corresponds to the Cold War’s Western bloc,
most of which are part of the European Union.

1. Why does sport represent a key component of European Union policy?

2. What are the definitions of sport, and what are the implications for sport policy and governance?
3. Who are the main funders of sport in Western Europe?
4. What are the most popular sports in Western Europe? Are there differences between viewership
of live sport events and participation in sport and physical activity?
5. For Europe in general and Western Europe in particular, what are the limitations in analyzing sport at
the country level?
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Sport in Eastern Europe
Peter Smolianov, PhD
Salem State University

Chapter Objectives __
After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

Define Eastern Europe geographically and demographically in relation to sport

management.
Outline the regions’ common approaches to the role of sport in society and to
sport governance, management, and economics.
Describe scientific methods in developing and supporting participants and
coaches in Eastern Europe.
Depict the structures of sport clubs and societies, and sport schools and uni-
versities.
Discuss the challenges of developing and enforcing policies particularly aimed at
fighting corruption and doping in Eastern Europe.

GTO long-term athlete development (LTAD)

sport societies sport schools
Spartakiads sport universities

81
82 Smolianov

Russia

Slovenia
. Czech Republic
. Moldova
. Bosnia and Herzegovina
. Montenegro
Albania
Croatia
ONADARwWNYH
. Macedonia

1947—beginning of the Cold War. An ideological, 1986—USSR leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Launched
economic, and sports battle over what system was a policy of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (eco-
better: USA-style capitalism or USSR-style socialism. nomic restructuring), and urged increased political
Participating in the Olympic Games from 1952 to 1992, and economic freedoms across Eastern Europe, leading
the USSR, or later the Unified Team, was the most suc- to the breakup of the USSR in 1991 and other Eastern
cessful country during the Cold War, leading other European countries, the deterioration of living and sport
Eastern European nations. conditions for most citizens, and the departure of many
1980—Summer Olympic Games, Moscow, USSR. The athletes and sport specialists for better conditions in the
first Olympics staged in Eastern Europe, boycotted by West in the 1990s.
the United States and its political allies to protest the 2000—Russia elected President Vladimir Putin. Cur-
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, prompting the Soviet-led tailed democracy and revived the country as economic,
boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. political, military, and sport power, threatening the
1984—Winter Olympic Games, Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. United States’ global domination, particularly through
The first Winter Olympics staged in Eastern Europe growing cooperation with China in key industries
during the sport development peak in the country, including sport.
where factories were owned by workers, living standards 2014—Winter Olympic Games, Sochi, Russia. The
were high, and citizens were free to travel and work most expensive Olympics in history, which converted
abroad, followed in the 1990s by increased freedom, the region into a year-round sea and alpine resort with
breakup of the country, violent nationalism, and war. new venues, roads, railroads, airports, power plants, and
other infrastructure utilizing technologies for environ-
ment protection.

Key People

Lev Matveev, Soviet and Russian sport scientist, who Roman Abramovich, Russian businessman and the first
developed the theory of periodization used as a founda- oligarch in English football who bought the poorly per-
tion of sport training across the world. forming Chelsea FC on the brink of financial collapse
Tudor Bompa, Romanian sport scientist who advanced and made it a dominant team in European football and
and popularized the theory of training periodization in a global brand, setting a best-practice standard for club
the English-speaking world. owners around the world.
Vladimir Platonov, Soviet and Ukrainian sport scientist Mikhail Prokhorov, Russian businessman who bought
who integrated multiple sciences into a system of prepa- the Moscow CSKA basketball team and turned it into
ration to competitions used internationally. one of the best in Europe and bought the NBA New
Ivan Abadjiev, Bulgarian national weightlifting coach who Jersey, later Brooklyn, Nets, being the first person
used the USSR training principles to develop a training from overseas to acquire such a deep stake in a major
American sport team.
system used across the globe.
 Sport in Eastern Europe 83

his chapter examines the evolution and con- The Warsaw Pact countries included Albania, Bul-
temporary state of sport systems in Eastern garia, the former Czechoslovakia (current Czech
Europe, focusing on the valuable practices as Republic and Slovakia), the former German Demo-
well as on problematic issues of sport in Eastern cratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary, Poland,
Europe, particularly corruption and doping. East- Romania, and the former USSR itself. This bloc also
ern bloc countries pioneered sophisticated fitness initially included the former Yugoslavia (current
and sport concepts used around the world, such as Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo [partially
multisport national clubs and healthy mass festivals recognized], Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and
from Czech lands; low-cost recreational facilities Slovenia), which should also be considered part of
for maximum social inclusion and efficient elite Eastern Europe. Besides the geographic and Slavic
athlete development in East Germany; training connections, Yugoslavia’s socialist orientation and
and periodization methods developed in Bulgaria, close political ties with the USSR and Eastern bloc
Romania, and Russia; and healthy long-term ath- for most of the Cold War period allowed its sport
lete development from Hungary. Russia has been system to borrow many fundamental Eastern Euro-
the epicenter of both great and ugly phenomena pean practices and structures, just as other former
of Eastern European sport development before, USSR friends did, including China and Cuba.
during, and after the USSR—from the world’s most The 15 republics that were part of the USSR and
advanced guidelines for lifelong fitness of all citizens now are independent countries include, in Eastern
and individualized parametric training for high Europe, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Mol-
performers to artificial performance enhancement dova, and Ukraine; in Central Asia, Armenia, Azer-
schemes and devices, resulting in dramatic scandals baijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajiki-
and disqualifications. Indicative cases are used in stan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan; and Russia,
this chapter to exemplify positive and negative sides the largest country in the world by area, stretching
of sport in Eastern Europe. from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and
occupying a substantial part of continental Europe
Geosraphical Description, and the entire northern portion of Asia.
Despite the disintegration of the USSR and the
Demographics, and transformation of Eastern bloc socialist countries
_ Background during the 1990s into independent states and their
assimilation into global free-market capitalism,
Eastern and Western Europe can be separated in these nations retained many distinct elements of
many ways geographically, culturally, and politi- their former elaborate Soviet-style sport systems.
cally, and Eastern Europe can likewise be defined These systems were designed to provide high-per-
in many ways. Because rapid sport development formance sport with sufficient public resources for
in the second part of the 20th century was closely stress-free progression of predisposed participants
connected with the Cold War, for the purpose of to any desired level of competition and with sup-
historical analysis we separate Europe into former port from mass fitness and recreation programs at
Western and Eastern political blocs based on the childcare, schools, colleges, universities, and places
capitalist NATO and socialist Warsaw Pact alli- of work, all of which contributed to international
ances, which had significant influence on the ways success as well as national health, productivity,
in which countries’ sport systems have grown. The and military readiness. The sport systems were
term Eastern bloc is used here to refer to the former also designed to build partnerships between mul-
states in Central and Eastern Europe that were tisport clubs and medical and academic education
under the direct influence of the former Union programs that provided conditions for well-rounded
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Being close long-term athlete development; to nurture athletes
neighbors, many of these nations shared Slavic lan- into competent coaches, physical educators, and
guage and cultural traditions and were connected other sport specialists who progressed through
through knowledge of Russian language, which was specialized sport schools and universities; and
taught at schools of Warsaw Pact countries and in to coordinate teams of medical, pedagogical, and
other states that used to be satellites of the USSR. exercise scientists who provided training and fitness
84 Smolianov

