Article

High Power Factor DCM-CRM Cuk PFC Converter with Wide

Input Voltage Range Utilizing Variable Inductor Control
Tiesheng Yan 1, * , Ruihao Liu 1 , Hao Wen 1 and Guohua Zhou 2

1 School of Electrical Engineering and Electronic Information, Xihua University, Chengdu 610039, China;
[email protected] (R.L.)
2 School of Electrical Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The Cuk power factor correction (PFC) converter with an input inductor operating
discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) is widely utilized for its advantages of continuous
input and output currents, low output voltage ripple, and simple control. However, the
conventional Cuk PFC converter encounters issues such as the inability to achieve high
power factor (PF) because of input current distortion and high intermediate capacitor
voltage, especially at high input voltage. To achieve high PF, high efficiency, and low
intermediate capacitor voltage simultaneously, by operating the output inductor at critical
conduction mode (CRM) and adjusting input inductance from 170 µH to 930 µH within
the half-line cycle dynamically with the transient rectified input voltage, a DCM-CRM Cuk
PFC converter utilizing variable inductor control is proposed in this paper. The topology
operational principle, control strategy, and key characteristics of the proposed converter
have been studied. A 108 W experimental prototype was built and tested to validate
the proposed converter. According to the comparative experimental results between the
conventional converter and the proposed converter, it can be concluded that the proposed
converter utilizing variable inductor control can enhance the PF and efficiency and reduce
the intermediate capacitor voltage and total harmonic distortion (THD) of input current
with universal 90~240 Vac input voltage range.

Keywords: power factor correction converter; Cuk converter; DCM-CRM; variable inductor
control
Academic Editor: Gerard Ghibaudo

Received: 7 September 2024

Revised: 7 October 2024
Accepted: 11 October 2024 1. Introduction
Published: 6 January 2025
With the rapid advancement of electronic devices, the demand for switching power
Citation: Yan, T.; Liu, R.; Wen, H.;
supplies has surged significantly. Power factor correction (PFC) converters have been ex-
Zhou, G. High Power Factor
DCM-CRM Cuk PFC Converter with
tensively utilized to mitigate input current distortion and ensure compliance with stringent
Wide Input Voltage Range Utilizing harmonic standards. Certain commercial power supply products must comply with the IEC
Variable Inductor Control. Appl. Sci. 61000-3-2 standard to mitigate the potential damage to the power grid caused by harmonic
2025, 15, 484. https://doi.org/ injection [1–5].
10.3390/app15010484
Among the various PFC converter topologies commonly used, the Boost converter is
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. particularly favored because of its ability to achieve low input current ripple and maintain
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. high efficiency. However, the Boost PFC converter faces several challenges, including high
This article is an open access article
output voltage due to the need for the output voltage to exceed the peak input voltage,
distributed under the terms and
large input inrush current, and difficulty in achieving output short-circuit protection. These
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license
limitations restrict the applicability of the Boost PFC converter in certain scenarios [2–4].
(https://creativecommons.org/ The conventional Buck PFC converter offers advantages such as low voltage stress on the
licenses/by/4.0/). power switch and effective step-down conversion. Nevertheless, its operation is limited to

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 https://doi.org/10.3390/app15010484

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 2 of 24

lower voltage conditions. When the input voltage falls below the output voltage, a dead
zone in the input current occurs, leading to a degraded power factor (PF) and increased
total harmonic distortion (THD) of the input current. This restricted output voltage range
further limits the applicability of the Buck PFC converter [5–7]. The Buck-Boost PFC
converter offers inherent current shaping, cost-effectiveness, and the capability to perform
both step-up and step-down conversions. However, compared to the traditional Boost and
Buck converters, Buck-Boost PFC presents several drawbacks including low efficiency and
high voltage stress of the main power switch due to the inductor only supplying energy to
the load when the main switch is off, and the discontinuous input current leading to worse
harmonic distortion in the power grid [8,9].
The Cuk converter, introduced by Slobodan Cuk in 1977 [10], features an input stage
similar to a Boost converter, which provides the advantage of continuous input current
and can be used for achieving PFC. The output stage of the Cuk converter resembles a
Buck converter, enabling DC-DC conversion. Consequently, the Cuk converter generates
minimal electromagnetic interference and output voltage ripple, which seems to be a better
candidate in the basic PFC converter topology [11], leading to its widespread application in
recent years. In [12], a Cuk PFC converter is used for driving brushless DC motors, which
reduces system power consumption, achieves high efficiency, and also lowers costs. In [13],
to improve the efficiency of the two-stage converters for electric bike battery charging, a
switched inductor Cuk PFC converter was proposed. Compared to conventional two-stage
converters, this topology offers advantages such as higher voltage gain, reduced current
stress, and improved efficiency. In [14], a three-phase-isolated Cuk converter-based PFC
rectifier is proposed. The converter operates in discontinuous output inductor current
mode and requires only a simple voltage control loop to achieve PFC for the AC input. This
design reduces the system cost while enhancing reliability and efficiency. Therefore, the
Cuk PFC converter is widely used in many applications, but it still has some shortcomings.
In [15], the harmonic balance method and Floquet theory are used to study the influ-
ence of intermediate capacitance on the slow-scale instability of operating in discontinuous
capacitor voltage mode with a Cuk PFC converter. The research results show that with
the increase in intermediate capacitance, the stability of the converter will be reduced due
to period-doubling bifurcation, thereby reducing PF. The bridgeless Cuk PFC converter,
by reducing the number of semiconductors in the circuit, lowers conduction losses and
finds widespread application in various fields. However, it is challenging for the converter
to achieve both high PF and low intermediate capacitor voltage simultaneously during
normal operation and the converter can only operate under low input voltage [16–18].
In [19], a Cuk PFC converter utilizing a variable inductor is proposed, which makes both
output and input inductors operate in DCM. The implementation of variable inductor (VI)
control effectively enhances the PF of the converter. However, at high input voltages, the
peak current in the output inductor becomes significantly large, which increases the current
stress on the switch, ultimately reducing the efficiency of the converter.
Variable inductor technology has changed the characteristics of inductor components,
transforming the inductor from a fixed inductance component to a variable inductance
component. VI technology can add an extra control variable to the switching power supply
circuit, allowing the switching power supply to change from only adjusting the duty cycle
to simultaneously adjusting both the duty cycle and power inductance. Therefore, VI
technology has attracted considerable interest from many researchers.
Recent advancements in science and technology have spurred rapid development in
magnetic materials, leading researchers to propose various types of variable inductors.
Commonly used variable inductors include DC auxiliary winding types such as the toroid
core VI, double-E core VI, and quad-U core VI [20–24]. These designs utilize DC magnetic
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 3 of 24

flux to drive core saturation, thereby altering the core equivalent magnetic permeability to
adjust the inductance value.
A variable inductor offers inherent flexibility of the inductance variation, which allows
converters to handle more complex operating conditions. Variable inductors have been
extensively applied in many cases such as PFC converters, electric vehicles, electronic
ballasts, and LED drivers [24–30]. In order to improve the current handling ability and
reduce the size of the magnetic component of the power inductor, a toroid core variable
inductor, which enhances the inductance value by de-saturating the core with DC magnetic
flux generated by a direct current, is proposed to replace the conventional power inductor
in the bidirectional DC-DC converter in [24]. In [25], a double-E core type variable inductor
is employed in a critical conduction mode (CRM) Boost PFC circuit proposed to change
the inductance value, thereby increasing the switching period, minimizing switch turn-off
losses, and enhancing system efficiency.
In [26], a new analog control method is utilized to improve the PF of Boost PFC
operated at CRM. It has been pointed out that the poor PF is due to the input current phase
lead caused by the presence of an input capacitor. It can increase PF by producing a lagging
current utilizing a variable inductor to compensate for the input current phase lead. In [28],
the power of the fluorescent lamp is adjusted by controlling the inductance value to achieve
the purpose of dimming, thereby enhancing the linear dimming range and achieving high
efficiency and high PF. A unidirectional resonant switched-capacitor step-up converter
for OLED driving is proposed in [29]. This converter combines a variable inductor with a
capacitor in series to control the OLED current and adjust the brightness.
Variable inductor technology is a technique that can change the magnitude of induc-
tance by controlling the saturation level of the inductance core to operate the inductance
in a nonlinear region, thereby changing the magnetic permeability of the magnetic cir-
cuit and achieving changes in inductance value. In recent years, some scholars have also
conducted research on inductors working in nonlinear regions in switch-mode power
supplies and proposed corresponding analysis methods to better understand their working
characteristics and their effect on converter systems.
A method for estimating the current flowing through nonlinear power inductors in
DC/DC converters was proposed in [31] and applied to Boost converters. The proposed
method uses a polynomial third-order inductor model to estimate the current distribution
at which the inductor reaches saturation, providing a complete evaluation of the current,
including distribution, peak value, root mean square value, and spectrum. In [32], a
dedicated measurement rig was developed to reflect the behavior of inductance during
saturation and temperature rise. And it is pointed out that the saturation current and loss
of the inductor decrease and increase respectively with the increase in temperature.
To achieve a high power factor while maintaining a low intermediate capacitor voltage
and ensuring high efficiency with wide input voltages, by operating the input inductor at
DCM and the output inductor at CRM, a DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter utilizing variable
inductor control is proposed in this paper, wherein the input inductance value is precisely
regulated by DC magnetic flux bias. According to [33–35], when the inductor in a Boost
converter operates in DCM, the converter can inherently realize PFC without the need for
additional control circuitry. Furthermore, studies in [36,37] indicate that a Buck converter
operating in CRM exhibits higher efficiency compared to its operation in DCM. Given that
the input stage of a Cuk converter is analogous to a Boost converter and its output stage
mirrors a Buck converter, the Cuk converter inherently benefits from these advantageous
characteristics. Therefore, this paper configures the input inductor to operate in DCM and
the output inductor in CRM.
 converter and its output stage mirrors a Buck converter, the Cuk converter inherently
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484
benefits from these advantageous characteristics. Therefore, this paper configures the
4 of 24
input inductor to operate in DCM and the output inductor in CRM.
A detailed analysis of the converter topological principle, control strategy, and
operational characteristics
A detailed is provided
analysis of the converterintopological
this paper. To validate
principle, thestrategy,
control probabilityand of the
opera-
proposed approach, ais108
tional characteristics W experimental
provided prototype
in this paper. was built
To validate and tested. of
the probability Thethetest results
proposed
confirmed the accuracy of the theoretical analysis and demonstrated the effectiveness
approach, a 108 W experimental prototype was built and tested. The test results confirmed of
the
the proposed
accuracy ofcontrol method.analysis
the theoretical The experimental results the
and demonstrated demonstrate thatofthe
effectiveness theproposed
proposed
converter not only reduces the intermediate capacitor voltage but
control method. The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed converter also enhances the not
PF
and
onlyimproves
reduces theefficiency with wide
intermediate input voltages.
capacitor voltage but also enhances the PF and improves
This paper is organized into
efficiency with wide input voltages. 5 sections. In Section 2, the characteristics and operating
principles of the is
This paper conventional
organized intoDCM-CRM Cuk
5 sections. PFC converter
In Section are presented.and
2, the characteristics In Section
operating3,
the
principles of the conventional DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter are presented. In Section a3,
proposed DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter with VI control is introduced, including
detailed explanation
the proposed DCM-CRM of its
Cuk operational
PFC converterprinciples
with VIand analysis
control of key features.
is introduced, includingAa
comprehensive comparison of experimental results of the conventional and
detailed explanation of its operational principles and analysis of key features. A compre-proposed Cuk
PFC converters
hensive comparison is also provided in Section
of experimental 4, the
results of andconventional
the conclusionsand are summarized
proposed Cuk PFC in
Section 5.
converters is also provided in Section 4, and the conclusions are summarized in Section 5.

