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Learning Outcomes

Controlling Workplace Hazards • Outline the health effects associated with

exposure to noise and appropriate control
Unit GC2 International measures
• Outline the health effects associated with
Element 8: Physical and Psychological exposure to vibration and appropriate control
Health Hazards and Risk Control measures
• Outline the health effects associated with ionising
and non-ionising radiation and appropriate
control measures
• Outline the meaning, causes and effects of work-
related stress and appropriate control measures

Physical effects of noise:

• Acoustic trauma: Sudden hearing damage caused by short
burst of extremely loud noise such as gun shot
• Temporary threshold shift: Temporary reduction in
Unit GC2: Element 8.1 hearing sensitivity as a result of short-duration exposure to
excessively loud noise.

NOISE • Permanent threshold shift/Noise-induced hearing loss

(NIHL) – Permanent loss of hearing as a result of repeated
exposure to excessively loud noise.
• Short term tinnitus - Temporary ringing/buzzing in the
ears as a result of short-duration exposure to excessively
loud noise.
• Tinnitus – Persistent ringing in the ears as a result of
repeated exposure to excessively loud noise. It is caused
by the over-stimulation of the hair cells
• Inability to hear vehicles, alarms and speech
.

Noise The Human Ear

Psychological effects:
• Stress
• Difficulty concentrating
• Increased errors

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The Human Ear Terminology

Frequency • pitch
• human ear detects 20Hz to 20,000Hz
Sound pressure • expressed in decibels (dB)
Intensity • the volume or loudness (dB)
Decibel (dB) • sound pressure level, ‘loudness’
A-weighting • noise measurement scale matching
human hearing
C-weighting • noise measurement scale accurate
for impulse noise

Decibel Levels Assessment of Exposure

• Simple sound meter

Measurement
Sound – measures instant noise levels
in dB(A)
0 Faintest audible sounds – simple surveys
20-30 Quiet library • Integrating sound level meter
50-60 Conversation – measures noise over a period of time
65-75 Loud radio
– used for all surveys
90-100 Power drill
• Dosimeters
140 Jet aircraft taking off 25m away
– worn by worker
• The decibel scale is logarithmic
• An increase of just 3 dB = a doubling of sound – personal noise exposure

Noise Exposure Limits

• Subject to national laws around the world
• No harmonised standards
• General agreement on daily personal noise dose
of 85dB(A)
(Can be measured as weekly personal noise
exposure over a weekly period.)
• Dose depends upon
− Noise level in dB(A)
− Duration of exposure (hours and minutes)

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Noise Exposure Standards Noise Exposure Standards

European Standards (by way of example) Upper Exposure Action Value: 85dB(A) Daily
Personal Noise Exposure
Lower Exposure Action Value: 80 dB(A) Daily
• Carry out a noise assessment
Personal Noise exposure
• Reduce noise exposure by engineering means,
• Carry out noise assessment ALARP
• Information, instruction and training If noise is still above 85dB(A)
• Make hearing protection available • Mandatory hearing-protection zone
• Information, instruction and training
• Provide hearing protection and enforce use
• Health surveillance

Noise Exposure: Summary Group Syndicate Exercise

Lower exposure action values:
A daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 80dB(A); and A noise survey has been carried out and
A peak sound pressure of 135dB (C) for impulse noise there are 2 work areas of concern:
Upper exposure action values: • Machine shop - noise levels
A daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 85dB(A); and 83dB(A) throughout the shift
A peak sound pressure of 137dB(C) for impulse noise
• Wood working area - noise levels
There are also exposure limit values (as absolute limits): 87dB(A) throughout the shift
A daily or weekly personal noise exposure of 87dB(A); and
A peak sound pressure of 140dB(C) for impulse noise

Where employees’ exposure varies markedly from day to day the Discuss the actions that could be taken
weekly personal noise exposure can be used in place of the daily in each area
personal exposure standards

Basic Noise-Control Measures Basic Noise-Control Measures

Source Receiver
• Eliminate • Acoustic haven
Reflected Noise Path
• Substitute • Hearing protection
Direct Noise Path • Modify process • Warning signs
Noise
Source
• Maintenance
• Damping
Structure
pathway • Silencing
Pathway
• Insulation
Noise: source, pathway, receiver
• Isolation
• Absorption

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Group Syndicate Exercise Hearing Protection