methodologies for all with a dual goal of national wounded and over 3 million displaced from their
wellness and performance. homes.
Preoccupied with a market economy in 1991
"Role of Sport | through 1999, the government was largely con-
cerned with making sport profitable. As a result
The philosophical and organizational principles Russian sport lost much of its public funding, which
inherited by present-day Eastern Europe from the caused deterioration in mass participation and in
former monarchies of the region and the Eastern the number of qualified coaches, managers, and sci-
bloc led by the Soviet Union continue to guide com- entists. Russian youth were found to be 20 percent
prehensive governmental leadership of scientific, less fit in the 1990s than they were in the 1970s, and
educational, and medical support aimed at maxi- the country’s elite sport performance deteriorated.
mizing mass fitness and elite sport performance. The capitalist reforms of the 1990s brought a long
The mechanisms provide lifelong paths in sport period of stress and reduced affordable sport and
from grassroots to professional careers and ensure recreation services, which led to an increase in the
expertise of all involved with sport, including uni- number of cases of depression, smoking, alcohol-
form education; ranks and rewards for participants, ism, drug addiction, suicide, antisocial behavior,
coaches, and referees; a pyramidal structure of sport and crime (Igoshev & Apletin, 2014).
clubs, schools, and universities; and unified plans
Reforming their economies and political struc-
of amateur and professional competitions. Sport tures, dealing with border issues, and fighting
governing organizations in this centralized, inte- wars, many of the former Soviet republics and
grated, and increasingly democratic system carry
Eastern bloc member countries initially reduced
difficult responsibilities for equitable spending of their emphasis on sport. In the two decades after
state money, ethical achievement of ambitious goals,
1990, the interaction of sport and society changed
and enforcement of rules and control over doping
dramatically in Eastern Europe as the Soviet bloc
and corruption.
dissolved and public resources devoted to mass
Coaches run this sport system because they are
sport decreased. Following the 1989-1990 politi-
employed by the state and rewarded according to
cal and economic transition, Hungarian sport,
achievements of participants. According to the East
like other Eastern European sport systems, had to
European notion of sport as preventative medicine,
adapt to new economic and legal circumstances of
the coaches assume the roles of holistic physicians
capitalism, particularly in how sport was financed
as well as spiritual leaders, being well educated
(Gal, 2012). Bulgaria also found that the transition
in biomedical and pedagogical sciences. Coaches
from a planned to a free-market economy led to a
receive help from medical doctors and scientists
withdrawal of many subsidies and services to sport.
to nurture participants through long-term devel-
At a time when their real incomes were dropping,
opment process, directing each participant to the
people could ill afford to pay for sport participation.
sport appropriate for individual health conditions.
“Sport for all” changed from a way of life to a matter
Mass fitness, health, fun, and artistic expression
of choice (Girginov & Bankov, 2002). Similarly, in
had been priorities of sport traditions in Eastern
Romania, after decades of nearly free sport and rec-
Europe. Competitive festive sport participation by
reation services and increasing choices of facilities
one-third of the USSR population contributed to
and programs accompanied by noisy propaganda
peaceful socioeconomic progress by means of bal-
and aggressive ways to encourage sport participa-
ancing the stress from work with rich sport, arts,
tion, people found it difficult to devote time and
and cultural recreation. In an attempt to introduce
money to sporting recreation, which is now far from
more democracy, the government liberated the
a way of life (Suciu et al., 2002). These post-1990
country’s political and economic systems by setting
changes had a somewhat negative effect on mass
the republics free in 1991 and privatizing public
participation and elite sport performance in the
assets, which, regretfully, resulted in the shift of
former socialist countries.
wealth to the elite, a decline in life standards for
In the 21st century, the Russian government
the majority, and wars among the disintegrated
started to restore political and economic stability,
republics, which claimed over 100,000 dead and
and the quality of life increased because of higher
 Sport in Eastern Europe 85

investments in education, health care, and sport.

Russia was second in the medal tallies at the 2010
Youth Olympic Games and at the 2011 World Discuss the cultural and political issues
Summer Universiade. The Russian Paralympic team that a Western sport manager should keep
moved from 11th place in 2004 to 8th in the 2008 in mind when working with Eastern Euro-
Summer Games, and in the Winter Paralympics pean counterparts. Consider the achieve-
the Russian athletes moved from the 5th in 1994 ments as well as socioeconomic problems
and 1998, to 4th in 2002, and to lst in 2006 and experienced in the region.
2010. Under President Putin’s leadership, the mass
fitness and international sport programs started to
regain their importance after the year 2000. Sport
development has been particularly emphasized
since 2007 when the Russian city of Sochi won the _ Governance of Sport
bid to host the 2014 Winter Olympics. In 2008 the From 2007, all sport-related organizations and
Russian Sport Ministry was reestablished with a activities in Russia have been guided by the federal
higher status and broader responsibilities, employ- law on physical culture and sport, which is based
ing 220 administrative staff in the head office and on the following principles:
310,974 coaches and other sport specialists across
the country. Physical education was increased from @ Free access to sport for physical, intellectual,
two to three times a week with a revitalized GTO and moral development of everyone, and
(Ready for Labor and Defense) fitness program in all consecutive connection in physical education
Russian schools. The Sport Ministry has committed across ages
to reach the following goals by 2020: ® Unified nationwide legislation, combining
top-down state or public and bottom-up
@ Have 40 percent of the overall population, organizational regulations in compliance with
20 percent of disabled individuals, and 80 international agreements
percent of students participating in sport.
® State or government guarantees of sport-
@ Attract everyone to exercise three to four related rights to citizens, prohibition of
times or 6 to 12 hours a week. discrimination and violence, assistance to
@ Ensure that 45 percent of all organizations persons with disabilities and other groups
have sport clubs. requiring special social protection, and provi-
Employ 360,000 qualified public coaches and sion for safety of participants and spectators
other sport professionals. @ Interaction between federal or national and
@ Place within the top three in all future Olym- local governments in the field of sport and
pics and Paralympics by total medal count. between sport authorities and federations,
and development of all types and components
The goals of winning in the 2014 Sochi Olympic of sport as a social and educational voluntary
Games and increasing the number of regular sport activity
participants in Russia from 25 million in 2011 to
43 million in 2015 were achieved, and a long-term Similar laws are being enacted across countries of
goal was set to increase sport participation to 70 Eastern Europe, reflecting the region's sport tradi-
percent, or 100 million (Sport Ministry, 2012, tions of mass lifelong fun participation for health
2017). The increased investment in sport showed and communal harmony.
its first positive effects on national health; in 2009 Eastern European sport scientists have been
through 2011, for the first time since the capitalist developing policies for guiding and regulating
reforms started, the number of Russians diagnosed lifelong participation of all in fitness and sport.
with alcoholism and drug addiction decreased Everyone is encouraged to pass the GTO fitness
(Inchenko, 2014). tests from 1931 in Russia. Compared with fitness
86 Smolianov

programs across the world, the unique options of Learning Activity

GTO include minimal cost to participants, a fit-
ness knowledge test, recommendations for all ages, Many Eastern European-style sport
and a variety of sports to be tested on (Keating, schools have been developed in Austra-
Smolianov, Liu, Castro-Pinero, @ Smith, 2018). lia and Canada. Research one of these
The GTO webpage offers high-quality videos with schools and discuss special accommoda-
audio and text instructions supported by interactive tions and services provided to athletes.
instant messaging or texting and voice assistance
by trained operators.
GTO test scores are used as a criterion for high
school, college, and university graduation. In erning bodies of most sports in Canada and other
addition, GTO tests are part of fun festivals and English-speaking countries such as Australia, New
competitions for everyone. In Moscow, for example, Zealand, the United Kingdom, and South Africa,
between 2011 and 2015 over 1.5 million residents and they started to be used in the United States
attempted to pass GTO requirements, the number in 2009 (USA Hockey, 2018). These guidelines,
of people who regularly exercise increased to over authored by Balyi (2001) from Hungary, stem from
3 million, and 450,000 people were taking part in the USSR and Eastern European sport develop-
multisport community competitions for all ages and ment approaches outlined by Riordan (1980) and
families every year (Vinogradov, 2016). The GTO Shneidman (1978). Modern theories of training,
Without Borders festival for people with a disability particularly periodization, pioneered by Matveev
connected rehabilitation and Paralympic sport using (1964, 2008) from Russia, were further developed
resources of governments, nonprofit foundations, and applied by Bompa (1983, 2009) from Romania,
educational organizations, and medical organiza- Platonov (1988, 2005) from Ukraine, and other
tions. GTO tests were adapted for Paralympic par- sport scientists and coaches. But the integration
ticipant categories and integrated with wheelchair of LTAD with mass fitness testing, emphasized by
fencing, basketball, rugby, and Nordic walking as Matveev (2008), has not yet been fully applied in
well as parapowerlifting and paraworkout. any country.
Although GTO has been increasingly popular, To support LTAD in Eastern Europe, governmen-
commercial companies promote their expensive tal sport officials provide recommendations on most
tests. The Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research aspects of athlete development based on scientists’
(2013), based in the United States, signed an agree- advice. The guidelines for coaches include such
ment with the Hungarian School Sport Federation criteria as the minimum starting age for each sport
to test all school-aged children in Hungary using and uniform training and educational curricula.
FitnessGram, which is used in over 65,000 schools
Coaches regularly visit schools and invite sport-
across the United States and in 20 international predisposed children to sport clubs. Another dis-
locations. FitnessGram requires a budget for equip- tinct sport management feature of Eastern Europe
ment and for assessment software costing US$599 is that since the early 1970s, groups of scientists
for the first year and US$149 for renewal (Keating in pedagogy, medicine, psychology, physiology,
eval, 2018): biomechanics, biochemistry, and engineering have
After passing the GTO tests, participants are to been consulting the national teams for improved
progress through three junior, three senior, and athlete performance and health. In 2012 the Rus-
four master ranks in 143 sports. Each rank requires sian Sport Ministry supported the summer Olym-
specific results against such criteria as seconds or pic sports with 41 scientific groups, the winter
meters as well as victories in competitions at a cer-
sports with 15 groups, and Paralympic and other
tain level. This ranking system is designed to guide special-needs sport activities with 26 groups. In
healthy long-term athlete development (LTAD),
addition, it coordinated 98 sport conferences in
to monitor performance, and to ensure a proper 2011. In 2014 Moscow’s Russian State University
distribution of public resources. In the 21st cen- of Physical Education, Sport, Youth, and Tourism
tury, LTAD guidelines focused on age-appropriate
attracted over 900 participants from 17 countries to
training have been implemented by national goy-
 Sport in Eastern Europe 87