2. Operation
2. Operation Principle
Principle of
of the
the Conventional
Conventional DCM-CRM
DCM-CRM Cuk
Cuk PFC
PFC
The main
The maincircuit
circuitconfiguration
configurationofofthetheconventional
conventionalDCM-CRM
DCM-CRM CukCuk PFC
PFC converter
converter is
is depicted
depicted in Figure
in Figure 1. As
1. As illustrated,
illustrated, the the
mainmain components
components include
include a rectifier
a rectifier bridge,
bridge, an
an input
input LC filter
LC filter Lf C
Lf and and Cf ,power
f, two two power D0 andDD01,and
diodesdiodes D1 , aswitch
a power powerSswitch S1 , inductor
1, an input an input
Linductor L1 , an output
1, an output inductor inductor
L2 with L2 with auxiliary
auxiliary winding
winding for for zero
zero currentdetection,
current detection, an
an
intermediate capacitor C , and an output capacitor
intermediate capacitor C11, and an output capacitor C22. C .

ZCD

+ -
-
+
+
-

Figure 1.
Figure Main power
1. Main power circuit
circuit of
of the
the conventional
conventional DCM-CRM
DCM-CRM Cuk
Cuk PFC
PFC converter.
converter.

The operating
The operating waveforms
waveforms of ofthetheconventional
conventionalDCM-CRM
DCM-CRM Cuk
CukPFC converter
PFC areare
converter de-
picted in in
depicted Figure 2. From
Figure top top
2. From to bottom, the waveforms
to bottom, illustrate
the waveforms the switching
illustrate drive signal
the switching drive
V g ,
signalthe input inductor current iL1 ,
Vg, the input inductor current and the output inductor current
iL1, and the output inductorL2 i . The DCM-CRM Cuk
current iL2. The DCM-
PFC converter
CRM undergoesundergoes
Cuk PFC converter three distinct
threeoperating modes within
distinct operating modeseach switching
within cycle.
each switching
Mode I (0–t0 ): During this interval, the drive signal V g activates the switch, causing
cycle.
the voltage at the left terminal of the intermediate storage capacitor C1 to drop rapidly to
zero. And since the voltage at the two ends of the capacitor cannot be changed abruptly,
the voltage at the right end of the capacitor becomes negative. This results in the diode D1
being subjected to reverse voltage, thereby turning it off. The AC power source charges
the input inductor L1 through diode D0 and switch S1 . Simultaneously, the intermediate
energy storage capacitor C1 powers the output inductor L2 , output capacitor C2 , and load
via the S1 . The increasing slopes of the currents flowing through the input and output
inductors can be expressed as
di L1 v
= Rec (1)
dt L1
di L2 V − Vo
= C1 (2)
dt L2
where vrec denotes the rectified voltage; V C1 represents the voltage across the intermediate
capacitor C1 ; and V o indicates the output voltage.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 5 of 25
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 5 of 24

Mode Ⅰ Ⅱ Ⅲ

Figure 2. Key operation waveforms.

Figure 2. Key operation waveforms.
Mode II (t0 –t1 ): In this mode, the driving signal V g turns off the switch, while diode
Mode Iin
D0 remains (0−t 0): During this interval, the drive signal Vg activates the switch, causing
conduction. Diode D1 is subjected to a positive voltage, initiating conduction
the voltage at the left terminal
to provide access to the input circuit. of the intermediate
The rectifiedstorage
voltagecapacitor
vrec and C 1 to drop rapidly to
the input inductor L1
zero.
commence charging the intermediate capacitor C1 through D0 and Dchanged
And since the voltage at the two ends of the capacitor cannot be abruptly,
1 . Meanwhile, the
the voltage
output at the right
capacitor end of
C2 stores the capacitor
energy transferredbecomes
fromnegative.
the output This results in
inductor L2 .the diode
The rateDof
1

being subjected to reverse voltage, thereby turning it

voltage decrease across both input and output inductors can be expressed asoff. The AC power source charges
the input inductor L1 through diode D0 and switch S1. Simultaneously, the intermediate
energy storage capacitor C1 powers the V − vRec L2, output capacitor C2, and load
di L1output
= C1 inductor (3)
via the S1. The increasing slopes of the currents dt L1flowing through the input and output
inductors can be expressed as
di L2 Vo
= (4)
dtL1 = vLRec
di 2
(1)
Mode III (t1 –t2 ): The input inductordtcurrent L1 iL1 drops to zero, causing diode D0 to
turn off, while diode D1 remains conducting. During this phase, the output inductor L2
supplies the load through D1 , formingdithe V − Vo
L 2 output and the current iL2 continues to
= C1 circuit, (2)
decrease. When the output inductor current dt i L2L2reaches zero, it is detected by the zero-
crossing detection (ZCD) module. This triggers the driving signal V g to turn on the switch,
where vrec denotes
transitioning L2 totheCRM,rectified voltage; V
and initiating C1 represents the voltage across the intermediate
the next operating cycle of the converter.
capacitor C 1; and Vo indicates the output voltage.
According to Equation (1), during one switching cycle, the peak current iL1_pk (t)
Mode
through theIIinput
(t0−t1):inductor
In this mode,
L1 can the driving signal
be expressed as Vg turns off the switch, while diode
D0 remains in conduction. Diode D1 is subjected to a positive voltage, initiating conduction
to provide access to the input circuit. The rectified V |sin(ωt )|
voltage vrec and the input inductor L1
i L1_pk (t) = M ton (5)
L
commence charging the intermediate capacitor C1 1 through D0 and D1. Meanwhile, the
output capacitor C2 stores energy transferred from the output inductor L2. The rate of
where ton is the turn-on time of switch S1 within one switching period, it is critical for deter-
voltage decrease across both input and output inductors can be expressed as
mining the peak current iL1_pk (t) through the input inductor L1 . V M is the amplitude value
of the AC input voltage. ω is the angular V − vof the AC input voltage. The discharge
diL1frequency
time toff1 of iL1 can be derived from thedtvolt–second
= C1 Rec (3)
L balance of the input inductor L1 .
1

VM |sin(ωt)|
to f f = Vo ton (6)
1
(VC1di−L 2V=
M |sin( ωt )|) (4)
dt L2
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 6 of 24

Thus, based on (5) and (6), the input current iin (t) is represented by the average current
iL1 (t) flowing through the input inductor during the switching cycle. Consequently, the
input current can be given as

i L1_pk (ton + to f f 1 ) VM ton 2 |sin(ωt)|

|iin (t)| = i L1 (t) = = (7)
2Ts 2Ts L1 [1 − VVM |sin(ωt)|]
C1

where Ts is the switching period and toff1 is the time for the input inductor current to
drop to zero. According to (2), the peak current iL2_pk (t) of the output inductor L2 can be
expressed as
(V − Vo )
i L2_pk (t) = C1 ton (8)
L2
The average output inductor current is equivalent to the output current; hence, the
output current Io can be expressed as

i L2_pk (ton + to f f 2 )
Io = i L2 (t) = (9)
2Ts

where toff2 is the discharge time for the output inductor current to drop to zero. Based on the
volt–second balance of inductor L2 , the L2 discharge time toff2 formula can be expressed as

VC1 − Vo
to f f 2 = ton (10)
Vo

As shown in Figure 2, the output inductor operates in CRM mode, and from Equation
(9), the peak current iL2_pk (t) of the inductor L2 can also be expressed as

i L2_pk (t) = 2IO (11)