Discuss why hearing protection is an Ear Defenders (muffs)

inefficient method of reducing noise exposure • Encase the ear and bones surrounding the ear
in a noisy workplace
Ear plugs
• Fit into the ear canal

Hearing Protection Hearing Protection

Ear plugs Ear defenders or muffs
Advantages Limitations Advantages Limitations
Cheap and easy to use Difficult to see when fitted,
Easy to supervise and Uncomfortable
supervision and enforcement
enforce use, as visible
difficult
Less chance of ear Efficiency affected by long hair,
Disposable Risk of infection if dirty, or if
infections spectacles, etc
cross-contaminated when
inserted Higher level of protection Must be inspected, cleaned
possible and maintained
More comfortable, range Need to be correctly sized for
of designs individual Can integrate with other
PPE
Do not interfere with Effectiveness decreases with
other PPE usage Re-usable

Hearing Protection
Hearing Protection
• Information, Attenuation
instruction, training Information is required on the:
• Safe storage • Noise in the workplace
• Cleaning − from survey

• Maintenance • Attenuation characteristics of the

hearing protection
• Replacement
− from manufacturer
• Ear muffs give higher attenuation
than ear plugs

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Health Surveillance Group Syndicate Activity

Audiometry allows:
Identify occupations at risk from noise-
• Identification of workers with:
induced hearing loss and the potential causes
- pre-existing hearing
damage
- new hearing damage
• Removal/exclusion of such
workers from high-noise areas
• Noise assessment surveys
• Investigation of noise controls
to rectify problems

Occupations at Risk End-of-Section Quiz

Construction workers 1. What are the health effects of exposure to

− Plant, machinery, e.g. concrete-breakers high levels of noise?
Uniformed services 2. There are 3 main ways of reducing noise
(fill in the blanks)
− Small arms and artillery
• Reduce noise at ________________
Entertainment-sector workers
• Interrupt the __________from source to
− Loud music
receiver
Manufacturing-sector workers • Protect the ________ through engineering
− Industrial machinery controls or PPE
Call-centre workers 3. What types of PPE are available? What are
− Acoustic shock from headsets the pros and cons of each?

Effects of Exposure to Vibration

Hand-Arm Vibration Syndrome (HAVS)
HAVS normally results from long-term exposure (5 to 10 years or more)
to hand vibration (e.g. from use of a chainsaw). It is an incurable
Unit GC2: Element 8.2 condition. Once damage has been done it is unlikely to reverse, and any
further exposure to vibration will do further damage. The most
appropriate treatment for most workers is for them to give up the use of
VIBRATION vibrating hand-tools.

Typical vibration white finger

Symptoms: ( Source: HSE Guidance)
( Reproduced under the terms of the Click-Use Licence)

• Vibration white finger (blanching)

• Nerve damage
• Muscle-weakening
• Joint damage

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• Vibration white finger (VWF) – the blood supply to

Group Syndicate Exercise
the fingers shuts down (often in response to cold)
• What occupations are most at risk of
and the fingers turn white (known as blanching) and
become numb. The blood supply returns after a time exposure to vibration?
and the fingers become red and painful.
• How can you reduce the risks?
• Nerve damage – the nerves carrying sensory
information from the fingers stop working properly, (Consider the use of a mechanical sander at
resulting in a loss of pressure, heat and pain home)
sensitivity and feeling.
• Muscle weakening – grip strength and manual
dexterity reduce.
• Joint damage – abnormal bone growth at the
finger joints can occur.

Effects of Exposure to Vibration Vibration Assessment

Whole-Body Vibration • Vibration “dose” is determined as a

• Damage to spinal discs personal exposure to vibration
• Vertigo averaged over 8 hours
• Vibration dose determined by:
Occupations: − vibration magnitude (ms -2)

− Dumper-truck driving − duration of exposure

(hours/mins)
− Aircraft cabin crew

Daily vibration exposure [8 hour

equivalent total value] of
5 metres/sec2

Vibration Exposure Limits Control of Vibration

• Standards vary according to national law
• At or above the Daily Exposure Action Value Source: Duration:
− Vibration risk assessment • Eliminate • Limit time exposed

− Reduce exposure level • Job rotation

• Substitute
− Training • Change work method
− Health surveillance Person:
• Maintenance • PPE
• At or above the Daily Exposure Limit Value (ELV)
− Vibration risk assessment Pathway:
− Reduce exposure below the ELV • Isolate