a congress, Nation's Health: A System of Lifelong PE rewards of sport personnel. Coaches enter special
as a Foundation of Public Health, which published sport universities and progress after graduation
two 600-page volumes of 370 presented research through five certification stages. Many successful
papers to advance systems of lifelong fitness, par- sport countries, particularly those from the former
ticularly GTO. Eastern bloc, adopted Soviet-style sport education
The public sport schools connecting mass and that included a government-funded network of
elite sport and supporting LTAD developed in 1950 sport universities. In Poland the University of PE
through the 1970s across the USSR were emulated in Warsaw enrolled 6,500 students in 2014 and
in Eastern Europe, China, and Cuba in the 20th employed 400 academic staff in 2013 to educate PE
century (Riordan, 1980; Smolianov & Zakus, teachers, coaches, and specialists in physiotherapy,
2008) and in the 21st century are spreading across recreation, and tourism, and to serve as a center of
the world to countries such as Australia, Belgium, sport science and training. Similar universities exist
Canada, Finland, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, in the Polish cities of Cracow, Gdansk, Katowice,
Singapore, Sweden, and the United Kingdom (BBC, Poznan, and Wroclaw. Sport universities are also
2004a, 2004b; Davies, 2008; Way, Repp, & Bren- important for successful sport systems in most of
nan, 2010; Wynhausen, 2007). Eastern Europe. The greatest variety of degrees,
To ensure a continuation of athletes’ careers, numbering 55, including sport management, are
the national governments in Eastern Europe sup- available at Russian State University of Physical
port and direct the education, certification, and

Corruption in Polish Football

Poland’s former minister for sport was arrested in was allowed to continue playing soccer, including
2007 under suspicion of corruption, having allegedly for the Polish national team. That incident was not an
accepted bribes when awarding building contracts isolated one in Polish soccer. The public prosecutor
for public sporting facilities to construction companies had ongoing investigations in 2012 against 17 clubs.
(Cafebabel, 2008). The corruption in Polish football has In the Polish Extra League, the highest class in the
been exposed since 2001, when dealings between country, 6 clubs were cleared of corruption charges
referees became publically known. The Polish Football in 2012. The clubs were demoted, but they subse-
Association was blamed for ignoring the problem, and quently received amnesty and were punished only with
some board members were themselves under suspi- point deductions and fines (Stasik, 2012). Although
cion. Twenty-nine clubs were caught up in the scandal, it is debatable that Poland’s lack of victories can be
and 116 people were implicated (Cafebabel, 2008). blamed on the recurrent scandals and corruption, the
In 2008 Polish soccer was shaken to its core when fact is that Poland lacks a tried and tested successful
it came to light that match results were being manipu- national soccer team. Most of the many talented Polish
lated and licenses were being distributed in crooked players play abroad; 18 of the 26 players who were on
ways (Stasik, 2012). The former president of the Upper the national team in 2012 played outside Poland. As
Silesian club GKS Katowice informed the police that the economic and social consequences of corrup-
matches between Polar Wroclaw and Zaglebie Lubin tion become more pronounced, a failure to address
had been fixed. In 2008 a prominent Polish player corruption in sport may lead to public desensitization
admitted that he and his club bought the match for (Chien, Kelly, & Weeks, 2016) of corrupt practices and
€25,000 (about US$35,000). The corrupted player growing cynicism about the place of sport in society
was sentenced to a year in prison on probation and (Kihl et al., 2017).
had to pay a €37,000 (about US$52,000) fine, but he
SALE LESLIE ELIE
88 Smolianov

Education, Sport, Youth, and Tourism in Moscow, 2006). Together with political and economic plu-
Russia. ralism, ownership types in sport organizations,
particularly professional sport teams, have become
_ Economics of Sport diverse in Eastern Europe since 1990, from private
and publically traded companies to state or govern-
Sport systems are subsidized and coordinated by ment owned and organization owned. As many
national governments to attract regional and local as 25 percent of Russian premier league football
resources to both mass and elite sport in Eastern clubs in 2004 combined ownership of municipal
Europe, although private and commercial income or regional governments and oligarchs (Pochinkin,
sources, common in the West, are becoming increas- 2006), and at least half of German clubs must be
ingly important, particularly for professional sport owned by members or fans. The rule was intro-
sold as entertainment. Leading the world by making duced in 1998 to help prevent debt of both East and
sport facilities, programs, and professional instruc- West German clubs, but exemptions were granted
tion available to all at no or minimal cost, the USSR
to clubs such as Bayer Leverkusen and VfL Wolfs-
government had been allocating increasing amounts burg, owned by Bayer and Volkswagen (Bundesliga,
of money that reached US$2.2 billion annually in 2017). The balance between investments into mass
the 1970s. In comparison, the Russian federal sport and elite sport is becoming harder to maintain
budget was only US$680 million in 2009, although in capitalist Eastern Europe. To support healthy
it increased to US$1.8 billion in 2011, US$1.7 bil-
physical activities for all, the Russian president
lion in 2012, US$1.6 billion in 2013, and US$1.3
asked to redirect public funds toward mass sport
billion in 2014 on the run-up to the 2014 Winter
from professional teams subsidized through public
Olympics and Paralympics in Russia. The national
companies. For example, Russian Railways sponsors
sport societies, or networks of community and
Lokomotiv Moscow soccer, Yaroslavl hockey, and
organizational clubs, have provided affordable con-
Novosibirsk volleyball clubs; VTB Bank sponsors
ditions for all from first steps to high performance
soccer and hockey Dynamo Moscow clubs; and
in most Olympic sports across Eastern Europe,
Gazprom sponsors soccer clubs Zenit and Volgar
financed and managed by the army (e.g., Russian
and volleyball club Zenit Kazan (lenta.ru, 2016).
SKA and Serbian Red Star), police, and security
Animportant task for the Russian Olympic com-
forces (e.g., Russian and German Dynamo), as well
mittees is the search for new financial sources in
as trade unions of key industries, from agriculture
increasingly capitalist economic conditions. The
and manufacturing to transportation and education.
Russian winners of the 2012 Olympic Games were
Citizens have been involved as participants and in
estimated to receive between US$500,000 and
the governance and management of sport through
US$1 million from the federations alone, before
these multisport societies at places of study, work,
any endorsement money. The Russian Olympic
and service. These sport societies lost their strong
Committee counted on the rich to reward winners.
governmental support in Eastern Europe, so they
The head of the Summer Sports Association has
have privatized some of their assets and opera-
US$30 billion, so if he gives every winner $1 mil-
tions since the 1990s. But a new 21st century step
lion, it is not very much for him (Johnson, 2012).
in the promotion of the multisport approach was
In preparation for the 2008 Olympics, the govern-
the foundation of the European Multisport Club
ment helped to deploy billionaires to participate in
Association, which brought together 17 multisport
the effort; the country’s 10 richest businessmen,
clubs in a network dedicated to both professional
in addition to aiding other sport projects, donated
and grassroots sport, sharing best club practices of
US$12 million to the Fund for the Support of
Eastern and Western Europe.
Olympians (Schwartz, 2008). Russian corporations
To share resources fairly, amateur and profes-
increasingly finance sport, devoting over $1 billion
sional competitions in each sport have been man-
to the 2014 Sochi Olympics. The Russian gas and
aged in integration and governed by one national
oil company Gazprom reportedly chose not to sign
federation in most of Eastern Europe, particularly
sponsorship contracts but instead simply to donate
in Russia. But attempts to create independent profit-
US$130 million to the country’s Olympic teams to
able leagues and teams are increasing (Pochinkin,
 Sport in Eastern Europe 89