Substituting Equation (10) into Equation (9) yields an expression for the conduction
time ton of the switch as s
2Ts L2 Vo Io
ton = (12)
(VC1 − Vo )VC1
Neglecting the voltage ripple of the intermediate capacitor, Equations (8) and (11)
indicate that, when the converter is delivering energy to the load, the conduction time ton
of S1 can also be expressed as
2IO L2
ton = (13)
VC1 − Vo
When the switch is turned off, by associating Equations (10) and (13), the turn-off time
Toff of switch S1 is obtained as

2IO L2
To f f = to f f 2 = (14)
Vo

From (5), it can be seen that the discharge time of the inductor L1 is the longest when
iL1_pk (t) reaches the maximum at |sin(ωt)| = 1 in a half-line cycle, and the longest discharge
time toffmax can be expressed as

2IO L2 VM
to f f max = (15)
(VC1 − VM )(VC1 − Vo )
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 7 of 24

Inductor L1 can be operated in DCM mode for the entire frequency cycle by making
it operate in DCM mode at the peak input voltage. The conditions for the inductor L1 to
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 operate in DCM mode can be expressed as 8 of 25

to f f max < To f f (16)


2 under
By associating (15) and (16), the condition 2
(t ) the inductor L1 works in DCM
sin which
can be obtained as 
 0 1  VM sin(t )
d (t )
VC1 > VM + Vo (17)
2 Pin VC1
PF   (20)
Without considering theVconverter
I losses,
 it can 2be obtained based on the conservation
sin (t )

M in _ RMS
of input power and output power: d (t )
VM
0 [1  sin(t ) ]2
1
Zπ C1
V
Pin = iin (t)VM |sin(ωt)|d(ωt) = Vo Io (18)
According to (19), the magnitude π of VC1 can be computed using an iterative method
0
once the load parameters are established. Figure 3 illustrates the variations in the PF and
According to
the intermediate (7) and (12),
capacitor voltageEquation (18) canofbethe
as functions rewritten
effectiveasinput voltage Vin_RMS for
different ratios of K. From Figure 3, it is evident that, for a constant K, VC1 increases with
2 Zπ 2
2
the increase in Vin_RMS. Concurrently, KV M sin
within the range (ωt) of 90 Vac to 240 Vac, the PF
· d(ωt) = 1 (19)
( VC1 − V ) 2πU
o Vin_RMS rises.
C1 V M
experiences a slight decrease as Additionally,
0 1− |sin(ωt)|for a given V in_RMS, VC1 rises with
V
an increase in the ratio K, while the PF diminishesC1as K decreases.
TheKcritical
where = L2 /L1value
. Basedof on
theEquation
K value when
(7), thetheexpression
inductor operates
of PF caninbeDCM mode under
expressed as the
entire AC input voltage range and given load r can be determined by the limiting condition
2
Equation (17) for the input inductor operating 2 Rπ insinDCM (ωt) mode and the relationship
d(ωt)
Equation (19) for the intermediate capacitorπ 0 voltage V
√ 1 − M |under sin(ωt)|the conventional control
method. When K equals 2Pin this threshold, the
or exceeds VC1inductor operates in DCM mode;(20) if
PF = = v
V M I in_RMS
K is below this threshold, the inductor operates
u π
R sin 2
( )
in CCM mode. Therefore, the variation
ωt
d(ωt)
u
u 2
curve can be obtained from the obtained t K value
0 VMEquation (19),
and as shown in Figure 3.
[1 − |sin(ωt)|]
It can be seen that VC1 is only related to the value of VC1K under a certain load condition. In
the region of K < 1.4, L1 operates in CCM mode, and in the region of K ≥ 1.4, L1 operates in
According to (19), the magnitude of VC1 can be computed using an iterative method
DCM mode.
once the load parameters are established. Figure 3 illustrates the variations in the PF and
To ensure that the input inductor L1 operates within the DCM mode constraints, and
the intermediate capacitor voltage as functions of the effective input voltage V in_RMS for
based on the analysis from Figure 3, it was observed that when 1.4 < K< 3.6, the PF remains
different ratios of K. From Figure 3, it is evident that, for a constant K, VC1 increases with the
above 0.96. As the input voltage is fixed, the intermediate capacitor voltage VC1 increases
increase in V in_RMS . Concurrently, within the range of 90 Vac to 240 Vac, the PF experiences
with the rise in the K value, necessitating a higher withstanding voltage rating for the
a slight decrease as V in_RMS rises. Additionally, for a given V in_RMS , VC1 rises with an
intermediate storage capacitor C1.
increase in the ratio K, while the PF diminishes as K decreases.

1 800

0.98 700

0.96 K=3.6 600

K=2.8
K=2.05
0.94 K=1.4 500
PF

0.92 400

0.9 300

0.88 200
90 120 150 180 210 240
Vin_RMS(V)

Figure 3. The relation curves of V in_RMS and PF, VC1 with different ratios K.
Figure 3. The relation curves of Vin_RMS and PF, VC1 with different ratios K.

According to the above derivation of the VC1 and PF value of the conventional
converter, it can be known that both the PF and the intermediate capacitor voltage are
influenced by the ratio K = L2/L1. An increase in the ratio K leads to a higher PF, however,
it simultaneously results in an elevation of the VC1. Based on the comprehensive
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 8 of 24

The critical value of the K value when the inductor operates in DCM mode under the
entire AC input voltage range and given load can be determined by the limiting condition
Equation (17) for the input inductor operating in DCM mode and the relationship Equation
(19) for the intermediate capacitor voltage under the conventional control method. When
K equals or exceeds this threshold, the inductor operates in DCM mode; if K is below
this threshold, the inductor operates in CCM mode. Therefore, the variation curve can be
obtained from the obtained K value and Equation (19), as shown in Figure 3. It can be seen
that VC1 is only related to the value of K under a certain load condition. In the region of
K < 1.4, L1 operates in CCM mode, and in the region of K ≥ 1.4, L1 operates in DCM mode.
To ensure that the input inductor L1 operates within the DCM mode constraints, and
based on the analysis from Figure 3, it was observed that when 1.4 < K< 3.6, the PF remains
above 0.96. As the input voltage is fixed, the intermediate capacitor voltage V C1 increases
with the rise in the K value, necessitating a higher withstanding voltage rating for the
intermediate storage capacitor C1 .
According to the above derivation of the VC1 and PF value of the conventional con-
verter, it can be known that both the PF and the intermediate capacitor voltage are influ-
enced by the ratio K = L2 /L1 . An increase in the ratio K leads to a higher PF, however,
it simultaneously results in an elevation of the VC1 . Based on the comprehensive com-
parison of PF and the intermediate capacitor voltage, K = 2.05 was selected in this paper.
However, Capacitors rated above 450 V are expensive and offer lower cost-effectiveness.
Consequently, achieving both a high PF and a low intermediate capacitor voltage becomes
challenging. To address this problem, a DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter based on variable
inductor control which dynamically adjusts the input inductor in response to variations in
the transient rectified input voltage is proposed in this paper. Since both the PF and VC1
are related to the ratio K, it is possible to change the inductance of L1 during the half-line
cycle and change the ratio K in real time. In contrast to the conventional Cuk PFC converter,
the converter proposed in this paper utilizes a variable inductor as the input inductor.
The inductance is dynamically adjusted according to a specific control strategy to achieve
a high power factor while effectively reducing the voltage of the intermediate capacitor.
Concurrently, the output inductor current remains constant, leading to a reduction in peak
inductor current compared to the approach. This decrease in current stress and switching
losses subsequently enhances the overall efficiency of the converter.

3. Operating Principle and Performance of DCM-CRM Cuk PFC

Converter Utilizing VI Control
3.1. Operating Principle of VI
The principle of the variable inductor is based on the core structure characteristics,
wherein a bias winding is integrated with the main winding of the power inductor. By
injecting DC current through the bias winding, the saturation level of certain sections of
the magnetic circuit can be controlled. This, in turn, alters the magnetic permeability of
those sections, thereby allowing the overall inductance value to be adjusted. The variable
inductor employed in this study utilizes an EI core, with its basic schematic diagram
presented in Figure 4. The main winding of the input inductor is wound with n3 turns on
the center leg of the EI core, while an air gap of l0 is introduced. To control the inductance,
auxiliary windings are symmetrically wound on both outer legs of the EI core. Each
auxiliary winding consists of an equal number of turns, denoted as n1 and n2 , respectively.
An air gap is introduced in the center leg of the EI core, altering its permeability. The
relative permeability of the center leg is denoted as µ3 , while the permeability of the air gap
is represented by µ0 . To minimize the induced electromotive force in the auxiliary windings
caused by changes in the main winding current, the auxiliary windings are wound with
 auxiliary winding consists of an equal number of turns, denoted as n1 and n2, respectively.
An air gap is introduced in the center leg of the EI core, altering its permeability. The
relative permeability of the center leg is denoted as µ3, while the permeability of the air
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 9 of 24
gap is represented by µ0. To minimize the induced electromotive force in the auxiliary
windings caused by changes in the main winding current, the auxiliary windings are
wound
an equalwith an equal
number number
of turns of left
on the turns onright
and the left and
outer right
legs outer
of the legsThese
core. of thewindings
core. These
are
windings are connected in series with opposite polarities. The relative permeabilities
connected in series with opposite polarities. The relative permeabilities of the left and right of
the leftlegs
outer andare
right outer as
denoted legs
µ are
anddenoted as µ1 and µ2, respectively.
µ , respectively.
1 2

1 bias 3 2

n1 n3 n2

Lv
ibias

iLV LV
 1、 A1、l 1  3、 A3、l 3  0、 A0、l 0  2、 A2、l 2

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Variable inductor L
Variable inductor LV with EI
V with EI core.
core.