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Health Surveillance End-of-Section Quiz

At or above the Exposure Action Value 1. What are the symptoms of HAVs?
• Health surveillance allows: 2. What two factors are considered when
• Identification of workers with calculating the “dose” of vibration?
- pre-existing vibration damage
- new vibration damage
• Removal/exclusion of such
workers from vibration sources
• Vibration measuring surveys
• Investigation of vibration sources
to rectify problems Reproduced under the terms of
the click-us e licence

Radiation

Two types:

Unit GC2: Element 8.3 • Non-ionising

– lower energy
RADIATION – heating effects
– does not change the structure of atoms

• Ionising
– higher energy
– can change the structure of
atoms

Occupational Sources of Radiation

Non-Ionising Radiation
Non-ionising radiation is present in most workplaces
and is used for various applications. Typical
occupational sources include:
NON-IONISING RADIATION • UV – sunlight; arc-welding, photocopier
• IR – red-hot steel in a rolling mill; glass manufacture
• Visible light – laser levelling device; laser pointer
• Microwaves – industrial microwave oven in a food
factory; telecommunications equipment (e.g. a mobile
phone antenna)
• Radiowaves – radio, TV, or radar antennae

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Non-Ionising Radiation Protection from Non-Ionising Radiation

Types Sources Health Effects

Types Protection
Ultraviolet Sunlight Skin burns
Arc welding Arc eye (photokeratitis) Ultraviolet (UV) • Cover exposed skin
(UV) • Protect eyes
Skin cancer
Visible light Lasers Temporary blindness Visible light, lasers • Low class: avoid shining in eyes
• High class: eye protection, shielding,
Infrared (IR) Red-hot steel Redness and skin burns, non-reflective surfaces
Glass manufacture retinal burns, cataracts
Infrared (IR) • Cover exposed skin
Microwaves Food preparation Internal heating • Protect eyes
Telecommunications Organ damage
Microwaves • Safe distance
Radiowaves Radio, TV Internal heating • Isolate and lock off
radar Organ damage
Radiowaves • Safe distance
• Isolate and lock off
Arc Eye

Types of Ionising Radiation

Can penetrate the body and cause serious and

permanent harm:
• Alpha particles
IONISING RADIATION • Beta particles
• X-rays
• Gamma rays
• Neutrons

Acute Health Effects Chronic Health Effects

Radiation sickness • Cancer

• Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea
• Genetic mutation
• Blistering and ulceration of skin
• Birth defects
• Hair loss
• Dermatitis
• Cataracts
• Anaemia
• Reduced immune system The larger the dose, the greater the risk
• Infertility

The larger the dose, the greater the risk

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Occupational Sources of Radiation Protection from Ionising Radiation

Ionising Radiation Time:

• Alpha particles – smoke detectors and science • Minimise exposure
labs • Dose proportionate to time
• Beta particles – science labs and thickness gauges • Half life
• X-rays – medical radiography and baggage security Distance:
scanners • Alpha, beta can’t travel long distances through air
• Gamma-rays – industrial radiography Shielding:
• Neutrons – nuclear power stations • Depends on type of radiation

Protection from Ionising Radiation Group Syndicate Exercise

Shielding A pregnant lady is in need of an X-ray for a

suspected broken bone.
Discuss the control measures in the X-ray
department of a hospital, using:
• Time
• Distance
• Shielding
to structure your answer

Protection from Ionising Radiation Dose Limits

• In order to ensure that such controls are properly International Commission on Radiological
planned, implemented and monitored, a Protection (ICRP)
competent person (or persons) should be
Recommendations on exposure:
appointed in the workplace.
• General public < 1mSv per year
• The details of the role may vary internationally. As
an example, this role is fulfilled in the UK by a • Workers < 20mSv per year
Radiation Protection Supervisor and a Radiation
Protection Adviser Measured with a Geiger
counter(survey meter)

Translated into legal limits in

most countries

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Basic Radiation Protection Strategies