help them prepare for the 2012 London and 2014 Corruption has become a significant issue for
Sochi Games (RT, 2010). sport across the world. Commercial growth has
raised concern about the unsatisfactory way in
_Management of Sport which administrators handle sport (Kihl, Skinner,
& Engelberg, 2017). Corruption and doping are
The way that sport has been managed and devel-
critical issues for current sport in Eastern Europe
oped in Eastern Europe, particularly Russia, was
and beyond, because Eastern Europeans are buying
influenced by frequent wars, making preparation
and selling Western clubs including American
for military fitness permanent. Professional sport
New Jersey, later Brooklyn, Nets, English Chelsea,
had started and was developed largely within the
Scottish Hearts, and Dutch Vitesse Arnhem. The
armies of Eastern Europe, including commercial
oligarchs who took control of the professional teams
and relatively independent soccer, ice hockey, and
previously owned by state industries now use these
basketball as well as all other Olympic sports.
clubs to gain political power, money, and fame. Evi-
Centralization, rational organization, competent
dence from the analysis by Salzman (2015) shows
personnel, and effective system of training, educa-
that the transition from public socialist to private
tion, and competitions as well as creative application
capitalist ownership in the Eastern European soccer
of best global practices spread from the army to
has created less fair league conditions and intro-
the entire Russian sport system (Pochinkin, 2006).
duced more corruption, crime, and violence. For
Mass fitness and participation in over 100 sports
example, in 2004 police raided FC Zakarpattya, a
is integrated today with preparation of athletes for
club of the Ukrainian Premier League, and 36 armed
international competitions led by the Russian goy-
men were arrested. The club president was charged
ernmental sport authorities. Coaches, employed by
with robbery, kidnapping, and terrorism. Another
the state and rewarded according to achievements
example of the violence brought by gangs was with
of participants, run this sport system. According
the club FC Tavriya (Salzman, 2015). Wracked
to the East European notion of sport as preventa- by corruption and mismanagement, Romanian
tive medicine, coaches assume the roles of holistic
football is also in crisis. Because 75 percent of
physicians as well as spiritual leaders, being well football players in Romania said they were paid
educated in biomedical and pedagogical sciences.
late, the second highest percentage of 31 European
Coaches receive help from medical doctors and sci- countries, players may be tempted to take money
entists to nurture participants through a long-term for unscrupulous reasons and for fixing matches
development process, directing each participant to (Giulianelli @ Malyon, 2017). The decades following
the sport appropriate for individual health condi- the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 brought new
tions and opening more opportunities for talented freedoms, accompanied by commercialization and
athletes to progress. criminalization of sport. In 1996 a law was intro-
In the 1920s the Soviet government established duced that imposed severe punishment for bribery
the National Physical Culture Department with among participants, coaches, referees, managers,
regional and local branches, and scientists and and organizers of sporting events. Offenses such
coaches were commissioned to construct uniform as influencing a game outcome led to a fine of 500
mechanisms for all to participate in recreation and times the minimum salary and up to six months
sport. This structure, from the 1920s in the USSR in prison (Pochinkin, 2006). In 2010-2011 fines for
and from the 1950s in the rest of Eastern Europe, giving or taking bribes were raised to 100 times the
created a comprehensive sport system seen neither amount of the bribe.
before nor after the existence of the socialist Eastern As with the fight against corruption, anti-doping
bloc. In 1990s this system lost much of its public policies have yet to produce results in Eastern
funding and resources together with mechanisms Europe. One or two decades might not be enough
of comprehensive monitoring and science-based to build new legal, financial, and cultural control
management. As a result, all types of instruction mechanisms that would be effective in the new
and control weakened, leading to increased corrup- capitalist conditions.
tion and careless treatment of athletes. The Russian performance at the 2010 Winter
Games was influenced by drug scandals. Subse-
90 Smolianov

quently, Russia adopted stricter penalties for doping Learning Activity

violations, cooperated more closely with event
organizers and regional sport authorities, became Compare media coverage of drug abuses
actively involved with such international organi- by Western and Eastern European athletes.
zations as the 16-country Anti-Doping Working Who suffered and who benefitted from
Group within the European Council, and intro- these scandals?
duced new courses aimed at prevention of doping
at schools and universities, as well as anti-doping
television programs.
After Russia won the 2010 and 2014 Winter Para- popular sports. Instructors and competitors in a
lympic and 2014 Winter Olympic Games, finished spectrum of disciplines could be paid as much as
doctors, lawyers, engineers, and scientists.
fourth at the 2012 Olympics, and finished second
at the 2012 Paralympics, the country’s doping
schemes were featured in competing nations’ media Major Sport Events
reports and documentaries and were investigated by Olympic-style mass sport festivals were a key
the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) (see also vehicle for the integration of mass and elite sport
chapter 14). The IOC decided against a ban of Rus- across time. Such festivals originated in Czech
sian athletes at 2016 Rio Games, instead reversing and German lands in the 1860s, mainly through
the presumption of innocence for Russian athletes workers’ and union movements. The Czech Sokol
and deferring to the sport federations to reinstate movement was founded in 1862 as a youth sport
individual athletes (Ruizjan, 2017). But the Russian and gymnastics organization inspired by the
Paralympic team was banned from 2016 Rio Games, German Gymnastic Movement and provided physi-
including athletes who never used doping (see the cal, moral, and intellectual training for the nation
case study Russian Roulette in chapter 14). In 2017 a through fitness programs and massive gymnastics
report commissioned by WADA indicated that Rus- festivals. This training spread across all regions
sian officials orchestrated a doping program at the populated by Slavic cultures. Besides offering
Olympics and other competitions that involved or physical training and athletic contests, the Polish
benefited 1,000 athletes in 30 sports. The country’s Falcons from 1867 also included national dances
team was banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics, and songs. Continuing its festivals, the Sokol move-
including 28 athletes cleared by the Court of Arbi- ment celebrated 150 years in 2012.
tration for Sport, but the International Olympic Following the Czech, German, and ancient Greek
Committee (IOC) allowed many athletes from traditions, the Soviet sport authorities had been
Russia to compete without displaying their coun- developing the Spartakiads, which is a mass mul-
try’s symbols. President Putin claimed that the LOC tisport festival that includes more sport disciplines
was manipulated by U.S. interests who wanted to than the Olympic Games. In the Soviet Union the
use doping scandals to embarrass his government Spartakiads began in 1928. By 1975 one-third of
ahead of the 2018 presidential elections in Russia the USSR population participated in Spartakiads.
(Duerden, 2017). Post-Soviet Russia revitalized the Spartakiads in
New stricter Russian laws remove coaches and 2002, making them annual events integrated with
officials who violate anti-doping rules and punish school competitions. The 2011 Youth Spartakiad
them with fines and imprisonment for coercing had four tiers of competition: first at individual
young athletes into doping (CBC, 2016; Giles, 2017). educational institutions, then at the municipal and
These efforts will return better results when sport- regional levels, and finally in the national finals.
ing communities in Eastern Europe and across the Recent growth of the region’s global importance
world focus more on the health of participants than is indicated in the successful Russian bid for hosting
on underdeveloped doping tests and the protec- the 2014 Winter Olympic Games, the 2013 Summer
tion of administrators from responsibility for drug Universiade, the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, the
abuse. The practice that should be used to minimize 2018 FIFA World Cup, the 2013 World Champion-
corruption and doping is equal and fair support of ships in Athletics, the 2015 World Aquatics Champi-
athletes and coaches in all Olympic and nationally
 Sport in Eastern Europe 91