In Figure
In Figure 4,4, ll33,, ll11,,ll22, ,and
andl0l0represent
representthe
thelengths
lengthsof
ofthe
thecenter
centerleg,
leg, the
the left
left outer
outer leg,
leg, the
the
right outer leg, and the air gap, respectively, where l = l . The areas of the
right outer leg, and the air gap, respectively, where l11 = l22. The areas of the center leg, left center leg, left
outer leg, and right outer leg are denoted as A3 , A1 , and A2 , respectively. The cross-sectional
area of the air gap is represented as A0 , with A1 = A2 , A3 = A0 . The magnetic fluxes in the
center leg, left outer leg, and right outer leg are denoted as Φ3 , Φ1 , and Φ2 , respectively.
According to Kirchhoff’s second law, the relationship between the magnetomotive
force F and magnetoresistance R can be obtained.

F = iN = Hl = ΦR (21)

According to the formula derived from the variable inductance flux theory in [22], the
magnetic flux of the main winding of the variable inductance of the EI magnetic core can
be obtained as follows

( R2 − R1 ) n1 i1 + ( R2 + R1 ) n3 i3
Φ3 = (22)
R1 R2 + ( R1 + R2 )( R3 + R0 )

According to Equation (22), the fundamental expression for the variable inductor
model depicted in Figure 4 can be derived as follows
" # −1
n3 Φ3 l1 l3 l0
LV = = ( )+( )+( ) (23)
i3 2µ0 µvar A1 n23 µ0 µ3 A3 n23 µ0 A3 n23

When selecting the magnetic core, the number of winding turns, the effective length
of the magnetic circuit, and the effective cross-sectional area for magnetic flux are prede-
termined. Once the air gap l0 is determined, only the core permeability, µvar =µ1 = µ2 , is
variable, and it changes in response to the bias current ibias .
When ibias is applied to n1 and n2 , a bias magnetic flux Φbias is established along the
outer legs of the EI core. As Φbias increases, the permeability of the core along this path
decreases, and the magnetic flux Φbias shifts the operating point on the B-H curve toward
the nonlinear saturation region. Concurrently, the passage of iLV through n3 induces a main
magnetic flux ΦLV .
The primary inductor LV , as shown in Equation (23), is influenced by the permeability
of both the center and outer legs, since ΦLV flows through both legs. As a result, the bias
current ibias reduces the effective permeability of the outer legs, leading to a decrease in the
main inductor LV .
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 10 of 24

3.2. Operation Principle of DCM-CRM Cuk PFC Converter Based on Variable Inductor Control
Observing the input current Equation (7), if the input inductor of the DCM-CRM
Cuk PFC converter can be a variable inductor whose inductance varies according to the
following Formula (24), the input current will be an ideal sinusoid.

Linitial
LV = VM
(24)
[1 − VC1 |sin( ωt )|]

where Linitial is a constant value.

Based on the variable inductance in Expression (24), a DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter
utilizing variable inductor control is proposed as illustrated in Figure 5. This converter re-
places the conventional input inductor with a variable inductor and integrates a calculation
unit and a control unit to dynamically adjust the input inductance of the converter. The
main power circuit components of the proposed DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter are almost
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 identical to the conventional DCM-CRM Cuk converter, except for replacing the constant 11 of 25
input inductor with a variable input inductor.

ZCD

+ -
-

Driver Output Voltage

Q Sampling
Input SR Flip-Flop
R S C
Voltage R
ZCD
Sampling
0 t
-
+
-

Comparator +
Error Amplifier

ADC
Output Regulation Circuit

and Variable Inductor Bias Voltage +

numerical value DAC
Calculation Unit -
Calculation Unit

Variable Inductor
Calculation Unit of Variable Inductor LV Control Circuit

5. Control
Figure 5.
Figure Controlcircuit
circuitfor
forDCM-CRM
DCM-CRMCuk
CukPFC Converter
PFC with
Converter variable
with inductor.
variable inductor.

The control circuit of the proposed converter primarily comprises an output regulation
The control circuit of the proposed converter primarily comprises an output
circuit, a calculation unit of the variable inductor to obtain the value of input variable
regulation circuit, a calculation unit of the variable inductor to obtain the value of input
inductor LV , and a variable inductor control circuit to control the bias current flowing
variable inductor LV, and a variable inductor control circuit to control the bias current
through the bias winding of outer legs. The output regulation circuit utilizes voltage mode
flowing through the bias winding of outer legs. The output regulation circuit utilizes
control, while the calculation unit of the variable inductor is achieved by a digital control
voltage
board withmode an control, while the calculation
STM32 microcontroller. unit of the
The variable variable
inductor inductor
control is achieved
circuit primarilyby a
digital
includes control board with
an operational an STM32
amplifier, microcontroller.
a power Mosfet S2 , andThe variable
a bias inductor
resistor Rbias . control circuit
primarily includes
The output erroransignal
operational amplifier,
is generated a powerthe
by amplifying Mosfet S2, and
difference a biasthe
between resistor Rbias.
feedback
signalThe output
of the outputerror
voltagesignal is generated
sampling circuit andbythe amplifying the V
reference voltage difference between the
ref . This error signal
feedback signal of the output voltage sampling circuit and the reference
is then fed to the negative input of the comparator. When the output inductor current drops voltage Vref. This
error
to zerosignal
moment, is then
ZCD fed to the negative
auxiliary windinginput of experiences
voltage the comparator. a highWhen
to lowthe output
jump inductor
variation.
current drops
At this time, toRS
the zero moment,
flip-flop ZCD
detects theauxiliary winding
level variation of voltage experiences
ZCD auxiliary winding a high to low
at this
moment,
jump then S1 At
variation. is turned on, and
this time, the then the current
RS flip-flop source
detects theIdclevel
by charging
variation theofcapacitor C3
ZCD auxiliary
so that theatcapacitor
winding voltagethen
this moment, continues to rise on,
S1 is turned untiland
it exceeds
then the thecurrent
error signal.
sourceFurthermore,
Idc by charging
the capacitor C3 so that the capacitor voltage continues to rise until it exceeds the error
signal. Furthermore, the RS flip-flop output is low level to make the switch off, so the
output inductor current iL2 is linearly down, and so on. The inductance of the input
variable inductor LV is determined by the calculation result of the calculation unit of the
 Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 11 of 24

the RS flip-flop output is low level to make the switch off, so the output inductor current iL2
is linearly down, and so on. The inductance of the input variable inductor LV is determined
by the calculation result of the calculation unit of the variable inductor with the input signal
of the sampled rectified input voltage and the calculated intermediate capacitor voltage.
The bias voltage of the input signal of the variable inductor control circuit is converted from
the digital output signal of the calculation unit of the variable inductor unit to an analog
signal by the DAC block. This bias voltage V bias is then converted into a bias current ibias
by a voltage-controlled current source comprising an operational amplifier, a bias resistor
Rbias , and a MOSFET S2 operating in saturation mode. The resulting bias current ibias is
subsequently injected into the auxiliary winding of the variable input inductor LV through
the variable inductor control circuit, thereby achieving the desired inductance value.
The proposed converter is operated in DCM-CRM mode. Figure 6 shows the key
waveforms of the output inductor current iL2 and the input inductor current iLV as well
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 12 of 25
as the timing of the switch drive signal during the half-line cycle. The LV operates in the
DCM mode and the output inductor L2 operates in the CRM mode.

iLV _ pk
iLV
iLV _ av

t

Vg
t
iL 2 Io
t

6. Key
Figure 6.
Figure Keywaveforms
waveformsininhalf-line
half-linecycle.
cycle.
3.3. Input Inductor Variation Range
3.3. Input Inductor Variation Range
Based on the condition that the input inductor operates in DCM and the subsequent
Based
analysis, on thewith
coupled condition thatparameters
the circuit the input inductor operates
detailed in Table 1,inanDCM
initialand theLsubsequent
value initial of
170 µH was chosen for the variable inductor LV . According to (24) and considering Lthe
analysis, coupled with the circuit parameters detailed in Table 1, an initial value initial of

170 µH wasbetween
relationship chosen forthe the variable inductor
intermediate capacitorLvoltage
V. According
V C1 andto the
(24)input
and considering
voltage, the the
relationship between the intermediate capacitor voltage V and the
variation range of the inductor LV over a half-line cycle can be depicted as illustrated
C1 input voltage, in the
Figure 7. range of the inductor LV over a half-line cycle can be depicted as illustrated in
variation
Figure 7. be seen from Figure 7 that when the input voltage varies from 90 Vac to 240 Vac,
It can
the variable inductor varies from about 170 µH to 930 µH. The LV varies with the rectifier
input930voltage within the half-line cycle.
To verify the relationship between the bias current and the inductance of the input
240V
variable
740 inductor prototype, a DC bias current, which is created by connecting a DC voltage
220V
source in series with an electronic load operating in constant current mode, is applied to the
bias550
winding of the variable inductor, then the real inductance of input variable inductor
is measured by the Chroma 110V
3302 component analyzer. According to measurement data,
the 360
relationship curve of the bias current and the variable inductance is shown in Figure 8.
When the bias current increases from 90V 0 A to 1 A, the variation range of the variable inductor
is from
170
170 µH to 1050 µH. When the DC current injected into the bias winding is 0, the
0
permeability of the left and right outer leg µvar is not affected, and the inductance value is
about 1050 µH. With the gradual increase in the bias current, the permeability of the left

Figure 7. The variation range of the input inductor LV.