• Risk assessed by a competent person (RPA?)
• Eliminated exposure so far as is reasonably practicable.
• Reduce exposure to the lowest level reasonable practicable
• Do not exceed the relevant radiation dose limits.
• Dosimeter and film badge for radiographer
• Check with Geiger counter(survey meter)
• Check source decay chart
• Cordon off ( at 7mR radiation dose level)
• Warning signs & flickering lights on safe distance
• Training and information & Competent radiography
technician
• Shielding could given using lead, tungsten, concrete etc
• Radiography Method statement & emergency plan
• Permit to work & notification to nearby occupants
• Health surveillance
• Local legislation based on regional law and international
conventions to be followed

Radon Gas Radon Gas

• Naturally occurring radioactive gas Where naturally-occurring levels are high:

• Colorless, odorless, tasteless, noble gas - Outside – low concern
• Occurring naturally as an indirect decay product
- Inside – poorly ventilated workplaces, e.g.
of uranium or thorium.
basements can be a significant risk
• Radon is one of the densest substances that remains as gas
under normal conditions. Control of risk above the action level:
• Seeps from the ground & levels vary depending on location - Radiation Protection Supervisor
• Emits alpha particles - Positive-pressure air fans
• Health effects:
- Radon sumps and extraction systems
- outside body - not particularly hazardous
- inside body (ingestion/inhalation) - hazardous

Radon Gas v Practical control of radon levels in buildings

A radon sump is a small, bucket sized, cavity under the floor with an electric
pump drawing air from it. This reduces the normal under floor pressure with
Ways of reducing the amount of radon accumulating in a house
respect to radon in the soil and vents the radon gas outside the building where
(buildings) are it quickly dissipates.
• Covering the earth floor with a high-density plastic sheet.
• Installing a radon sump system in the basement
• Sub-slab depressurization (soil suction) by increasing under-
floor ventilation; This form of soil suction is called sub
membrane suction
• A vent pipe and fan are used to draw the radon from under
the sheet and vent it to the outdoors.
• Improving the ventilation of the house and avoiding the
transport of radon from the basement into living rooms by
installing a positive pressurization or positive supply In existing buildings, it is not possible to provide a radon proof barrier and so
ventilation system in the house alternative reduction measures are used depending upon the severity of the
problem. Such measures include improved under floor and indoor ventilation
• Radiation Protection Supervisor for expertise in the area, sealing large gaps in floors and walls in contact with the ground,
positive pressure ventilation of occupied areas.

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Health Surveillance

Types of examination include:

• Skin checks
• Respiratory checks
• Exposure records
• Sickness records

Group Syndicate Exercise End-of-Section Quiz

You are going on holiday to a hot country with 1. Identify the different types of ionising
long hours of sunshine radiation
Discuss how you will protect yourself from 2. Identify different sources of non-ionising
sunburn from the UV light using: radiation
• Time 3. What are the health effects of exposure to
UV radiation?
• Distance
• Shielding
to structure your answer

Stress

Stress is:
Unit GC2: Element 8.4 • An adverse reaction to excessive pressure

STRESS • Health effects:

– psychological
– physical
– behavioural

Can lead to serious ill health if prolonged

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Effects of Stress Group Syndicate Exercise

Psychological Physical Behavioural Discuss what causes stress in your own life, or
• Anxiety • Sweating • Sleeplessness others you have known to be stressed
• Low self-esteem • Heart rate • Poor
concentration
• Depression • Blood pressure
• Poor decision-
• Skin rashes making
• Muscle tension • Mood swings
• Headache • Irritability
• Dizziness • Alcohol
consumption
• Drug misuse
• Absence from
work

Causes of Stress Stress Control Measures

Demands - conflict demands, multiple orders Demand - Reasonable demands, sufficient resources

Control - no training, supervision, Control - Proper information, instruction, training,

consultations supervision
Support - avoidance, improper system, poor Support - Visible commitment, proper
communication, adequate resources
communication, low commitment
Relationship - lack of support, violence, Relationships - clear anti-harassment and bullying
policies
harassment, lack of trust
Role - Clear job descriptions, responsibilities
Role - undefined, role ambiguity, overload. and authority
Job - lack of training, appreciation, Job - No lone working, counselling and proper
workload, isolated work area, training, division of labour,
appreciations.& adequate bonus &
satisfaction, lone work, job insecurity.
incentives
Change - uncertainty, confusions Change - Proper planning and preparation for
change, communication & timescales

End-of-Section Quiz

1. What is “stress”?
2. What are the three types of health effect
that can result from stress?
3. What are the causes of workplace stress?

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