onships, the Russian Grand Prix from 2014, and the e+

2016 World Ice Hockey Championships. Reflecting

the Eastern European notion of sport as serious fun, Select one professional entertainment
Putin and other top Russian officials and business sport event and one mass-participation
people together with former international hockey event in Eastern Europe and research
stars play for the Night Hockey League (NHL), one different aspects of the events’ socio-
of many amateur leagues, with 200 teams across economic impact. How have the events
Russia. Eastern Europe connects East and West benefited the local community and its
through the Kontinental Hockey League (KHL) and quality of life?
its junior divisions, which started in 2008, growing
out of the Russian Superleague. The KHL includes
European teams from such countries as Finland,
Latvia, and Slovakia as well as teams from such @ The 2018 FIFA Football World Cup in Russia
Asian nations as China and Kazakhstan. The KHL was the most watched sport event in the
is a premier professional ice hockey league, second world. Thirty-two national teams played 64
in the world after the North American NHL by level matches in 12 stadia in 11 cities for a prize
of play. Twenty-nine teams and over 400 players fund of US$400 million.
competed in 2016-2017. With the growth of the Eastern Europe continues to lead the world in
league and local talent, the number of Canadian integration of recreational and elite sport events. A
players in the KHL decreased from 69 in 2014 to tournament for fans held in 2018 FIFA World Cup
41 in 2016; even so, more than 60 North American Russia brought together 200 football supporters
players competed in the 2016 KHL. In addition to from 16 countries who played and lived together.
the sporting events outlined in the beginning of the This unique Fan World Cup with a draw, group
chapter and in this section, the following events stage, and elimination round united rivals and
demonstrate the important role of Eastern Europe encouraged healthy mass football participation
in both professional and amateur sport: (Smirnova, 2018).
@ The 2012 UEFA European Championship in
Poland and Ukraine, the highest level of foot- — Summary |
ball competition for Europe’s national teams, The management of sport in Eastern Europe is based
was held in Eastern Europe for the first time. on the philosophy of a harmonious science-guided
Sixteen national teams played 31 matches in development of each individual and on a highly
eight stadia in eight cities for a prize fund of integrated system of physical culture and sport led
US$241 million. by federal authorities as part of national education
@ The Russian Grand Prix is an auto race held and health policies. Sport was delivered with pas-
annually in Sochi since 2014 as part of the sion, original inquiry, dedication, and rigor in the
Formula One World Championship with a USSR and Eastern bloc. Present-day Eastern Europe
seasonal prize fund of US$700 million. has inherited the following practices that appear to
@ The Kremlin Cup, Moscow, Russia, tennis be useful for successful sport management across
tournament has been held annually since the world:
1990 as part of the ATP World Tour and @ Coaches qualified to prevent mass illnesses
Premier Tournament on the WTA Tour. The and achieve high performance.
prize fund was US$790,208 in 2017.
@ Uniform guidelines for integrated mass and
@ The Gagarin Cup, Russia, is awarded annually elite participation, regulation, and long-term
to the champion of the Kontinental Hockey athlete development; education and certifica-
League (KHL), a premier international profes- tion of athletes, coaches, and referees; sport
sional ice hockey league with the highest total schools and universities; and integrated plans
attendance in Europe. of competitions.
| 92 Smolianov

How would you define Eastern Europe in relation to sport management?

What are some Eastern European approaches to the role of sport in society and to sport gover-
nance, management, and economics?
Which Eastern European methods are useful for using science in sport development, management,
and governance?
How have Eastern European structures of sport clus and societies, sport schools, and universities
benefited the world?
Which healthy sport practices has present-day Eastern Europe inherited from the former USSR?
Which mechanisms ensure lifelong participation and career progression in sport systems of Eastern
Europe?
7. How could corruption and drug abuse be reduced based on the approaches of Eastern Europe?
SELLE LILI I ILLITE LEE SEL ILE SIAL SILLS IAES IEE LILI GOLESI IEEE I LEE IIE ILI ISESI BITES NEI SOURS SEES OIE I EIN SOUS INLET SNES ESIDEES TI IS
Sport in Africa
Jepkorir Rose Chepyator-Thomson, PhD
University of Georgia

Samuel M. Adodo, PhD

University of Benin, Nigeria

Emma Ariyo, MS
University of Georgia

Chapter Objectives
RASS ECON ERIE Oject OBISPO
LONSANNI BOER OSPR IESLN LES OL DLO LI AS ELLIS NEIL ILILA LILES GELERL IS PSD SLISOLAS ASLO LEAN ONES IISA
EAAU UEN DYES oreo seeenccoateesosineess

After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

Understand the role of sport in African societies.

Comprehend the role of women’s sport in society.
Explain how African countries use sport as soft power.
Understand issues facing the sport of boxing in Uganda.
Identify and explain the role of sport federations and associations in Africa.
Gain information about issues in management and governance of sport in a variety
of environments.
Understand the structure, administration, and management of football in Nigeria.
Describe professionalization and commercialization of premier leagues in Africa.
Understand the role of sponsorship in African sport.

Confederation of African Rugby (RA) Confederation of African Volleyball

African Cricket Association (ACA) (CAY)
Confederation of African Athletics Confederation of African Football
(CAA) Netball Association of Africa Region
(NAAR)

93
94 Chepyator-Thomson, Adodo, and Ariyo

Tunisia

*Algiers gins

9,4 Algeria

Western

Guinea ) an
Bissau sae BL
Sierra Lagos Cameroon
Leone Ghana Q
Liberia BAT
Congo Democratic
. Central African Republic Republic
. Equatorial Guinea Brazzaville <3 of Congo
. Benin ¢
. Togo
. Lebanon ‘
Jordan Angola oS
. Kuwait ‘ Mozambique
. Qatar
. Eritrea
Uganda Madagascar
. Rwanda om
SRASEPNMMAWONH
. Burundi Botswana
14. Malawi
15. Swaziland 9 Maputo
16. Lesotho %

South Africa
&

Key Events _
All-Africa Games. A continental-based multisport event Association of National Olympic Committees of
for athletes from all countries of Africa, the All-Africa Africa (ANOCA). Instrument of unification for African
Games provides opportunities for athletes to display national Olympic committees and helps in promotion
their skilled performance while representing their of the Olympic ethos and ina variety ofsporting activi-
home countries. ties in the continent while working cooperatively with
African Union Sports Council. Organ of development government and nongovernment organizations.
for sport in Africa that works with international sport Association of African Sport Confederations (AASC).
organizations in professional development of sport Promotes unification of African sport organizations
managers and administrators, promotes sport for devel- while making sure that their administration and func-
opment in established zones across the continent, and tionality is sound and without discriminatory practices;
organizes the All-Africa Games. occurs through the General Assembly and Executive
Bureau.
 Sport in Africa 95