Table 1. Key Circuit Parameters.

 iLV _ pk
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 iLV 12 of 24
iLV _ av

and right outer leg µvar decreases, and the variable inductance also decreases. When the
bias current reaches the designed maximum of 1 A. The minimum variable inductance
is 170 µH. Therefore, the desired input inductance can be controlled by the bias current
according to the control curve shown in Figure 8. t

Vg
Table 1. Key Circuit Parameters.
t
iL 2 Design Parameter Value
Io
Input voltage V in_RMS /V 90~240
Grid frequency f L /Hz t 50
n3 :n1 :n2 (EI40 core) 37:80:80
Figure 6. Key waveforms in half-line cycle.
Rated output current Io /A 1.5
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 Output voltage V o /V 72 13 of 25
3.3.Variable
Input Inductor Variation
input inductor Range Cuk PFC) LV /µH
(proposed 170~930
BasedInput inductor
on the (conventional)
condition L1 /µHinductor operates in DCM
that the input 170 and the subsequent
Output inductor L2 /µH 350
analysis, coupledseenwith
beIntermediate theFigure
circuit7 parameters
capacitor C detailed
input in Table varies
1, 220
an initial
from value
90 VacLinitial of
It can from 1 /µF
that when the voltage to 240
170
Vac,µH thewas chosen
variable Outputforcapacitor
inductorthevaries
variable
C2 /µF
frominductor LV. According
about 170 µH to 930 toµH.(24)
200
Theand
LVconsidering
varies with the the
relationship between Diodes
the D , D
intermediate
0 1 capacitor voltage V STTH12R06FP
C1 and the input voltage, the
rectifier input voltage Mainwithin
switchtheS1half-line cycle. FCP190N60
variation range of the inductor
To verify the relationship LV over a half-line cycle canIRLR3410TRPBF
Mosfet S2 between the bias current and
be
thedepicted as illustrated
inductance of the input in
Figure
variable 7. inductor prototype, a DC bias current, which is created by connecting a DC
voltage source in series with an electronic load operating in constant current mode, is
930
applied to the bias winding of the variable inductor, then the real inductance of input
240V
variable inductor is measured by the Chroma 3302 component analyzer. According to
740
measurement data, the relationship
220V curve of the bias current and the variable inductance
is shown in Figure 8. When the bias current increases from 0 A to 1 A, the variation range
550
of the variable inductor is from 170 µH to 1050 µH. When the DC current injected into the
110V
bias winding is 0, the permeability of the left and right outer leg µvar is not affected, and
360
the inductance value is about 105090V µH. With the gradual increase in the bias current, the
permeability of the left and right outer leg µvar decreases, and the variable inductance also
170
decreases.
0 When the bias current reaches the designed maximum of 1 A. The minimum
variable inductance is 170 µH. Therefore, the desired input inductance can be controlled
by the7.bias
Figure The current
variation according to theinductor
range of the input controlLVcurve
. shown in Figure 8.
Figure 7. The variation range of the input inductor LV.

1200
Table 1. Key Circuit Parameters.
1050
Design Parameter Value
800 Input voltage Vin_RMS/V 90~240
LV(µH)

Measured value of variable

Grid frequency fL/Hz 50
inductor with different bias current
600 n3:n1:n2 (EI40 core) 37:80:80
Rated output current Io/A 1.5
400 Output voltage Vo/V 72
Variable input inductor (proposed Cuk PFC) LV/µH 170~930
200 Input inductor (conventional) L1/µH 170
170
Output inductor L2/µH 350
0 Intermediate
0.2 0.4 capacitor
0.6 C1/µF 1
0.8 220
Output ibiascapacitor
(A) C2/µF 200
Diodes D0, D1 STTH12R06FP
Figure 8. The relationship of the bias current and the variable inductance.
Figure 8. The relationship of the
Main bias current
switch S1 and the variable inductance. FCP190N60
Mosfet S2 IRLR3410TRPBF
3.4. Input Current and Peak Current of Input Inductor Analysis
According to (7) and (24), the input current for the proposed converter can be
expressed as
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 13 of 24

3.4. Input Current and Peak Current of Input Inductor Analysis

According to (7) and (24), the input current for the proposed converter can be ex-
pressed as
V ton 2 |sin(ωt)|
iin_V I (t) = M (25)
2Ts Linitial
By substituting Equations (13) and (24) into Equation (5), the peak value of the input
inductor current for the proposed converter can be derived as
h i
VM
2IO L2 VM 1 − VC1 |sin( ωt )| |sin(ωt)|
i LV_pk (t) = (26)
Linitial (VC1 − Vo )

According to (7) and (25), the theoretical waveforms of input current iin_VI (t) with
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 14 of 25
variable inductor control and input current iin (t) with conventional control are shown in
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 Figure 9 for 110 V and 220 V input voltages. Figure 9 shows that the input 14 current
of 25 under
conventional control is severely distorted, and the input current of the proposed converter
with variable inductor control is a standard sinusoidal waveform. In theory, the proposed
with variable inductor control is a standard sinusoidal waveform. In theory, the proposed
DCM-CRM
with Cuk PFCcontrol
variable inductor converter with variable
is a standard inductor
sinusoidal control
waveform. can achieve
In theory, unit PF.
the proposed
DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter with variable inductor control can achieve unit PF.
DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter with variable inductor control can achieve unit PF.
1.75
1.75
1.4
1.4
1.05
1.05
0.7
0.7 Conventional Cuk PFC
0.35
in(A)

Conventional
110VCuk PFC
220V
0.35
IinI(A)

0 110V 220V
0 110V 220V
Proposed220V
−0.35 Proposed
110V Cuk PFC
−0.35 Cuk PFC
−0.7
−0.7
−1.05
−1.05
−1.4
−1.4
−1.75
−1.75
00 π/2π/2 π π 3π/2 3π/2 2π 2π

Figure 9. Theoretical waveform of input current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage for both conventional
Figure 9. Theoretical waveform of input current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage for both
Figure 9. Theoretical
and proposed waveform of input current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage for both
converters.
conventional and proposed converters.
conventional and proposed converters.
From Equations (5) and (26), the envelope curves of the peak input inductor current
From Equations (26) and (5), the envelope curves of the peak input inductor current
iLV_pk (t) with variable
iLV_pk(t) withEquations
From inductor
(26)
variable inductor (5),control
andcontrol theand and peak
envelope
peak input
input
curves inductor
of the
inductor
current
peak input
current
iL1_pk (t)
inductor
iL1_pk(t) with
with
current
conventional control
iLV_pk(t) withcontrol
conventional variable are shown
inductor
are shown in Figure
control
in Figure 10
and
10 for for a half-line
peak input
a half-line cycle at
cycle atinductor 110 V
110 V andcurrent and 220 V input
iL1_pk(t) with
220 V input
voltages.As
conventional
voltages. Asshown
shown
control inare
in Figure
shown
Figure 10, in
10, the peak
peak input
theFigure 10 forinductor
input current
a half-line
inductor cycle of
current of the
at theproposed
110 V and 220converter
proposed V input
is significantly
voltages.isAs
converter reduced, which
shown inreduced,
significantly is
Figurewhich conducive
10, the to reducing
peak input
is conducive the
inductor
to reducing current
thecurrent stress on the switch
of theonproposed
current stress
the
andswitch
thus and
converter thus improving
improving the efficiency
the efficiency
is significantly reduced, the of
ofwhich theconducive
converter. to reducing the current stress on
converter.
is
the switch and thus improving the efficiency of the converter.
6
Conventional Cuk PFC
(A) (A)

56 110V
220V Cuk PFC
Conventional
& iLV_pk

45 110V 220V
iLV_pk

34
iL1_pk&(A)

23
110V 220V
iL1_pk(A)

1 Proposed Cuk PFC

2
0 110V 220V
10 π/2 π
Proposed Cuk PFC

Figure010. Envelope curves of input inductor peak currents iL1_pk (t) and iLV_pk (t) at 110 V and 220 V
Figure 10. 0 π (t) at 110 V and 220 V
π/2 peak currents iL1_pk(t) and iLV_pk
Envelope curves of input inductor
input voltages.
input voltages.

3.5. Intermediate
Figure Capacitor
10. Envelope Voltage
curves Analysis
of input inductor peak currents iL1_pk(t) and iLV_pk(t) at 110 V and 220 V
inputDue to the conservation of power, by substituting Equation (25) into Equation (18),
voltages.
the relationship between the input voltage of the converter and the intermediate capacitor
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 14 of 24

3.5. Intermediate Capacitor Voltage Analysis

Due to the conservation of power, by substituting Equation (25) into Equation (18),
the relationship between the input voltage of the converter and the intermediate capacitor
voltage can be derived as

Zπ
L2 2 V 2
· · M sin2 (ωt)d(ωt) = 1 (27)
Linitial (VC1 − Vo ) 2πVC1
0
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 15 of 25
To compare the variation of the intermediate capacitor voltage with the input voltage
after adopting the variable inductor with L2 /Linitial = K = 2.05. By applying Equations
conventional
(19) and (27),and
the proposed
comparisonconverters
curves forarethe
illustrated in Figure
intermediate 11. From
capacitor Figure
voltage 11, itthe
of both is
evident that the
conventional andintermediate capacitor voltage
proposed converters of the proposed
are illustrated in Figureconverter
11. From isFigure
lower11,
across
it is
the input
evident voltage
that range of 90
the intermediate V to 240
capacitor V, inofcontrast
voltage to theconverter
the proposed conventional Cukacross
is lower PFC
converter.
the input voltage range of 90 V to 240 V, in contrast to the conventional Cuk PFC converter.

600

500
Conventional Cuk PFC
400
VC1(V)

300

Proposed Cuk PFC

200

100
90 120 150 180 210 240
Vin_RMS(V)
Figure 11.
Figure The relationship
11. The relationship curves Vin_RMS
curves between RMS input voltage V in_RMS and
and V.C1 .
VC1

3.6. Operating Frequency Analysis

3.6. Operating Frequency Analysis
From Figure 6, the switching frequency of the proposed converter can be derived as
From Figure 6, the switching frequency of the proposed converter can be derived as

C1  Vo )  Vo
(V − Vo ) · Vo
= (VC1
1 1 11
fS =
f 
S Ts
=
t +T 2Io L2 VC1
(28)
(28)
Ts onton oTf offf 2 I o L2VC1
Based on (28), under certain output load conditions, the frequency change curve of
Based on (28), under certain output load conditions, the frequency change curve of
the conventional Cuk PFC converter can be plotted as shown in Figure 12. As illustrated in
the conventional Cuk PFC converter can be plotted as shown in Figure 12. As illustrated
Figure 13, the switching frequency of the conventional converter is solely dependent on the
in Figure 13, the switching frequency of the conventional converter is solely dependent
inductor L2 . For a constant value of the input voltage V in_RMS , an increase in L2 leads to a
on the inductor L2. For a constant value of the input voltage Vin_RMS, an increase in L2 leads
decrease in the switching frequency. Conversely, when L is fixed, the switching frequency
to a decrease in the switching frequency. Conversely, 2when L2 is fixed, the switching
increases with a rise in V . Too high a switching frequency can lead to high power
frequency increases with ain_RMSrise in Vin_RMS. Too high a switching frequency can lead to high
losses, while too low a switching frequency can increase the size of the magnetic core.
power losses, while too low a switching frequency can increase the size of the magnetic
In this paper, L2 is set at 350 µH, and the switching frequency range of the conventional
core. In this paper, L2 is set at 350 µH, and the switching frequency range of the
converter is 46 kHz to 60 kHz.
conventional converter is 46 kHz to 60 kHz.
According to Equations (27) and (28) and Figure 12, with the condition L2 = 350 µH
L1 = Linitial = 170 µH, the relationship curves of f s and V in_RMS for both the conventional
and78.5
converter and the proposed converter are shown in Figure 13. It is evident that the proposed
L2=270µH
71.5
converter significantly reduces the switching frequency compared to the conventional
converter. This reduction in frequency leads to decreased L2=290µH
turn-off and turn-on losses in the
64.5 which contributes to an improvement in overall L2=310µH
switch, system efficiency.
fs (kHz)

L2=330µH
57.5 L2=350µH

50.5 L2=370µH

43.5
 frequency increases with a rise in Vin_RMS. Too high a switching frequency can lead to high
power losses, while too low a switching frequency can increase the size of the magnetic
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484
core. In this paper, L2 is set at 350 µH, and the switching frequency range of the
15 of 24
conventional converter is 46 kHz to 60 kHz.

78.5

L2=270µH
71.5
L2=290µH
64.5 L2=310µH

fs (kHz)
L2=330µH
57.5 L2=350µH

50.5 L2=370µH

43.5

90 120 150 180 210 240

Vin_RMS (V)
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 16 of 25
Figure 12.
Figure The relationship
12. The betweenf s fsofofthethe
relationship between conventional converter
conventional converter V in_RMS
and and at different
Vin_RMS at different
inductance of L2 .
inductance of L2.

58.5
Conventional Cuk PFC
55.5

52.5
fs (kHz)

Proposed Cuk PFC

49.5

46.5

43.5

90 120 150 180 210 240

Vin_RMS(V)

Figure 13. The relationship of f s and V in_RMS .

Figure 13. The relationship of fs and Vin_RMS.
4. Experimental Results
According
To verify thetocorrectness
Equationsof(28)
theand (27) and
analytical Figure
results 12,proposed
of the with the DCM-CRM
condition LCuk
2 = 350 µH

and
PFCLconverter
1= Linitial =utilizing
170 µH,variable
the relationship curves aof108
inductor control, fs and Vin_RMS for both
W experimental the conventional
prototype was
converter
constructed.and the proposed
Comparative converter
experimental are between
results shown in theFigure 13. It and
conventional is evident
proposedthat the
proposed converter
converters were significantly
obtained. reduces the
Detailed specifications andswitching frequency are
key circuit parameters compared
provided to the
in Table 1. Figures
conventional 14 and 15
converter. depict
This the experimental
reduction prototype
in frequency leadsand the experimental
to decreased setup
turn-off and turn-
respectively. Figure 14a–c show the main board, control board, and digital control
on losses in the switch, which contributes to an improvement in overall system efficiency. board for
variable inductor calculation of the experimental prototype. As the control board shares the
4.same control board with other CRM isolated converter prototypes, some components on
Experimental Results
the control board were not soldered when used for this DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter. The
Tocontrol
digital verifyboard
the correctness of the analytical
for variable inductor calculationresults of 14c
in Figure the uses
proposed DCM-CRM Cuk
STM32F103RCT6
PFC
as theconverter
controller,utilizing variable code
the main program inductor control,
for variable a 108 calculation
inductor W experimental prototype
unit is shown in was
constructed.
Appendix A. Comparative experimental results between the conventional and proposed
The experimental
converters were obtained.results for the input
Detailed voltage V in
specifications , input
and circuit iparameters
keycurrent in , intermediate
areca-
provided
pacitor voltage V
in Table 1. Figures c1 , and output voltage V of both the conventional Cuk PFC
14 and 15 depictothe experimental prototype and the experimental converter and
the proposed converter
setup respectively. Figure are presented
14a–c showin Figure 16. These
the main board, figures illustrate
control board, the performance
and digital control
of the converters at input voltages of 110 Vac and 220 Vac, respectively.
board for variable inductor calculation of the experimental prototype. As the control
board shares the same control board with other CRM isolated converter prototypes, some
components on the control board were not soldered when used for this DCM-CRM Cuk
PFC converter. The digital control board for variable inductor calculation in Figure 14c
uses STM32F103RCT6 as the controller, the main program code for variable inductor
calculation unit is shown in Appendix A.1.
The experimental results for the input voltage Vin, input current iin, intermediate
 Filter

C2
Appl.Sci.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.2025,
2025,15,
2025, 15, Input
15,484
484
484 Output 17 of
17 of 25
25
16 of 24

Lf Cf Variable inductor LV

(a) CC1 1 (b) (c)

DB
DB DD0 0 SS1 1 DD1 1
Figure 14. Experimental prototype picture. (a) main board; (b) control board; (c) digital control
board for variable inductor calculation.
LL2 2
EMI
EMI
Filter
Filter
Power Analyzer
CC2 2
Input
Input Output
Output DC Source
LLf f CCf f Variableinductor
Variable inductor LLVV
AC Source
(a)
(a) (b)
(b) (c)
(c)
Oscilloscope
Figure14.
Figure
Figure 14.Experimental
14. Experimentalprototype
Experimental prototype
prototype picture.
picture.
picture. (a)
(a)(a)
mainmain board;
board;
main (b) control
control
(b) control
board; (b) board;board; (c) digital
(c) digital
board; (c) digital control
controlcontrol
board
board
for for variable
variable
board for variable
inductor inductor calculation.
calculation.
inductor calculation.
Electronic load Current Probe

Differential
Voltage Probe PowerAnalyzer
Analyzer
Power Experimental Prototype

Figure 15. Experimental platform. DCSource

DC Source

The experimental waveforms for ACthe

AC Source
input inductor current and output inductor
Source
current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage are presented in Figures 17 and 18. From Figure
Oscilloscope
Oscilloscope
17, it is noted that the peak current of the input inductor is reduced from 6 A in the
conventional converter to 4.8 A in the proposed converter at 110 V input voltage. From
Electronicload
Electronic load CurrentProbe
Current Probe
Figure 18, it is illustrated that, at 220 Vac, the peak current value of the input inductor
Differential
decreasesDifferential
from 5 A of the conventional converter to 3.4 A of the proposed converter. The
VoltageProbe
Voltage Probe
peak output inductor current remains consistently at 3 A.Prototype
Experimental
Experimental
Consequently, the proposed
Prototype
converter effectively reduces the current stress on the switch and enhances the overall
Figure15.
efficiency
Figure 15.Experimental
Experimental
of platform.
the converter, which is the same as the theoretical analysis result.
platform.