Key People
Lydia Nsekera, Burundi, chair of the IOC Women in unity to the diverse African populace and cultivating
Sport Commission, committee member for Olympic the sport within and outside Africa during his reign.
football tournaments, women’s football, the FIFA
Sam Ramsamy, South Africa, member of International
Women’s World Cup, and the FIFA council, and served
Olympic Committee, vice-president of FINA (Interna-
as member of the Organizing Committee of FIFA at the tional Swimming Federation), president of South Afri-
2013 FIFA’s 62nd Congress. can Swimming, and chairman of the Commonwealth
Issa Hayatou, Cameroon, a key historical figure in African Games Association. He was the key person to use sport
football as head of the Confederation ofAfrican football to fight for the removal of apartheid, spearheading the
for 29 years, contributed significantly to the growth of development of sport along nonracial lines and lead-
African football in the era of globalization as the number ing the South Africa sport industry to be managed and
of African teams that qualified for the FIFA World Cup administered along nonracial lines.
increased from 2 to 5 and the African Cup of Nations Didier Yves Tébily Drogba, Ivory Coast, the all-time top
expanded by 50 percent (from 8 to 16). scorer for his country with 65 goals from 104 appear-
Fatma Samba Diouf Samoura, Senegal, is FIFA secretary ances, was named African Footballer ofthe year in 2006
general, a top-ranking official in FIFA, and a symbol for and 2009 and is known for his humanitarian work and
women birthing a new era for women sport administra- his role in bringing peace to his country with a plea for
tors across Africa and around the world. a cease-fire after five years of civil war.
Lamine Diack, Senegal, past president of IAAF (1999- Hezekiah Kipchoge Keino, Kenya, is a running legend,
2015) and the Africa Amateur Athletics Confederation, an inductee of the World Sports Humanitarian Hall of
and a member of the LOC and the National Olympic and Fame in 1996, and founder of the Kip Keino Founda-
Sport Committee of Senegal and the Executive Commit- tion, whose purpose is to improve the quality oflife and
tee of the Supreme Council for Sport in Africa (SCSA) provide education to underprivileged children in Kenya.
from 1973 to 2008. He transformed athletics, bringing

he sport industry started from small begin-

nings along the coastal regions of Africa. Sport
_ Geographical Description,
© for the masses was introduced through the Demographics, and
school system, where the European sports—cricket, Background
football, rugby, netball, and athletics—were taught
to youth and children and elite sport was taught The African continent, the oldest of the seven con-
and promoted through high-class school systems tinents and second only to Asia in size, is replete
and private sport clubs that dot the continent. with all forms of geographic diversity. The most
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the role distinguishing geographic features include the
and governance of play in African sport, explicate Sahara Desert in northern Africa, the Kalahari
management and economics of the sport industry, Desert in southwest Africa, and the Great Rift Valley
describe major events that characterize the sport that stretches from the Dead Sea in Israel to Lake
industry, and provide information about key sport Tanganyika, the second deepest lake in the world
after Lake Baikal in Eastern Asia, and contains on its
leaders who make the sport industry known nation-
ally and globally. The chapter begins with conti- valley floor several freshwater lakes. On the north—
nental geography, demographics, and background south extremes ofAfrica are the Atlas and Drakens-
characteristics. It then describes the role of sport burg Mountains, respectively. The tallest mountain,
Kilimanjaro (19,340 feet [5,894 m] above sea level),
in African societies, sport governance and manage-
and second tallest, Kenya (17,000 feet [5,182 m]
ment, structure of sport, and major events. Case
above sea level), occupy middle-eastern Africa, in
studies provide details on two important aspects
of sport in Africa. the countries of Tanzania and Kenya, respectively.
96 Chepyator-Thomson, Adodo, and Ariyo

European sports to African people took place in

cities in the form of club competitions. During
Discuss the significance of the Nile River colonial times, sport clubs were introduced to both
and explain human diversity along its route the coastal regions and the interior areas of Africa.
from its source to its mouth at the Mediter-
ranean Sea. Discover by Internet search Role of Sport
the types of sporting activities popular Sport serves as an engine of economic revitaliza-
along the river, past and present. tion and sociocultural integration in communities
and nations across the continent. Sport promotes
formation of comradeship among friends, bonds
families together, generates revenues, and encour-
The prominent rivers that score the continent ages community engagement in business enter-
include the Nile River, stretching from Uganda to prises. It serves as a unifying tool because it brings
Egypt and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea; the together people of different multicultural upbring-
Congo river, the second longest in Africa, flowing ing (Vidacs, 2011). In Kenya, sport reigns supreme
through the country of the Democratic Republic of and is thus included in national development plans,
Congo; the Niger River, the third longest river in serving as a means to meet national policy objec-
Africa, flowing across the western African coun- tives. In South Africa, the African National Congress
tries of Guinea, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria; and the used the party’s Reconstruction Development Pro-
Zambezi River, the fourth longest, which touches gramme to improve the socioeconomic conditions
the countries of Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and of underprivileged communities following the 1995
Mozambique before it empties into the Indian Rugby World Cup (Boshoff, 1997). In Saayman,
Ocean at the Mozambique Channel. The continent Saayman, and du Plessies’s (2005) perspective, sport
has the world’s second largest (by area) freshwater brings economic impact to communities and allows
lake, Lake Victoria, which stretches across three people to network and conjure business activities.
countries: Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. The sport industry in Africa is dominated by
The indigenous peoples of Africa have occupied businesses and the formation of cross-cultural
the continent since its discovery as the oldest of relationships that involve European-introduced
the seven continents. The African continent has a sports—soccer, rugby, cricket, and netball. Cricket
“multi-faceted history and culture [that] reach back is popular across English-speaking Africa and is
through empires of early antiquity to the first known central to the lives of elite city dwellers and visitors
site for human life” (Seidman & Anang, 1992, p. at rural tourist resorts. In Tanzania, for instance,
1), and it currently houses diverse ethnic groups— according to Ndee (2010), tennis courts are located
Bantu, Nilotic, and Nilo-Hamitic people—and close to five-star hotels where tourists play the game
recent immigrants from Europe and Asia. The most during leisure hours. The female-only sport netball,
populated country, Nigeria, has over 250 ethnic common originally in British English-speaking Afri-
groups, including three major ethnicities: Yoruba,
Igbo, and Hausa-Fulani (Rotberg & Obadina, 2007).
Asians, primarily from India and the Middle East,
Learning Activit
4

arrived in Africa in the late 19th century (Oonk,

2004) and occupy the coastal regions of eastern Select three major sports in Africa and
Africa. Among them are Arabs.
explain their influence in local and global
The sport industry is at its infancy in the con-
contexts. Discuss the extent to which
tinent. The development of the industry through
Uganda can benefit from inclusion of
various sports started with the advent of European
tutelage in Africa during the colonial period, when newcomers to the sport, women boxers.
the introduced sporting activities took precedence Discuss as well the types of sponsors
over indigenous games and sports (Chepyator- that can be used to elevate the sport in
Thomson, 2014). The introduction and spread of Uganda.
 Sport in Africa 97

Boxing in Uganda
Boxing plays a significant role in situating Uganda on of the sponsor. Sponsorship plays a significant role in
the world map and has become the country’s leading the development and promotion of a sport, because
sporting export. The rise and dominance of boxing in corporations not only get to promote their products and
Uganda is partly attributed to former president Idi Amin, brands through investing in sport but also give lever-
who symbolized the greatness (and importance) of the age to the sporting entity and hence develop a strong
sport while he served in the King’s African Rifles during emotional connection with the people it serves and the
the British colonial period in Uganda, long before he various Communities around the country.
became Uganda’s president (Mazrui, 1986). Amin The increasing importance of sport as a cultural
believed that the government had the duty to support force enhances the unity and prestige of a nation and
all sporting activities in Uganda and thus funded the has guided governments to employ massive interven-
Uganda national boxing team, the Bombers. tion in sport activities (Houlihan, 2005). Therefore, the
In recent times, the Uganda Boxing Amateur Fed- government of Uganda, through the Ministry of Edu-
eration (UBAF), one of the biggest and most successful cation and Sport and the National Council of Sport, is
sport federations in the country, has faced a manage- currently involved in rebuilding the sport by stabilizing
ment crisis (Isabirye, 2017, p. 1). The International the management as well as providing equipment,
Boxing Association (AIBA) suspended the UBAF for money, manpower, and advisory services to jump-start
seven years because of inconsistent leadership, cor- the sport (Isabirye, 2017), after many years of inactivity
ruption, and heavy meddling in administration by the within the boxing community. Uganda cannot compete
central government. The administration squabbles with other countries and athletes or have a competitive
paralyzed the struggling structure of the Uganda advantage because of the lack of exposure to modern
boxing fraternity, leaving coaches, referees, judges, equipment and structure of competition. The country
and trainers with no access to equipment, materials, and the boxing federation do not have a national train-
and information from the international body that would ing gym to nurture and prime boxers to participate
help promote the game. Because of the administration in regional and international boxing events. There is
wrangles, companies and private sponsors were afraid urgent need for education about sport policies and
to invest in the sport because of the failed leadership implementation. The government needs to provide
structure and organization. Brewer and Pedersen directives about physical education and sport and
(2010) posit that commercialization of sport through how local clubs and the federation can work together
sponsorship of competitions, teams, and athletes to improve the welfare and performance of the athletes.
plays an important role in the develooment and sus- The future of the sport lies in attracting newcomers and
tainability of the sport as well as promotes the image making an international impact.
L ELROIG SIS OIE ISOILOIRSES RSN NS RISOSRS SOI REI SO EOS UE RE
ISN IOI SRS ISSO IEEE