The experimental
The experimental waveforms waveforms for for the
the input
input inductor
inductor current
current and
and output
output inductor inductor
[200V/div]

[250V/div]
Vin

Vin

current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage are presented in

current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage are presented in Figures 17 and 18. From FigureFigures 17 and 18. From Figure
17, itit is
17, is noted
noted that that the the peakpeak current
current of of the
the input
input inductor
inductor is is reduced
reduced from
from 66 A A inin the
the
[2.5A/div]

[2.5A/div]
Iin

Iin

conventional converter to 4.8 A in the proposed converter

conventional converter to 4.8 A in the proposed converter at 110 V input voltage. From at 110 V input voltage. From
Figure 18,
Figure 18, itit is
is illustrated
illustrated that, that, at
at 220
220 Vac,
Vac, the
the peak
peak current
current value
value of
of the
the input
input inductor
inductor
[200V/div] [50V/div]

[200V/div] [50V/div]
Vo

Vo

decreases from 5 A of the conventional converter to 3.4 A

decreases from 5 A of the conventional converter to 3.4 A of the proposed converter. Theof the proposed converter. The
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 peak output
peak output inductor
inductor current current remains
remains consistently
consistently at at 33 A.
A. Consequently,
Consequently, the the proposed
proposed
18 of 25
VC 1

VC1

converter effectively reduces

t/[4ms/div] the current stress on the
converter effectively reduces the current stress on the switch and enhances the overallswitch and enhances the
t/[4ms/div] overall
efficiency of
(a)
efficiency of the
the converter,
converter, which which is is the
the same
same as as the
the theoretical
theoretical
(b) analysis result.
analysis result.
[400V/div]

VV[400V/div]
VVinin Vin

Vin
[200V/div]

[250V/div]
[2.5A/div] [200V/div]

[2.5A/div] [250V/div]
inin
[1A/div]

[1A/div]
IinIin Iin

IinIin Iin
[50V/div] [2.5A/div]

[50V/div] [2.5A/div]
[50V/div]

[50V/div]
VoV o

VoV o
V

V
[200V/div][50V/div]

[200V/div] [50V/div]
o

o
[400V/div]

[400V/div]
VC1

VC1
[200V/div]

[200V/div]

t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]
C1

C1
C1

C1
VV

VV

t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]
t/[4ms/div]
(c) (d) t/[4ms/div]

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 16.
16. Experimental
Experimentalwaveform
waveformofofVVinin
, I,inI,inV,oV
, and VC1V
o , and . (a)
C1 . Conventional CukCuk
(a) Conventional PFCPFC
converter at 110
converter at
110
V V input;
input; (b) Proposed
(b) Proposed CukCuk
PFCPFC converter
converter at 110 at V110 V input;
input; (c) Conventional
(c) Conventional CukCuk
PFCPFC converter
converter at
at 220
220 V input; (d) Proposed Cuk PFC converter at
V input; (d) Proposed Cuk PFC converter at 220 V input. 220 V input.
[5A/div]
iLV
[5A/div]
iL1

]
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 17 of 24

As illustrated in Figure 16a–d, the output voltage of both the conventional Cuk PFC
converter and the proposed converter is stable at 72 V. However, under conventional
control, the input current exhibits harmonic distortion at 110 V and 220 V input voltage.
In contrast, the proposed converter effectively mitigates this harmonic distortion, the
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 input current of the proposed converter is closer to sinusoid wave. Furthermore, 18 ofthe
25
intermediate capacitor voltage of the conventional converter is around 270 V and 500 V
at 110 V and 220 V input voltage, respectively; the intermediate capacitor voltage of the
proposed converter is reduced to around 230 V and 400 V at 110 V and 220 V input
[400V/div]

[400V/div]
Vin

Vin
voltage, respectively. This demonstrates that the proposed converter effectively reduces the
intermediate capacitor voltage.
[1A/div]

[1A/div]
Iin

Iin
The experimental waveforms for the input inductor current and output inductor
current at 110 V and 220 V input voltage are presented in Figures 17 and 18. From Figure 17,
[400V/div] [50V/div]

[400V/div] [50V/div]
Vo

Vo
it is noted that the peak current of the input inductor is reduced from 6 A in the conventional
converter to 4.8 A in the proposed converter at 110 V input voltage. From Figure 18, it is
VC1

VC1
t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]
illustrated that, at 220 Vac, the peak current value of the input inductor decreases from 5 A
(c)
of the conventional converter to 3.4 A of the proposed converter. (d) The peak output inductor
current
Figure 16.remains consistently
Experimental waveformatof3VA. Consequently,
in, Iin the proposed
, Vo, and VC1. (a) Conventional converter
Cuk effectively
PFC converter at 110
reduces the current stress on the switch and enhances the overall efficiency
V input; (b) Proposed Cuk PFC converter at 110 V input; (c) Conventional Cuk PFC converter at 220of the converter,
which
V input;is(d)
the same asCuk
Proposed the PFC theoretical analysis
converter at 220 Vresult.
input.
[5A/div]
iLV
[5A/div]
iL1

[2.5A/div]
[2.5A/div]

iL 2
iL 2

t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]

(a) (b)
[5A/div]

[5A/div]
iL1

iLV
[2.5A/div]

[2.5A/div]
iL 2

iL 2

t/[20µs/div] t/[20µs/div]

(c) (d)

Figure
Figure 17. Experimental
Experimental waveforms
waveforms of of iL1
L1,, iiL2
L2, ,and
and iiLV
LV at
at 110
110 V
V input
input voltage. (a)
(a) Conventional
Conventional
converter;
converter; (b)
(b) Proposed
Proposed converter; (c) Zoomed in waveform of (a); (d) Zoomed in waveform of (b).

As depicted in Figures 17d and 18d, the current through the variable inductor iLV
exhibits slight distortion. This distortion arises because the inductor design includes a
[5A/div]

[5A/div]
iL1

margin for variation, and the actual operational range of the variable inductor is narrower
iLV

than anticipated. Consequently, a stable DC current must be continuously applied to the

bias winding to maintain the calculated inductance value. When the DC current is applied,
[2.5A/div]
iL 2

[2.5A/div]

the operating point of the magnetic core characteristic curve shifts toward the saturation
iL 2

region [30], leading to a reduction in the inductance during actual operation and resulting
t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]
in a curved waveform for the inductor current. This shift results in the actual inductance
(a) (b)
value of the variable inductor being lower than the theoretical calculation, thereby causing
the inductor current to exceed the theoretically predicted value.
[5A/div]

[5A/div]
iL1

iLV
2.5A/div]

2.5A/div]
iL 2

iL 2
 [
t/[20µs/div] t/[20µs/div]

(c) (d)
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 Figure 17. Experimental waveforms of iL1, iL2, and iLV at 110 V input voltage. (a) Conventional
18 of 24
converter; (b) Proposed converter; (c) Zoomed in waveform of (a); (d) Zoomed in waveform of (b).

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 19 of 25

[5A/div]

[5A/div]
iL1

iLV
[2.5A/div]

Figure 18. Experimental waveforms of iL1, iL2, and iLV at 220 V input voltage. (a) Conventional
iL 2

[2.5A/div]
iL 2
converter; (b) Proposed converter; (c) Zoomed in waveform of (a); (d) Zoomed in waveform of (b).
t/[4ms/div] t/[4ms/div]

(a) As depicted in Figures 17d and 18d, the current

(b)through the variable inductor iLV
exhibits slight distortion. This distortion arises because the inductor design includes a
margin for variation, and the actual operational range of the variable inductor is narrower
than anticipated. Consequently, a stable DC current must be continuously applied to the
[5A/div]

[5A/div]
iL1

iLV
bias winding to maintain the calculated inductance value. When the DC current is applied,
the operating point of the magnetic core characteristic curve shifts toward the saturation
[2.5A/div]

[2.5A/div]
iL 2

iL 2
region [30], leading to a reduction in the inductance during actual operation and resulting
in a curved waveform for the inductor current. This shift results in the t/[20µs/div]
t/[20µs/div]
actual inductance
(c) (d)
value of the variable inductor being lower than the theoretical calculation, thereby causing
theFigure
inductor current to waveforms
18. Experimental exceed theoftheoretically
iL1 , iL2 , and iLVpredicted
at 220 V inputvalue.
voltage. (a) Conventional
converter; (b) Proposed converter; (c) Zoomed in waveform
Figure 19 shows the experimental data of the PF and efficiency. of (a); (d) Zoomed in It
waveform of (b).
is obvious that the
PF of the proposed
Figure 19 shows converters is improved
the experimental data of in thethe
PF range of inputItvoltage
and efficiency. is obvious variation,
that the from
0.986 to
PF of the proposed converters is improved in the range of input voltage variation, from19, the
0.998 at 110 Vac and from 0.981 to 0.992 at 220 Vac. As illustrated in Figure
efficiency is markedly
0.986 to 0.998 at 110 Vacenhanced withtothe
and from 0.981 useatof220
0.992 the variable
Vac. inductor,
As illustrated achieving
in Figure 19, thevalues
exceeding
efficiency 90% at 90 Venhanced
is markedly input voltage.
with theAtuse theof same time, the
the variable efficiency
inductor, of the
achieving proposed
values
exceeding
converter 90% at 86.8%
reached 90 V input whichvoltage.
is higherAt thethansame81.1%time,of the
theefficiency of theconverter
conventional proposed at 240
converter reached 86.8% which is higher than 81.1% of
V input voltage. It can be seen that compared to the conventional converter,the conventional converter at 240
the VPF and
input voltage. It can be seen that compared
efficiency of the proposed converter are obviously enhanced. to the conventional converter, the PF and
efficiency of the proposed converter are obviously enhanced.