can countries and popular in contemporary Africa defined as a nation seeking “to achieve [its] goals
(Chappel, 2005), provides women with excellent in the international arena through attraction rather
economic opportunities for social mobility. than coercion” (Delgado, 2016, p. 1). For example,
Sport as a soft power puts African countries note the spectacular performances of a nation’s
on the world map—Kenya through track and athletes at mega sport events like the Olympics,
field, Cameroon through soccer, and South Africa where athletes take home medals. Athletes of
through rugby—and permits globalization of international standing have become instruments
human resources and sport sponsorships, given of change, transforming their nation’s communities
that many African athletes have taken residences and reverberating abroad with the likes of Africa’s
abroad by participating in European football track and field heroes Kipchoge Keino of Kenya,
leagues or taking part in global sport competitions Nawal El Maoutawakel of Morocco, Maria Mutola
representing their adopted countries. Soft power is of Mozambique, and John Akii-Bua of Uganda;
98 Chepyator-Thomson, Adodo, and Ariyo

soccer players Didier Drogba of Ivory Coast and Learning Activity

Roger Miller of Cameroon; and basketball great
Dikembe Mutombo of the Democratic Republic of Select two sport confederations and dis-
Congo. These athletes not only put Africa on the cuss similarities and differences in gov-
world map but also transformed the continent eco- ernance structures. If you were to start a
nomically through development of various business new sport, what critical elements would
enterprises and promoted unity among the diverse you include and why?
ethnic groups that live within their nations’ bor-
ders. The sport of boxing played a dominant role
in putting Uganda on the world map and unifying as well as in the eastern Africa countries of Kenya,
the nation ethnically and socially. In staging mega Uganda, and Tanzania. The Netball Association
sport events, countries like India (Commonwealth of Africa Region governs and oversees all netball
Games) and Brazil (FIFA World Cup 2014 and sport competitions. This female-only sport is played
Olympic Games in 2016), two rapidly expanding predominantly in the southern region of Africa. The
economies, announced through these events that Malawi Queens, the national team for Malawi, rule
“they had finally arrived on the international stage” the continent and currently rank fifth in the world.
(Grix & Houlihan, 2014, p. 577). The Confederation of African Athletics oversees
all aspects of athletic competition, including the
Governance of Sport major athletic event in the continent, the African
Championships. The Confederation of African
Governance is critical to effective functioning of
Volleyball governs the sport and administers all
sports organizations. According to Hill, Kerr, and
women and men’s volleyball championships. The
Kobayashi (2016), “effective governance is neces-
Confederation of African Football is the organ of
sary for any group to function, whether one is a
governance and administration of African football,
public entity, not-for-profit organization, school,
representing all football federations in the continent.
sport club or corporate business” (p. 211). In Africa,
Sport confederations and associations legitimized
sports are governed through confederations and
the development of sport structures and competi-
associations. Governance cities are largely located
tions, instigated the creation of jobs and generation
in northern and western-African countries, with
of revenues in countries where sport competitions
only one sport—netball—being female specific.
are held, and promoted unity and solidarity among
These federations and associations organize and
players and spectators. Competitions held annually,
manage sport competitions and work together with
every two years, or every four years affect local
major international sport bodies to hold mega sport
communities economically, create revenues that
events in the continent like the 2010 FIFA World
promote national economies and ethnic integration,
Cup, Rugby World Cup, and Cricket World Cup,
and promote international notoriety and engage-
all held in South Africa.
ment with foreign sport enterprises.
The Confederation of African Rugby is the
governing body and organizes continental com-
petitions. The body oversees the organizing and Economics of Sport
running of rugby for R15s and 7s and women’s Football is by far the most prominent sport in the
rugby. The southern African region dominates continent. The strong presence of professional and
rugby competition, although recently the eastern the commercialization of the sport started with the
African countries of Kenya and Uganda have offered development and promotion of premier leagues.
a serious challenge. The South Africa Rugby team Football premier leagues are part and parcel of
occupies a superior position by winning the Rugby Africa’s economy and are a mainstay of societies
World Cup in 1995 and appearing in the film Invic- in terms of social and economic development. The
tus. The African Cricket Association manages premier leagues are a subset of football associations
cricket tournaments, and the sport is most preva- under the sport governing bodies. The development
lent in the southern region of Africa, particularly of a premier league system in Africa significantly
South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia, and Zambia, altered the way that sport business is developed and
 Sport in Africa 99

promoted within each African country and across 122). Eighteen teams form the premier league in
the continent. For instance, in South Africa, the Kenya (also known as SportPesa Premier League),
“inception of the premiere soccer league laid the and sponsorship comes from a variety of sources,
foundations for the million Rand business and heav- primarily from international sponsors such as
ily commercialized entity that professional soccer in Puma and SuperSport. Local sponsors include sugar
South Africa is today” (Darby & Solberg, 2010, p. companies, banks (Kenya Commercial Bank), the
119). According to Darby and Solberg (2010), com- government of Kenya, Kenya Defense Forces, Kenya
mercialization and corporatization is increasingly Power, and Kenya Ports Authority, who support the
“fueled by sponsorship from large commercial enti- league and the Kenya Football Federation (Kenyan
ties such as South African Breweries, South African Premier League Limited, 2018). The league gener-
Airways, TV broadcasting companies and Vodacom” ates a total income of 270.9 million shillings which
(p. 119). The revenue generated has transformed benefits many communities and cities and goes to
underserved communities, making the league “the pay for marketing, advertising, and staff payroll
most economically viable and well-organized league (Kenyan Premier League Limited, 2018; AllAfrica.
in sub-Saharan Africa (Darby & Solberg, 2010, p. com, 2018).
119). The South African Premier Soccer League is a In contemporary times, the major sports, rugby
franchise system in which rich entrepreneurs have and cricket, bring lots of business and revenues to
ownership, with the “most powerful entrepreneurs communities and nations. South Africa has been the
helping transform and steer South African football main beneficiary. The 1995 Rugby World Cup, the
into its current profitable state” (Darby & Solberg, 2003 Cricket World Cup, and the 2010 FIFA World
2010, p. 120). According to Darby and Solberg Cup brought a tourist boom to South Africa; about
(2010), “South Africa’s status as the economic pow- 309,554 foreign tourists spent about R3.64 billion
erhouse on the continent alongside the hosting of during the event (FIFA, 2018). FIFA, which took
the 2010 World Cup seems set to herald a prosper- the lion’s share of benefits from the World Cup in
ous future for the Premier Soccer League, one that South Africa, is considered the “sport’s Wall Street
will allow it to continue to retain local labor and and Pentagon combined [as] it was set to earn about
attract talent from elsewhere in Africa” (p. 127). In 2.25 billion pounds from TV rights, exceeding
Kenya, the premier leagues entertain people with its income from the two most recent World Cups
weekend games that generate lots of revenue. combined” (Pilger, 2010, p. 21). Economic gains
In many African countries, most of these premier in South Africa from sport—football, rugby, and
leagues exist with the support of the government or cricket—represent significant investment in the
private sponsorships. In South Africa, the Premier sport industry in the country (Stander & van Zyl,
Soccer League relies on corporate sponsorships 2016). The FIFA World Cup can be said not only to
and is considered one of wealthiest in Africa. In have put South Africa on the world map but also to
Ghana, the Ghana Football Association (GFA) and have shown the world that the country can be con-
the national team benefit from corporate invest- sidered a possible destination for various types of
ments, although the extent to which it benefits investment. South Africa spent millions of dollars to
youth leagues is unclear (Darby & Solberg, 2010). attract sport tourists, done largely to “raise external
The two premier league teams in Ghana, the Accra revenues” expected to happen through “increased
Hearts of Oak and Asante Kotoko, are considered tourism and heightened awareness of South Africa
financially stable because they “pay higher wages, as a destination for tourists and international capi-
signing bonuses and win bonuses to players” (Darby tal” (Giampiccoli, Lee, @ Nauright, 2013, p. 229).
& Solberg, 2010, p. 122). Unfortunately, the GFA The South Africa Rugby Union created an enter-
faces challenges stemming from a poor admin- prise to commercialize its heritage, the Springbok
istration and governance structure, affecting the Experience Museum. This commercial rugby
premier league because it is not independent from museum sells sport memorabilia and artifacts
the association, contrary to the situation in South (Grundlingh, 2015). The professionalization of
Africa, where in a two-tier structure the Premier rugby helps “solidify the Springbok brand through
Soccer League is autonomous from the South Africa its heritage.” The South Africa Rugby Union mar-
Football Association (Darby & Solberg, 2010, p. kets its heritage as a “commodity that showcases
100 Chepyator-Thomson, Adodo, and Ariyo