94 1

92
PF of the Proposed Cuk PFC 0.98
90 PF of the Conventional Cuk PFC
Efficiency(%)

0.96
88
PF

86 Efficiency of the Proposed Cuk PFC 0.94

84
0.92
82 Efficiency of the Conventional Cuk PFC
0.9
80
90 120 150 180 210 240
Vin_RMS(V)
Figure 19. Test data of efficiency and PF.
Figure 19. Test data of efficiency and PF.
The test data of input current harmonic content and THD of the conventional and pro-
posed
Theconverter
test dataareofcompared in Figure
input current 20. It cancontent
harmonic be seen and
that compared withconventional
THD of the the conven- and
tional one, the proposed converter can more easily meet the requirements of IEC61000-3-2
proposed converter are compared in Figure 20. It can be seen that compared with the
class D. The proposed
conventional one, the converter
proposedgreatly reduces
converter canTHD and easily
more the harmonic current
meet the content,
requirements of
especially the 3rd harmonic current.
IEC61000-3-2 class D. The proposed converter greatly reduces THD and the harmonic
current content, especially the 3rd harmonic current.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2025,
2025, 15,
15, 484
484 2019ofof 25
24

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 20 of 25

35 35
IEC61000-3-2 class D 30 IEC61000-3-2 class D
30
Current(%)

Harmonic Current(%)
35 35
25 Conventional Cuk PFC 25 Conventional Cuk PFC
IEC61000-3-2 class D 30 IEC61000-3-2 class D
30
Current(%)

Harmonic Current(%)
20 Proposed Cuk PFC 20 Proposed Cuk PFC
25 Conventional Cuk PFC 25 Conventional Cuk PFC
Harmonic

15 Proposed Cuk PFC 15

20 20 Proposed Cuk PFC
10
Harmonic

10 15
15
5 5
10 10
0 0
5 5
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
0 Harmonic Order 0 Harmonic Order
3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19
(a) Order
Harmonic (b)Order
Harmonic
20
(a) (b)
18
20
1816
1614 Conventional Cuk PFC
THD（%）

1412
Conventional Cuk PFC
THD（%）

1210
10 8
8 6
6 4 Proposed Cuk PFC
4 2 Proposed Cuk PFC
2 0
90 120 150 180 210 240
0
90 120 150 Vin_RMS (V)
180 210 240
Vin_RMS(V)
(c)
(c)
Figure 20. Test
Test data
data of
of input
input current
current harmonics
harmonics and THD. (a)
(a) Input current harmonics at 110
110 V
V input
Figure20.
Figure 20.
Test data of input current harmonics andand THD.
THD. (a) InputInput current
current harmonics
harmonics at 110 V input input
voltage;
voltage; (b) Input current harmonics at 220 V input voltage; (c) THD.
voltage; (b) Input current harmonics at 220 V input voltage; (c) THD.

From Figure
From Figure 5, it it can be seen
seen that the the main power
power losses
losses of
of the
the conventional
conventional and and the
From Figure 5, 5,it can be seen that the main power losses of the conventional and the the
proposedconverter
proposed converter include
include thethe losses
losses of the
of the rectifier
rectifier bridge,
bridge, inputinput inputinput
filter,filter, inductor LV LV
inductor V

or L , a power
orLL1,11a, apower
or switch
powerswitch
switch S , a diode
S1,Sa11,diode
a diode D , a free-wheeling
D0,Da00,free-wheeling
a free-wheeling diode
diode
diode D , and
D11, and
D1, and an output
an output
an output inductor L
L2. L22. .
inductor
inductor
Thepower
The powerloss loss distribution
distribution
distribution diagram
diagram presented
is presented
is presented in Figure
in Figure These
21. These
21. These figuresfigures
figures illustrate
illustrate
illustrate the
the the
power
powerloss
power loss of the
lossofofthe
the converters
converters
converters at input
at input
at input voltages
voltages
voltages of 110
of 110
of 110 Vac
VacVac and
and and 220 Vac,
220 Vac,
220 Vac, respectively.
respectively.
respectively. From
FromFrom
thefigure,
the
the figure,
figure,itititcancan bebe
canbe seen
seenseen that the
that
that proposed
thethe proposed
proposed converter
converter
converter mainly reduces
mainly
mainly reduces the
thelosses
reduces ofofthe
the losses
losses thepower
of the
switch
power and
switch input
and inductor,
input thereby
inductor, increasing
thereby the
increasing efficiency
the efficiency
power switch and input inductor, thereby increasing the efficiency of the converter. of the
of converter.
the converter.

55

Proposed CukCuk
Proposed PFCPFC
Power loss (W)
loss (W)

44
Conventional CukCuk
Conventional PFCPFC
3
3
Power

2
2

1
1

0
rectifier
0 bridge LC filter D0 D1 S1 L2 LV and L1
rectifier bridge LC filter D0 D1 S1 L2 LV and L1
(a)
7 (a)
7 Proposed Cuk PFC
6 Proposed Cuk PFC
6 Conventional Cuk PFC
Power loss (W)

5
Conventional Cuk PFC
loss (W)

5
4

3
4

23
Power

12

01
rectifier bridge LC filter D0 D1 S1 L2 LV and L1
0
rectifier bridge LC filter D0 (b) D1 S1 L2 LV and L1

Figure
Figure21.21.
Power loss
Power analysis.
loss (a) 110
analysis. VacVac
(a) 110 input voltage;
input (b) 220
voltage; (b) Vac
220 input voltage.
Vac input voltage.
(b)

Figure 21. Power loss analysis. (a) 110 Vac input voltage; (b) 220 Vac input voltage.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 20 of 24

Table 2 shows that compared to the conventional DCM-DCM Cuk PFC converter,
which is mentioned in [19], and the traditional DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter, the pro-
posed DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter enhances the PF, reduces the THD, decreases the
intermediate capacitor voltage, and improves efficiency.

Table 2. Performance comparison.

VC1 (V) PF THD (%) Efficiency (%)

110 V 220 V 110 V 220 V 110 V 220 V 110 V 220 V
Traditional DCM-DCM Cuk
280 520 0.982 0.975 15.54 15.53 82.9 77.4
PFC converter
Traditional DCM-CRM Cuk
270 500 0.986 0.981 15.69 17.41 84.3 82.3
PFC converter
Proposed DCM-CRM Cuk
PFC converter with variable 230 400 0.998 0.992 3.91 8.9 88.9 87.5
inductor control

5. Conclusions
To realize low intermediate capacitor voltage, high PF, and high efficiency simul-
taneously, an improved DCM-CRM Cuk PFC converter utilizing an input inductor that
varies in response to transient rectified input voltage has been proposed in this paper.
The operational principles of the proposed converter, along with its control strategies,
have been thoroughly analyzed, with a focus on the intermediate capacitor voltage, input
current, input inductor current, and switching frequency. To validate the proposed method,
a 108 W experimental prototype was built and tested. The test data demonstrate that the
proposed converter, operating in DCM-CRM mode in a wide input voltage range, signifi-
cantly enhances the PF, reduces the THD, decreases the intermediate capacitor voltage, and
improves efficiency.
In the future, to improve the power density of the proposed converter, the authors
will study how to combine the variable inductor control strategy and coupled inductor
technology, which would replace both the input and output inductors of the Cuk converter
with a coupled inductor at a magnetic core. Due to the verification of the feasibility of
the variable inductor in this paper, inductance has become a circuit parameter that can be
adjusted simultaneously with the duty cycle. The authors will also study variable inductor
control strategies for Boost PFC and Flyback PFC converters to improve their performance.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, T.Y. and R.L.; methodology, T.Y., R.L. and H.W.; formal
analysis, T.Y., R.L., H.W. and G.Z.; validation, T.Y., R.L. and H.W.; investigation, T.Y., R.L., H.W. and
G.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, T.Y., R.L. and H.W.; writing—review and editing, T.Y., R.L.,
H.W. and G.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding: This work was supported by the Chengdu Science and Technology Bureau under Grant
No. 2024-YF08-00082-GX and the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant
No. 62271417.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Data from this study are contained within the article. For further
inquiries, please contact the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 21 of 24

Appendix A
Fragment of Code for Variable Inductor Calculation Unit
#include “delay.h”
#include “sys.h”
#include “usart.h”
#include “adc.h”
#include “key.h”
#include “dac.h”
#include “timer.h”
int main(void)
{
float Vpp = 0;
float Um = 0;
float Uc = 0;
float Lv = 0;
float V = 0;
float max_data = 0;
float Umsinwt = 0;
u8 V_dac_flag = 0;
u16 adcx = 0;
u8 first_start = 1;
u16 dacval = 621;
u16 dacval_last = 621;
u8 adc_max_flag = 0;
NVIC_PriorityGroupConfig(NVIC_PriorityGroup_2);
delay_init();
Adc_Init();
Dac1_Init();
TIM3_Int_Init(199, 7199);
DAC_SetChannel1Data(DAC_Align_12b_R, dacval);
while(1)
{
adcx = Get_Adc_Average(ADC_Channel_1, 5);
Umsinwt = (float)adcx ∗ (3.3/4096) ∗ 133;
if (Umsinwt > max_data)
{
max_data = Umsinwt;
}
if (adc_max_flag == 1)
{
V_dac_flag = 1;
Vpp = (float)max_data;
max_data = 0;
Um = Vpp;
Uc = 1.52587f ∗ Um + 27.71569f;
Vpp = 0;
adc_max_flag = 0;
}
if (V_dac_flag == 1)
{
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 484 22 of 24

if (Uc ! = 0 && (Umsinwt/Uc) < 1)

{
Lv = 170/(1 − (Umsinwt/Uc));
if (600 <= Lv && Lv < 930)
{
V = −0.0003 ∗ Lv + 0.4234f;
}
else if (440 <= Lv && Lv < 600)
{
V = −0.0006f ∗ Lv + 0.6286f;
}
else if (220 <= Lv && Lv < 440)
{
V = −0.0014f ∗ Lv + 0.9409f;
}
else if (200 <= Lv && Lv < 220)
{
V = −0.0057 ∗ Lv + 1.9212f;
}
else if (170 <= Lv && Lv < 200)
{
V = −0.016f ∗ Lv + 3.9362f;
}
else
{
dacval = dacval_last;
}
dacval = V ∗ 4096/3.3;
if (dacval > 4095)
{
dacval = 4095;
}
else if (dacval < 0)
{
dacval = 0;
}
dacval_last = dacval;
}
DAC_SetChannel1Data(DAC_Align_12b_R, dacval);
}
}
}

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