the Springbok brand on a very competitive sports

market” (Grundlingh, 2015, p. 107-108). The
development of this heritage venture is significant Beyond the content provided in this sec-
because tourists come to witness “South Africa’s tion, critically examine how these sports
unique social and political heritage,” which consti- influence communities and nations, con-
tutes an experience-based economy (Grundlingh, sidering where they are most prominent in
2015, p.108). In South Africa today, rugby is a the continent, using an Internet search and
“professional, multinational, highly commercialized your own experiences.
business machine” (Parker, 2013, p. 102) and “offers
unique experiences and business opportunities”
(Gedye, 2017) through utilization of “new private
zenreiter, 2006). The East Africa Safari Rally was a
equity investment” and global private investors,
catalyst for social change because of the investment
with solicited interest coming from U.S. companies
in infrastructure, technology, and the livelihood of
and a Hong Kong-based company, Carinat Sports
the people within and around the hosting cities,
Marketing (Gedye, 2017, p. 1). South Africa gained
promoting sport tourism, regional economies,
“an inflow of R4 billion and generated gate revenues
sociocultural cohesion, and the car-racing industry
of R80 billion” (Versi & Nevin, 2003, p. 1) from
in the region.
holding the Cricket World Cup and had, accord-
In summary, numerous competitive sport events
ing to the Global Cricket Corporation, “up to 300
are held throughout the continent on annual basis
million households [that watched] the 54 games
or every two or four years. The premier leagues
spread over 43 days.”
are the mainstay for diverse groups of people who
Wrestling is another important sport in the
depend on them for economic revitalization of
continent. The West Africa countries take the lead,
communities and cities, for player social mobility,
especially Senegal. The sport generates revenues for
for general welfare of people who attend weekend
economic development in various cities and com-
competitive matches, and for involvement in corpo-
munities and has allowed social mobility among
rate social responsibility activities that target youth
sport players in countries wherever the sport is
in both rural and urban locations. The prominent
played. Wrestling has “become a million dollar
sport country is South Africa because it has hosted
spectacle, mostly because of big telecom sponsors,
the three mega sport events—in soccer, cricket,
TV stations, and new media channels [and] this
and rugby—successfully in the past. The future of
has led to the most successful wrestlers becoming
professional sport in the continent rests on growing
media-stars and billionaires, giving young men in
these sports. South Africa is becoming a power-
this African country a very different perspective”
house in the three major sports in the continent,
(Bobst, p. 1). Senegalese youth have a passion for
but other countries are coming up to challenge that
the country’s ancient sport, and on a good day,
country’s superiority in the not-too-distant future.
fans fill a 60,000-seat stadium in the capital, Dakar
(Heuler, 2006).
Another sport practiced in Africa is the East - Management of Sport
Africa Safari Rally, the most popular international Proper management is critical to the development
event in the World Rally Championship (WRC) of sport. With globalization, many skilled athletes
outside Europe (Kamweru, 2008). The event is often and players take up residences abroad to be part of
considered the biggest international sporting occa- renowned European soccer clubs or sport franchises
sion in East Africa. The East Africa Safari Rally is that give them a return on their investment, making
a platform for car manufacturers to showcase their management of sport essential to development.
latest models. With the influx of car manufacturers The demand for competent managers in clubs and
into East Africa, the regional economy was boosted, federations is paramount given the enormous public
especially in the hospitality industry because of interest and growth of sport in the continent (Eks-
the large number of crews that took part in the teen, Malan, & Lotriet, 2013). The authors argue
event. The event is a generator of national and local that club managers need to possess competencies
economic and social development (Horne & Man- centered on “budgeting, managing personnel and
 Sport in Africa 101

facilities, controlling and directing [as well as] com- administration. Sound record keeping, organiza-
municating management [in form of] writing, media tion, and execution of plans are essential to all
relations and advertising and fundraising” (Eksteen, sports, particularly football, given its important
Malan, & Lotriet, 2013, p. 934). The administration position in the continent. In West Africa, the Ghana
process, according to Abdl-Galil Muhammad and Football Association, along with its Premier League
Abdallah (2016), includes “planning, organizing, Board, are tainted with corruption “because they
directing, and follow-time management” (p. 93). fail to provide proper records of their activities”
Proper management engenders excellent docu- (Yeboah, Adams, & Akotia, 2017), a problem that
mentation of sport activities and achievements and FIFA has been implicated with in recent times. In
good record keeping, which are critical in football Egypt, Hamza and Abdelmonem’s (2018) research

Football in Nigeria
The administrative structure of sport in Nigeria starts tions’ chairmen and chairpersons from the 36 states
with the Federal Ministry of Youth and Sports Develop- of Nigeria including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT).
ment (2017). The minister serves as the chief executive The National Football Association Act of 1990 gives the
and the accounting officer. The ministry has oversight sole power to organize football in Nigeria to the NFF,
functions for youth matters and sport development at which in turn issues a license to the League Manage-
all levels (national, state, local government, and institu- ment Company (LMC) (2017) to manage the Nigeria
tions). The structure of sport is such that government Premier League on behalf of the NFF. In contrast, the
totally controls sport development through the Ministry State Football Association is responsible for the orga-
of Youth and Sports Development, which in turn regu- nization and administration of football at the grassroots
lates the activities of all the sport associations and level. At the club level, the NFF administers a three-tier
football clubs in the country. league system for men and a two-tier league system
An example of club structure is found in Nigerian for women. Men have the Nigeria Premier League
football, which starts with the state-owned clubs, con- (NPL) with 20 teams, the Nigeria National League with
stituting 90 percent of clubs in the Nigerian Premier two groups of 16 teams, and the Nigeria Nationwide
League, private clubs owned by individuals or corpo- League Division One (4 groups of 10 teams) and Divi-
rate shareholders, and finally community clubs. The sion Two (52 teams). Women have the National League
club structure shows the prevalence of state-owned and the Nationwide League.
clubs because the state government uses football to The Nigeria Football Association Act (Decree No.
show that they care for the welfare of the citizens. The 10) and the Nigeria Professional Football League
state-owned clubs are financially supported mostly Decree (Decree No. 11) were promulgated in 1990 and
from the state treasury. A specific department or merged in 1992 as Decree No. 101, constituting the
agency is set up by the state government to manage laws required for football administration. Decree No.
the club, and the office of the state governor or state 101 was a product of a near FIFA ban of the country
ministry of sports manages th